CHAPTER XTHE NEW ARM IN ARMAGEDDON

Thequestion has been often asked why we were so long in this country in grasping the necessity of keeping pace with other countries by having a national flying corps? In an introductory chapter I have stated that a want of public interest was the cause of British dilatoriness in aëronautical matters; but there was also another very potent reason—a meteorological one. From the weather point of view, the conditions for practising flight in this country cannot be compared with those obtaining on the Continent. Our insular position affords an uncertainty of wind force that in the earlier days of the aëroplane would have been fatal to progress had the pioneers chosen this isle for their experiments. Even while the aëroplaneswere only calm-weather machines, and even when they first essayed flight in moderate winds, there was an undoubted instinct in the minds of an eminently practical nation that the loss of life consequent upon a systematic military use would be hardly justifiable. So the nation waited for a certain stage of progress in flying machines before launching them into the winds and gusts for serious military work. When they were first used in this country, the nature of our climate proved exceedingly disastrous and swelled the casualty lists of peace. Those who have survived have had a hard and exceptionally strenuous training in the ways of the air, ever having had to be on the alert against the ever-present threatening blasts which tend to upset the stability of flying machines. But is it not the exceptionally hard training that the military aviators in this country have had to undergo that has produced the exceedingly able and successful Flying Corps that is struggling for King and country in the present campaign? It has been seen how they have been commended in the first report of Sir John French. Theirefforts have also met with the greatest appreciation of the French. General Joffre in his report specially dwelt on the regular and valuable reconnaissance of the British Royal Flying Corps. In Sir John French’s report, dated September 11th, the following passageappears:—

Quite one of the features of the campaign, on our side, has been the success attained by the Royal Flying Corps. In regard to the collection of information it is impossible either to award too much praise to our aviators for the way they have carried out their duties or to overestimate the value of the intelligence collected, more especially during the recent advance.In due course certain examples of what has been effected may be specified, and the far-reaching nature of the results fully explained, but that time has not yet arrived. That the services of our Flying Corps, which has really been on trial, are fully appreciated by our Allies is shown by the following message from the Commander-in-Chief of the French armies, received on the night of September 9th by Field-Marshal Sir JohnFrench:—“Please express most particularly to Marshal French my thanks for services rendered on every day by the English Flying Corps. The precision, exactitude, and regularity of the news brought in by itsmembers are evidence of their perfect organisation, and also of the perfect training of pilots and observers.”To give a rough idea of the amount of work carried out, it is sufficient to mention that, during a period of twenty days up to September 10th, a daily average of more than nine reconnaissance flights of over 100 miles each has been maintained.The constant object of our aviators has been to effect the accurate location of the enemy’s forces, and incidentally—since the operations cover so large an area—of our own units. Nevertheless, the tactics adopted for dealing with hostile aircraft are to attack them instantly with one or more British machines. This has been so far successful that in five cases German pilots or observers have been shot in the air and their machines brought to the ground.As a consequence, the British Flying Corps has succeeded in establishing an individual ascendancy which is as serviceable to us as it is damaging to the enemy. How far it is due to this cause it is not possible at present to ascertain definitely, but the fact remains that the enemy have recently become much less enterprising in their flights. Something in the direction of the mastery of the air has already been gained.

In due course certain examples of what has been effected may be specified, and the far-reaching nature of the results fully explained, but that time has not yet arrived. That the services of our Flying Corps, which has really been on trial, are fully appreciated by our Allies is shown by the following message from the Commander-in-Chief of the French armies, received on the night of September 9th by Field-Marshal Sir JohnFrench:—

“Please express most particularly to Marshal French my thanks for services rendered on every day by the English Flying Corps. The precision, exactitude, and regularity of the news brought in by itsmembers are evidence of their perfect organisation, and also of the perfect training of pilots and observers.”

To give a rough idea of the amount of work carried out, it is sufficient to mention that, during a period of twenty days up to September 10th, a daily average of more than nine reconnaissance flights of over 100 miles each has been maintained.

The constant object of our aviators has been to effect the accurate location of the enemy’s forces, and incidentally—since the operations cover so large an area—of our own units. Nevertheless, the tactics adopted for dealing with hostile aircraft are to attack them instantly with one or more British machines. This has been so far successful that in five cases German pilots or observers have been shot in the air and their machines brought to the ground.

As a consequence, the British Flying Corps has succeeded in establishing an individual ascendancy which is as serviceable to us as it is damaging to the enemy. How far it is due to this cause it is not possible at present to ascertain definitely, but the fact remains that the enemy have recently become much less enterprising in their flights. Something in the direction of the mastery of the air has already been gained.

The Royal Flying Corps has already won the distinction of the Legion d’Honneur.

The principal uses of the new arm in war may be said tobe:—

1. Reconnaissance.2. Directing and correcting artillery fire.3. Offensive operations.4. Rapid despatch carrying to a distance.5. Distributing handbills to cities.6. Photography.7. Locating submarines, mines, etc.

1. Reconnaissance.

2. Directing and correcting artillery fire.

3. Offensive operations.

4. Rapid despatch carrying to a distance.

5. Distributing handbills to cities.

6. Photography.

7. Locating submarines, mines, etc.

1.Reconnaissance.

As a particular example of the value of reconnaissance in the present war one may well refer to that mentioned in Sir John French’s first report. He says, “When the news of the retirement of the French and the heavy German threatening on my front reached me, I endeavoured to confirm it by aëroplane reconnaissance, and as a result of this I determined to effect a retirement to the Maubeuge position at daybreak on the 24th.”

It is undoubtedly expedient to train aërial observers to make reconnaissance at high altitudes. This has been the method employed by Great Britain and France. During the presentwar we hear of the British and French machines flying at 6,000 feet, where they are fairly safe from gun-fire. The Germans often appear to fly considerably lower. This probably accounts for the loss of so many German machines from gun-fire. It has been stated that at the time of writing British aviators have already brought down seventeen machines. But there have been instances of the aëroplanes of the Allies also making reconnaissance at lower levels. One very remarkable case of an aviator persisting in his reconnoitring task in spite of the fire of the enemy has been reported in the daily papers. The French aviator, M. Poiret, who is in the Russian service, said that

during the recent Russian-German fighting he reconnoitered over the enemy’s positions, with a captain of the General Staff as observer, at a height of 1,200 metres. He was for twenty minutes under rifle and shell fire. Ten bullets and two fragments of shell hit his aëroplane. Nevertheless, he retained his control of the machine. The captain was shot through the heel, the bullet coming out of his calf, notwithstanding which he continued taking notes. The aëroplane returned safely.

In making reconnaissance over the enemy’s lines it is well for the aviator to be practised in the art of making vol-planés. On more than one occasion in the present war the engine has failed while the aviator has been flying over the enemy. A well-directed vol-plané has brought him down within friendly soil. This gliding by means of gravity without the motor working in times of peace may have been thought to be a foolhardy practice, merely done for the sake of sensation. But the sensation of a few years back is the necessity of to-day! The vol-plané has become one of the most useful features of aëroplaning. A machine that is fitted with wireless telegraphy equipment undoubtedly possesses a great advantage for reconnoitring. It is especially useful when a heavy attack on an enemy is in progress. By its means a continuous stream of intelligence can be supplied to headquarters. The French have been particularly active in the development of wireless messages from aëroplanes, and have devised extremely portable forms of apparatus. It will be of great interest to hear accurate informationin regard to their practical use in the present war.

Aëroplane reconnaissance in naval operations is almost equally as important as its use on land. This will be one of the principal uses of the hydroplane, which can either travel on the surface of water or rise in the air. In the present war two seaplanes were recorded as scouting near Antivari on September 8th, 1914. It is also said that the Germans gave information to the Heligoland forts by biplanes concerning the fight in Heligoland Bight.

2.Directing and correcting artillery fire.

Very many reports of the use of the aëroplane in this respect have come to hand during the present war. The Germans appear to be very keen on this particular use. Stories told by wounded soldiers graphically describe how with the appearance of the enemy’s aëroplane there comes accurate and deadly fire. The Germans appear to have several simple and ingenious means of indicating the instructions of the aërial observer in this respect. Aninteresting contribution to our knowledge has been supplied by Bombardier Smith, who was wounded by a bomb dropped from a German aëroplane. Writing to theTimeshe describes how the Germans have special bombs for range-finding.

Those bombs have proved a great success in the war, as they find the enemy’s ranges very accurately. The bomb when dropped leaves a thick, black, smoky line to enable their gunners to take the exact range. We were in a good position but suffered loss. The enemy could not find us until the aëroplane came on the scene. Then we had it rather hot. The gunners had to leave the guns, but later saved them all after being reinforced by other guns.

Another method the Germans adopt is to drop a silver ball. Almost as the ball drops from the range-finding aëroplane, the shrapnel shell bursts over the lines of the opponent.

They also sometimes pull up and down a little disc suspended beneath the aëroplane. A still further variety of signalling is accomplished by the use of lamps that are visible in daylight.Almost every method of signalling can be used for the purpose, such as flag signalling; wireless signals are no doubt especially effective.

I will quote from a recent article by Mr. F. W. Lanchester in “Engineering” as to the German use of the aëroplane in thisrespect:—

The value of aëroplane work will be relatively greater the longer the range; in fact, it may in future be found possible to employ heavy artillery of long range under conditions in which without the help of the aëroplane it would be comparatively useless. As an illustration, there is nothing to-day to prevent a long-range battery, well served by its aëroplanes, from effectively shelling an enemy without knowing in the least the character of its objective—i.e., whether an infantry force or position, a body of cavalry, or the enemy’s guns. In the present war the aëroplane appears to have been utilised by the German army, as a matter of regular routine, as an auxiliary to the artillery in the manner indicated. It has been reported again and again that the appearance of an aëroplane overhead has been the immediate prelude to the bursting of shrapnel, frequently the very first shell being so accurately placed as to indicate that the method of signalling, and, in fact, the whole performance, must have been well thought out and equally well rehearsed.

3.Offensive operations.

This use might be well subdivided into legitimate and illegitimate offensive operations. There has been, unfortunately, ample example of the use of both airships and aëroplanes for purposes that are illegitimate and barbaric in the present war. To use the advantage of travelling in the air at altitudes for the purpose of the wanton destruction of harmless citizens, and, further, to destroy in cities the amassed wealth of art that only centuries, not years, produce, is an unrighteous use of the science of aërial navigation. Before the war it was condemned by the Hague Convention. Since, it has met with the denouncement of all civilised nations—save the one that has perpetrated the outrages. In the case of the aëroplane raid made into Germany by our own British naval airmen, one party of aviators went to Cologne to try to attack the airship halls there. The city was enveloped with an opaque fog, and it was hopeless to try to locate the position of the airship sheds. Though the British aviators circled over the town for an hour and a half they refrained from dischargingany bombs, rather than run the risk of destroying civilian life or property. An example, indeed, of the legitimate offensive use of the aëroplane was the attempt to destroy or put out of action the very kind of aircraft which had been so wantonly used over Paris, Antwerp, Ostend, and other cities.

Perhaps the most important offensive use of the aëroplane is for fighting airship and aëroplane. Mention has already been made about the deadly character of the aëroplane when it encounters an airship. When it meets an aëroplane the chances are more evenly balanced. Success will depend chiefly upon the speed of the respective aëroplanes, their climbing power, their armouring, and the guns with which they are armed. Speed and climbing power are perhaps the greatest protective factors. Several stories have already been told of the pursuit of German aëroplanes by those of the Allies. The climbing power of the machines of the latter has often been the cause of victory. It is the well-directed shot from above to which the airman is exposed that has ended the career of airman and machine.

At the beginning of the present chapter it was pointed out that the British and French aëroplanes generally fly at about 6,000 feet, which is a height fairly safe from gun-fire. While speaking of the offensive work of aëroplanes, a few more words about the attack on them by gun-fire may not be out of place. As Mr. Lanchester has pointed out, an aëroplane is liable to attack by rifle, machine-gun, and shell fire. Ordinary field artillery fire can be put out of the question in the use of so rapidly moving a target as an aëroplane in flight. He has estimated that an aëroplane is absolutely safe from rifle or small-bore machine-gun fire at 7,000 feet, and it would be difficult to hit it a thousand feet lower.

Not only would the velocity become so reduced as to render a “hit” capable of but little mischief, but the time of flight of the bullet, rising vertically to this altitude, would be about eight or nine seconds, and the distance moved by the aëroplane 1,000 feet, more or less. Therefore, it would be necessary to fire into quite a different part of the heavens from that in which the aëroplane was seen.

The vertical range of aircraft artillery is muchhigher. In the case of a one-pounder having the same velocity the range would be over 12,000 feet; but it is a question of luck whether the aëroplane would be hit. The great difficulty is the angle of “lead” which must be given to allow for the velocity of flight.

This angle is only constant so long as the velocity of the projectile is constant, assuming (as fairly represents the conditions) the flight speed not to vary; at extreme heights the velocity of the projectile has fallen so low that a very slight error in range-finding will be fatal to accuracy.

In regard to aëroplane artillery, Mr. W. F. Reid has collected some interesting details of the guns that Krupp has devised for the purpose of hitting aëroplanes.

The 7.5 cm. gun of this firm has seats for five men and storage for sixty-two shells. It is mounted on a car which weighs 4,300 kilos., the weight of the gun alone being 1,065 kilos. Each projectile weighs 5.5 kilos. (12 lb. 2 oz.), and the horizontal range is given as 9 km. The vertical range is 6,300 metres.A lighter gun of 6.5 cm. gauge weighs, with car, 875 kilos., the gun weighing 352 kilos. Each projectile weighs 4 kilos. (8 lb. 13 oz.), and the extreme horizontal range is stated to be 8,650 metres (9,450yards). The height of fire obtainable is 5,700 metres (18,700 feet). The initial velocity of the projectile is 620 metres (2,034 feet) per second. A coiled spring balances the weight of the gun when pointed above the horizontal.For naval purposes Krupp has constructed a 10.5 cm. gun weighing 3,000 kilos, with carriage. The projectile weighs 18 kilos. (40 lb.). The muzzle velocity is 2,100 feet per second, and the shells discharge a train of smoke to facilitate aiming.Ehrhardt, in Düsseldorf, has also built a special gun for use against aërial craft. Its bore is 5 cm., and its barrel is 30 calibres long, while the length of the Krupp barrels is 35 calibres. The weight of the Ehrhardt gun alone is 400 kilos.; with car, ammunition, and five men the weight is 3,200 kilos.

A lighter gun of 6.5 cm. gauge weighs, with car, 875 kilos., the gun weighing 352 kilos. Each projectile weighs 4 kilos. (8 lb. 13 oz.), and the extreme horizontal range is stated to be 8,650 metres (9,450yards). The height of fire obtainable is 5,700 metres (18,700 feet). The initial velocity of the projectile is 620 metres (2,034 feet) per second. A coiled spring balances the weight of the gun when pointed above the horizontal.

For naval purposes Krupp has constructed a 10.5 cm. gun weighing 3,000 kilos, with carriage. The projectile weighs 18 kilos. (40 lb.). The muzzle velocity is 2,100 feet per second, and the shells discharge a train of smoke to facilitate aiming.

Ehrhardt, in Düsseldorf, has also built a special gun for use against aërial craft. Its bore is 5 cm., and its barrel is 30 calibres long, while the length of the Krupp barrels is 35 calibres. The weight of the Ehrhardt gun alone is 400 kilos.; with car, ammunition, and five men the weight is 3,200 kilos.

With regard to the difficult subject of armouring aëroplanes, I should like again to quote from Mr.Lanchester:—

It is manifestly not possible for an aëroplane to perform all the duties required of it in connection with tactical operations at high altitude[B], and whenever it descends below 5,000 feet or thereabouts, it is liable to attack from beneath; in fact, at suchmoderate altitudes it must be considered as being under fire—mainly from machine-gun and rifle—the whole time it is over or within range of the enemy’s lines. Protection from the rifle bullet may be obtained in either of two ways: the most vital portions of the machine, including the motor, the pilot, and gunner, can only be effectively protected by armour-plate; the remainder of the machine, including the wing members, the tail members, and portions of the fuselage not protected by armour, also the controls, struts, and the propeller, can be so constructed as to betransparentto rifle fire—that is to say, all these parts should be so designed that bullets will pass through without doing more than local injury and without serious effect on the strength or flying power of the machine as a whole; in certain cases components will require to be duplicated in order to realise this intention. It is important to understand clearly that any intermediate course is fatal. Either the bullet must be definitely resisted and stopped, or it must be let through with the least possible resistance; it is for the designer to decide in respect of each component which policy he will adopt. The thickness of the armour required will depend very much upon the minimum altitude at which, in the presence of the enemy, it is desired to fly; also upon the particular type of rifle and ammunition brought to bear. There is a great dealof difference in penetrative power, for example, between the round-nosed and pointed bullets used in an otherwise identical cartridge.[B]For military purposes we may take the term “high altitude” as defined by the effective vertical range of small-arm fire, in other words, as denoting an altitude of 5,000 feet or 6,000 feet or more.If it were not for the consideration of the weight of armour, there is no doubt that an altitude of about 1,000 feet would be found very well suited for most of the ordinary tactical duties of the aëroplane. At such an altitude, however, the thickness of steel plate necessary becomes too serious an item for the present-day machine, even allowing for the very excellent and highly efficient bullet-proof-treated steel that is now available; at the altitude in question, the minimum thickness that will stop a 0.303 Mark VI. round-nosed bullet is 3 mm. (⅛ in.), but, if attacked by the modern pointed-nose Mauser, nothing short of 5 mm. or 6 mm. is of avail. If we compromise somewhat in the matter of altitude and prescribe 2,000 feet as the minimum height for which protection is to be given, the figures become 2 mm. (about 145 W. gauge) for the 0.303 round-nosed bullet, and for the pointed Mauser 3 mm. or slightly over; at present it is not expected that it will pay to armour a machine for the duties in question more heavily; thus we may take 2,000 feet as representing the lower altitude limit of ordinary military flying.... On this question of armour it cannot be too strongly insisted upon that anything less than the necessary thickness definitely to stop the projectile is worse than useless;a “mushroomed” bullet, possibly accompanied by a few detached fragments of steel, is infinitely more disagreeable and dangerous than a bullet that has not been upset.An aëroplane armoured in all its vitals with 3 mm. steel, and otherwise designed on the lines indicated, flying at not less than 2,000 feet altitude, will be extremely difficult to bring down; so much so, that unless its exposed structural members be literally riddled and shattered by rifle and machine-gun, or unless a gun of larger calibre be brought to bear, it will be virtually impossible to effect its capture by gun-fire alone.

[B]For military purposes we may take the term “high altitude” as defined by the effective vertical range of small-arm fire, in other words, as denoting an altitude of 5,000 feet or 6,000 feet or more.

If it were not for the consideration of the weight of armour, there is no doubt that an altitude of about 1,000 feet would be found very well suited for most of the ordinary tactical duties of the aëroplane. At such an altitude, however, the thickness of steel plate necessary becomes too serious an item for the present-day machine, even allowing for the very excellent and highly efficient bullet-proof-treated steel that is now available; at the altitude in question, the minimum thickness that will stop a 0.303 Mark VI. round-nosed bullet is 3 mm. (⅛ in.), but, if attacked by the modern pointed-nose Mauser, nothing short of 5 mm. or 6 mm. is of avail. If we compromise somewhat in the matter of altitude and prescribe 2,000 feet as the minimum height for which protection is to be given, the figures become 2 mm. (about 145 W. gauge) for the 0.303 round-nosed bullet, and for the pointed Mauser 3 mm. or slightly over; at present it is not expected that it will pay to armour a machine for the duties in question more heavily; thus we may take 2,000 feet as representing the lower altitude limit of ordinary military flying.... On this question of armour it cannot be too strongly insisted upon that anything less than the necessary thickness definitely to stop the projectile is worse than useless;a “mushroomed” bullet, possibly accompanied by a few detached fragments of steel, is infinitely more disagreeable and dangerous than a bullet that has not been upset.

An aëroplane armoured in all its vitals with 3 mm. steel, and otherwise designed on the lines indicated, flying at not less than 2,000 feet altitude, will be extremely difficult to bring down; so much so, that unless its exposed structural members be literally riddled and shattered by rifle and machine-gun, or unless a gun of larger calibre be brought to bear, it will be virtually impossible to effect its capture by gun-fire alone.

4.Rapid despatch carrying to a distance.

Considering the advantages of the swift monoplane for carrying despatches from one commander to another, it would seem that in time it must oust the despatch rider.

There is no obstacle to the despatch rider. The difficulties and delays of hills, woods, and rivers melt away before his ever onward course. The despatch rider on horseback may have to face the sudden appearance of the enemy, but if the aëroplane despatch carrier does, he has only to rise up out of his range of fire, and, still undisturbed, he can make his way towards hisdestination. There must surely already be many instances of the use of the new arm in this way in the present war. It has been reported that the Germans used aëroplanes to send messages to recall German troops stationed in the village of Coutrai to reinforce those at Charleroi.

5.Distributing handbills to cities.

This is a use which has not been much taken into account until the present war. It appears, however, one that is destined to become very general in war. It has been already used either to excite terror or encouragement amongst the population of a city either already besieged or threatened with speedy investment. It has been stated that when Liége was besieged the French aviators distributed circulars over the city to the effect that the citizens should keep up their courage, as help would soon be forthcoming. When the Germans were approaching Paris the German aviators distributed pamphlets urging the surrender of the Parisian capital. Reports also came to hand that French aviators flew over Alsace and Lorraine with pamphletsto describe the violation by Germany of the neutrality of Belgium and Luxemburg!

6.Photography.

The value of aëroplanes for this work in war is self-evident, and various means for securing good photographs from flying machines have been devised. Some years ago the public was made familiar with photographs at great altitudes in the air by the beautiful specimens taken by the late Rev. J. Bacon and the late Mr. Percival Spencer from the cars of their balloons. Since then Mr. G. Brewer has become an adept in the art of aërial photography. The clearness of detail in these photographs gives sufficient evidence as to the value of aërial photography in war.

Satisfactory photographs from balloons have been taken from as great a height as 10,000 feet. The success of aërial photography, however, depends upon the amount of haze upon the earth, which veils the plate from the actinic power of the reflected light. In taking aërial photographs from aëroplanes, owing to meteorologicalconditions it may often be necessary in war to take the photographs from lower and more perilous positions. The value of the photographs will, however, often be worth the risk, as very complete aërial surveys of war regions can be made from a series of photographs.

For taking photographs from aëroplanes special and in some cases automatic cameras have been designed.

The Germans use a camera fitted with a special Telephoto lens.

In an apparatus of British make, designed by Mr. Baker, the camera is suspended beneath the aëroplane. The airman presses one button to make an exposure, another when he wishes to change the plate.

7.Locating submarines, mines, etc.

In the present war ample evidence has been given of the deadly work that submarines, torpedoes, and mines can perform. Some years ago the late Rev. J. Bacon carried out experiments from balloons to show that when thesurface of the sea is viewed from an altitude the observer has a vision which penetrates to some depth below the surface. At the time the great advantage of such surveys in naval war-time was pointed out.

Such aërial surveys form an important use for both the smaller types of airships, aëroplanes, and hydroplanes. When more records come to hand than it is now possible to obtain in regard to naval doings in the present war it will be interesting to observe the amount of actual work that has been done in detecting submarines and the other hidden dangers in the sea.

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