CHAPTER XIII.THE KLONDIKE REGION.

OONALASKA.

This grand chain of islands jutting out boldly into the broad Pacific receives the warm waters of the Japanese current—Kuro Siwo—a deflected continuation of a part of the Pacific equatorial current corresponding to our gulf stream. From this source it derives a warmer climate than is possessed by any body of land so near the pole, although it lies in about the same parallels as the British Islands. The cold of zero and the oppressive heat of summer are equally unknown to this region. Grassesgrow luxuriantly everywhere, upon which the reindeer used to graze in numerous herds, their keen sight and the absence of timber protecting them from the rude weapons of the native hunters until the introduction of firearms, after which they were rapidly exterminated. In a few days we heard with pleasure that the "Leo" was ready and we soon quitted Alaska for good. The north-west winds sang a merry song through our sails as the meridians and parallels took on smaller numbers, and in a very few days, the twinkling twin lights of the Farallones greeted our eyes, and anchored safely within the Golden Gate, our journey ended.

On page244, Schwatka says:

"We camped that night at the mouth of a noticeable stream coming in from the east, which we afterwards learned was called Deer Creek by the traders, from the large number of caribou or woodland reindeer seen in its valley at certain times of their migrations."

This is the stream that is now known the world over as the Klondike. What the Indians really called it was "Thron-Diuck," from which comes the word "Klondike."

The Klondike is a small river about forty yards wide at the mouth, and shallow; the water is clear and transparent, and of beautiful blue color. Dawson City is located at the mouth of the river, and although it was located only a few months ago, it is now the scene of great activity.

Upon this stream and several of its affluents have been found the rich deposits of gold. The river is about 140 miles in length, and the gold-bearing creeks, where the richest deposits have been found, run into the Klondike from a southerly direction.

The principal creeks are the Bonanza, entering the Klondike two miles from its junction with the Yukon; El Dorado Creek, a branch of Bonanza Creek, from twelve to fifteen miles in length; about seven miles farther up Bonanza Creek is Gold Bottom Creek; and a few miles beyond is Adams Creek. There are several smaller creeks emptying into Bonanza Creek, which are gold-bearing.

About twelve miles up the Klondike is Bear Creek, which has several tributaries, and twelve miles farther up is Hunter Creek. About ten miles farther up the Klondike is Too Much Gold Creek. Bonanza and El Dorado creeks have produced the richest deposits of gold yet found, but all the creeks mentioned have some very rich deposits.

The knowledge of these gold fields in the far north is not new. From early in the days of the Russian occupation of this territory it has been known that there were vast deposits of the precious metal in Alaska. It is said that the existence of gold in quantities along the Yukon and its tributaries was known to the fur-trading companies a century and a half ago. These companies were not after minerals, and they were merely guarding the immense wealth which abounded in the fur industries when they did not give their knowledge to the world. Other fur companies have followed the example of the early traders and have kept the secret. They foresaw the effect of a rush of immigrants.

The aborigines of Alaska have been familiar with the precious yellow metal for a time that is old even in their legends. The earliest voyagers to the coasts of Alaska noticed the bits of shining gold here and there among the ornaments of the natives, and for these they traded knives, guns, and fancy trappings. Beyond the few ounces which they gained in this way, however, no gold was obtained from those regions. In 1741 theRussian explorer, Behring, after whom the great Alaskan Sea is named, found gold, but he found what seemed to him more attractive, fine furs. Upon the value of the furs he laid great stress in his report to his monarch, and the result was that the country was granted by the Emperor Paul for fur-gathering purposes alone to the Russo-American Fur Company, and thus it remained until the purchase by the United States in 1867.

That there were deposits of gold in those icy regions was hinted by the early explorers, and incomplete records show that more than one party put civilization behind for the purpose of investigating the country. In fact, enough men had left for that region to produce sufficient gold to cause the Director of the Mint to credit Alaska with three hundred thousand dollars in gold and two thousand dollars in silver in 1885. Most of this metal came from Douglas Island. In 1896 the total output of lode and placer mines in Alaska was put at four million six hundred and seventy-five thousand dollars, and in 1897 the gold output, it is estimated, will reach twelve million dollars.

There was a great gold craze in the extreme North-west in 1858. In the 60's there was a period when the annual production of the North-west Province reached three millions, seven hundred thousand dollars. The known deposits were exhausted, however, and by 1890 the product fell off to less than half a million dollars.

The Klondike Gold Discoveries

On page190of this volume Mr. Schwatka says, "The mouth of the D'Abbadie marks an important point on the Yukon River as being the place at which gold commenced to be found in placer deposits. From the D'Ab-badie almost to the very mouth of the great Yukon a panful of 'dirt' taken with any discretion from almost any bar or bank will, when washed, give several 'colors,' to use a miner's phrase."

The United States Government sent Professor J. S. Spurr, H. B. Goodrich and F. C. Schrader of the Geological Survey, into the Yukon District early in '96. Prof. Spurr, the chief of the Survey, has made the following preliminary statement:

"Much has been written of late concerning the possibilities of Alaska as a gold-producing country. As a matter of fact the productions of the present year may be roughly estimated at three million dollars. This amount, however, comes from a region of half a million square miles, or about one quarter as large as the United States. Of the mines which produce this gold some are in the bed rock, while others are placer diggings.

"The bed rock mines are few in number and situated on the south-east coast, which is the most accessible part of the territory. The chief one is the great Treadwell mine, near Juneau, and there are also important mines at Burner's Bay, at the Island of Unga, and other places.

"The latest strike is the Klondike. Most of these mines, however, are in low grade ore, and the production is only made profitable by careful management and operations on a very large scale. The placer mines are those which occupy the most prominent place in the popular mind, since they are remote from civilization and in a country about which little is known, and which is, on account of this uncertainty, dangerously attractive to the average man. This gold producing country of the interior is mostly in the vicinity of the Yukon River, or of some of its immediate tributaries."

The great Klondike strike was made in the early winter of 1896-97, but nothing was known of it in the United States until June 15th, 1897, when the "Excelsior" arrived in San Francisco laden with Klondike miners, who were in turn laden with gold. These miners had left the Klondike District, and gone down the Yukon River to St. Michael, carrying with them their loads of gold, which averaged $10,000 to the man. About a month later, on July 17th, 1897, the steamer "Portland" reached Seattle from St. Michael, Alaska, and brought the verified news of the great gold discoveries in the Upper Yukon region and also nearly a million and three-quarters in gold dust as freight, with the owners of the same. All of this gold had been taken from the placer mines of the Klondike within the year.

Such was the beginning of the great Klondike gold craze, which has seized thousands of miners and speculators, a great proportion of whom will be drawn into that region in the course of the year.

The great problem to be solved by those who contemplate going to the Klondike region is the method of getting there, and of sustaining life after they reach the country.

There are three principal ways of going to the Klondike gold fields. One is the route taken by Mr. Schwatka, as described by him in previous pages. This route is through the famous Chilkoot Pass, the dangers andhardships of which he has pointed out, but in no wise magnified. In fact, he made the journey under the most favorable circumstances. Another route is the all-water route from Seattle by way of the mouth of the Yukon. It is a fifteen days' voyage from Seattle to St. Michael, which is on the western coast of Alaska, north of the mouth of the Yukon River. In making this trip one passes through the chain of Aleutian Islands and past the Pribilof Islands, which is the great breeding ground of the fur seals.

From St. Michael the trip is made up the Yukon in a flat-bottom river steamer in from fifteen to twenty days. The distance from Seattle to Dawson City by way of St. Michael and the Yukon River is about 4,725 miles. The distance from Seattle by way of the Chilkoot Pass route, that which was followed by Mr. Schwatka, is estimated as about 1,600 miles.

The back door route is the old Hudson Bay Trunk Line, which has been traveled since 1825. This is by way of St. Paul to Edmonton, North-west Territory, on the Canadian Pacific Railroad. This route from St. Paul and Minneapolis, by way of the Soo Line and the Canadian Pacific, is all rail as far as Edmonton. A stage line runs to Athabasca Landing on the Athabasca River forty miles away. Thence the route is by canoe due north, into Athabasca Lake, and finally into Great Slave Lake, the source of the McKenzie River. Following the McKenzie River to its mouth, the Peel River must be taken south, and then by portage, the Rocky Mountain range is crossed. The Stewart River rises just west of the mountain range, and thus the way to the Klondike is opened. The Hudson Bay Companygives the distance as 1,882 miles. This route is almost constantly used by the Indians and trappers. It is down grade all the way. The Hudson Bay Company has small steamers plying wherever the water is of sufficient depth.

Still another way that is recommended is known as the Takou route. The entrance to this inlet is ten or twelve miles south of Juneau, and is navigable for the largest ocean vessel a distance of eighteen miles to the mouth of the Takou River. This river is navigable by canoe for a distance of fifteen miles to Nakinah River. Here is a portage of seventy miles to Lake Teslin, one of the chain of lakes which form the headwaters of the Yukon. The total distance from Juneau to Lake Teslin is one hundred and fifty miles. It is said that this route would require not over twenty days' time to reach Klondike from Puget Sound. The approximate distance from Seattle to Dawson City over this route is 1,650 miles.

Still another route, and one which is highly recommended by a number of Canadians who have been over it, is the Stikeen River route. The Canadian Government has decided to make a large grant for opening up this all-Canadian route to the Yukon.

One of the party who assisted in laying out this route says: "We left Fort Wrangel on May 17th, and after a pleasant run up the Stikeen River 140 miles on the steamer we reached Telegraph Creek. On the 23d of May we left to commence operations by following up Diese Lake trail to Tahltan Bridge, and then running to the left of Tahltan River on the old Hudson Bay trail to a place called Jimtown. From this point we decidedto cut a new trail from Telegraph Creek straight across on the left of Tahltan River, crossing the left fork about fifteen miles from Telegraph, and five miles further on connecting with the old Hudson Bay trail."

The old trail was cleared of all obstructions and followed to the old Hudson Bay post, where some log buildings still stand. This point is a hill of considerable size, there being about three miles of heavy grade. This can be remedied by cutting a new trail around the hill, following the creek. The country in general is very open, and what timber there is, is very small and scrubby. The trail runs through a valley from five to twenty miles wide, which presents no difficulties. About thirty miles this side of Lake Teslin we reached a summit where waters run north. I may say the headwaters of the Yukon commence from this point.

From this point the Klondike may be reached in eight or ten days, with smooth water and no portages. With the proposed improvements on the trail the trip could be made in about fifteen days with a pack train from Telegraph Creek. Fort Wrangel can be used as a supply station over this route, the distance from Fort Wrangel being about nine hundred miles. Another advantage of this route is that the supplies may be purchased at Fort Wrangel, and thus no duty need be paid the Canadian Government.

One member of a party of gold seekers who followed the Stikeen route has given the following account of the route in detail. Since this route is to be improved by the Canadian Government this description is of considerable value:

"From Seattle we went to Fort Wrangel, 140 milesthis side of Juneau, and there we took the 150-ton steamer 'Alaskan,' which plies on the Stikeen River. The Stikeen River is very broad at some points, and at others, where it runs through canyons, it narrows down to 100 feet or so, just room enough for the steamer to pass between the steep, rocky walls. Rapids were numerous, and frequently the crew would have to go ashore and 'line' the steamer through a narrow rapid, where the water ran so swiftly that it made us dizzy. When nearing a bit of water of this kind the propeller was never used. After shutting down the machinery, lines would be attached to a steam capstan on the deck of the steamer. The ends of these lines then were made fast to trees on either side of the river, and by means of the steam capstan the boat was warped along cautiously until open water was reached.

"The weather was not so cold as we looked for, just bracing. The trail along the Stikeen follows the left bank of the river almost to the conference of the Iskoot River, where it crosses the Stikeen, following the left bank of the Iskoot to Telegraph Creek. At that point the trail trends to the west and north as far as the Tahltan River, following that course over a great, flat plateau until the foot of Teslin, or Allen's, Lake is reached.

"There were five in the party which reached Telegraph Creek on the 'Alaskan.' At the creek six white men and two Stick Indians joined our party. We hired the Indians to act as guides as far as the Cassiar gold diggings, near Diese Lake, seventy-two miles to the north of Telegraph Creek. We started for Diese Lake afoot, packing our provisions and supplies, of which we had an abundance, on thirteen horses. On this journey we made about six miles every twenty-four hours, going into camp whenever we felt like it.

The Descent of Chilkoot Pass

"At the Cassiar diggings we found a few Chinamen working placers, but they made only a bare living, so our party, after looking over the ground, decided not to stay there. We concluded to push on for Lake Teslin, which is about 140 miles to the north of Cassiar.

"Previous to that time some white men had been as far on that route as the Koukitchie Lakes, seventy-five miles beyond Telegraph Creek, but we blazed the way from that point on to Lake Teslin and through to the Yukon River. It is probable that we made some deviations from what is now the known route. The tramp to Lake Teslin was not so very difficult, considering that we were in a country never before trodden by the foot of a civilized man. We had some trouble with rivers and creeks, and had to cut down trees and lay bridges across Nahlin River and Beebe Creek. It is a comparatively safe and easy journey, nevertheless.

"On the 19th day of July we reached Lake Teslin. It is one of the most beautiful bodies of water on the American continent. Its dimensions are about 130 miles long by an average of three and one-half miles wide. When we were there the ground was free from snow and vegetation was abundant. We remained in the vicinity of Lake Teslin some two or three weeks, when our party divided and two of us decided to try to find our way to the Yukon River. Before starting out we prospected up the Nisulatine River, but found no gold. Upon leaving the lake we followed the Hootalinqua or Teslin River, a fine stream about 120 miles inlength, toward the Klondike country. It flows into the Yukon just above the Klondike district, where it and Thirty-Mile or Lewes River join in practically forming the Yukon. Here all the trails in that country meet together in a great canyon in Seminow Hills. Thirty-Mile River drains the lakes about Dyea Pass.

"After leaving the mouth of the Hootalinqua River, we followed the Yukon slowly into Dawson City, which we reached on the 12th of October."

In the preceding chapters many general statements as to the climate of the region of the Yukon River have been made, but so great is the difference between the climate of the coast regions and that of the interior, that it is necessary to go into detail to get any definite idea of any particular region or district.

The difference in climatic conditions which obtain on the coast and in the interior, even thirty miles back, is very marked. The climate of south-eastern Alaska, is much milder than the climate in the same latitude on the Atlantic coast. This is due to the warm current of the Pacific that sweeps up from the south-west. Summer weather on the coast is much more liable to be wet and cloudy than in the interior. May, June, and July are usually all one could desire, but from that on to the opening of winter disagreeable weather is the rule and not the exception. At St. Michael, during this period, rain falls four days in seven. In October the winds sheer round from the south-west to the north and fine weather sets in. During the fall, wind storms are of frequent occurrence.

The climate is the greatest terror of the country inthe popular estimate and in the estimation of those who have been in the gold region in recent years. The prospector is willing to scale mountains, traverse plains, cross rivers, shoot rapids, and brave a thousand perils, but the thought of living in a country whose temperature is often represented as being comparable with that of a vast refrigerator is appalling. The average temperature in the Klondike country during the four coldest months of the year is not ordinarily much lower than twenty degrees below zero. The average winter's snowfall in that part of Alaska is only about two feet, whereas on the coast it is ten times that much. The snowfall in the vicinity of Fort Cudahy is only about two feet during the winter, although it is as much as twenty feet along the coast where the influence of the Japan current is felt.

It is bitterly cold in Arctic Alaska. Forty degrees below zero for days at a stretch is not uncommon. The general conception of the climate of the great North-west is largely due to those who have merely skirted the coast. And it is not very remarkable that the reports are not more true of the whole of the Alaskan country, for the coast line is over twenty-six thousand miles long and extends through many degrees of latitude. Any one traveling any considerable part of such a distance would easily feel justified in drawing a general conclusion as to the climate of the whole country.

As stated above, the climate of the interior, including in that designation practically all of the country except a narrow fringe of coastal margin, is one of extreme rigor in winter, with a brief, but relatively hot summer, especially when the sky is free from clouds.

In the Klondike region, in midwinter, the sun rises from 9:30 to 10 a.m., and sets from 2 to 3 p.m., the total length of daylight being about four hours. The sun rises but a few degrees above the horizon, and it is wholly obscured on a great many days, so the character of the winter months may be easily imagined.

The United States Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1889-90 made a series of observations covering a period of six months on the Yukon, not far from the site of the present gold discoveries. The observations were made with standard instruments and are wholly reliable.

"The mean temperature of the months, October to April, both inclusive, are as follows: October, 33 degrees; November, 8 degrees; December, 11 degrees below zero; January, 17 degrees below zero; February, 15 degrees below zero; March, 6 degrees above zero; April, 20 degrees above zero. The daily mean temperature fell and remained below the freezing point (32) from November 4th to April 21st, thus giving 168 days as the length of the closed season, assuming the out-door operations are controlled by temperature only.

"The lowest temperatures registered during that winter were: 32 degrees below zero in November, 47 below in December, 59 below in January, 55 below in February, 45 below in March, 26 below in April.

A Mid-day Meal

"The greatest continuous cold occurred in February, when the daily mean for five consecutive days was 47 degrees below zero. The weather moderated slightly about the first of March, but the temperature still remained below the freezing point. Generally cloudy weather prevailed, there being but three consecutive days in any month with clear weather during the whole winter. Snow fell on about one-third of the days in winter, and a less number in the early spring and late fall months. In the interior, the winter sets in as early as September, when snow storms may be expected in the mountains and passes. Headway during one of these storms is impossible, and the traveler who is overtaken in one of them is indeed fortunate if he escapes with his life. Snow storms of great severity may occur in any month from September to May, inclusive."

The changes of temperature from winter to summer are rapid, owing to the great increase in the length of the day. In May the sun rises at about 3 a.m. and sets about 9 p.m. In June it rises about 1:30 in the morning and sets at 10:30 p.m., giving about twenty hours of daylight, and diffuse twilight the remainder of the time.

Notwithstanding the marked variations in the climate Alaska is essentially a healthy country. The only prevailing diseases are those of a bronchial nature, and in most cases these troubles can be directly traced to imprudent exposure.

The snow of the interior partakes much of the character of frost, sifting slowly down in intensely cold weather until it lies several inches deep, light and fluffy; but at times, in warm weather, it thaws and settles into a hard crust, affording excellent surface for sledding.

The great precipitation and humidity of the atmosphere in Southern Alaska cause the entire coast region to be clothed in a mantle of perennial green. Vegetation is dense and the forests magnificent. The soil is rich, though in the heavily timbered region it is shallow, and from the most eastern point of the territory to Kodiak root crops are easily grown.

The numerous islands that skirt the coast of Alaska, the great plains of the interior, intersected by deep rivers, gigantic snow-crowned mountains, the active volcanoes and the mighty ice fields, with many other singular, beautiful and awe-inspiring gifts of nature combine to make the country of the new gold fields one of notable grandeur and wonder.

The great rivers of the interior drain immense valleys, with mountain ranges everywhere visible. Lakes are abundant, often surrounded by tundra or swamps, very frequently impenetrable, covered with brush, rank grasses, and other vegetation. After the interior is reached—and by this is meant after the coast mountains are crossed, in many places only twenty or thirty miles from the coast—the soft earth and luxuriant vegetation of the coast country give place to frozen ground, and lichens and mosses, on the mountain sides and in the valleys. But though the vast plains of the interior are within the grasp of the ice king for eight months of the year, with the advent of the long days of summer, water runs, flowers bloom, and grasses spring into life as if by magic, and their growth is at once luxuriant and rapid, even though in many places the soil is never thawed beyond a few inches below the surface. In the far north, at St. Michael, and at Point Barrow, wells have been dug through sixty feet of solid ice, and the same condition has been noted on the Yukon, at Forty-Mile.

The effect of the wide climatic ranges is manifest in the fauna and flora of the territory. The former corresponds very closely to the sub-arctic type; the latter presents a variety of brilliance and sobriety at once delightful and astonishing. The animals belong largely to the fur-bearing species, though natives of more temperate regions survive and even thrive with proper care.

Agriculture will probably never be successful in that region, for the season is too short and crops are too uncertain of maturity. In the Yukon basin vegetables of the hardier sorts do fairly well. Turnips, radishes, and salad plants and even potatoes have been successfully cultivated at St. Michael and at Fort Yukon.

At Fort Selkirk gardening has produced some results that are very pleasing both in size and variety. The whole Yukon basin raises fine berries and grass, but other crops are hard to mature, and though the fodder is plenty and good, the long, severe winter precludes success in stock raising. The timber of the Yukon is principally willow, alder, cottonwood, spruce, low fir, hemlock and birch. North of the basin the growths become stunted and finally disappear.

William Ogilvie, Dominion Land Surveyor, reported on this region to the Canadian Department of the Interior, as follows:

"The agricultural capabilities of the country along the river are not great, nor is the land that can be seen from the river of good quality. When we consider further the unfavorable climatic conditions that prevail in the region, it may be said that as an agricultural district this portion of the country will never be of any value.

"Along the east side of Lake Bennett, opposite the Chilkoot or western arm, there are some flats of dry, gravelly soil, which would make a few farms of limited extent. On the west side, around the mouth of Wheaton River, there is an extensive flat of sand and gravel, covered with small pine and spruce of stunted growth.

"Along the western shore of Tagish Lake there is a large extent of low, swampy flats, a part of which might be used for the production of such roots and cereals as the climate would permit. Along the west side of Marsh Lake there is also much flat surface of the same general character, on which I saw some coarse grass which would serve as food for cattle. Along the east side the surface appeared higher and terraced, and is probably less suited to the requirements of the agriculturist. Along the head of the river, for some miles below Marsh Lake, there are flats on both sides, which would, as far as surface confirmation goes, serve as farms. The soil is of much better quality than any heretofore seen, as is proven by the larger and thicker growth of timber and underbrush which it supports. The soil bears less the character of detritus, and more that of alluvium, than that seen above.

"On the lower end of the lake, on the west side, there is also a considerable plain which might be utilized; the soil in parts of it is good. I saw one part where the timber had been burned some time ago; here both the soil and vegetation were good, and two or three of the plants seen are common in this part of Ontario, but they had not the vigorous appearance which the same plants have East.

"Northward from the end of the lake there is a deepwide valley, which Dr. Dawson has named 'Ogilvie Valley.' In this the mixed timber, poplar and spruce, is of a size which betokens a fair soil; the herbage, too, is more than usually rich for this region. This valley is extensive, and, if ever required as an aid in the sustenance of our people, will figure largely in the district's agricultural assets.

"Below the lake the valley of the river is not, as a rule, wide, and the banks are often steep and high. There are, however, many flats of moderate extent along the river and at its confluence with other streams. The soil of many of these is fair.

"About forty miles above the mouth of the Pelly River there is an extensive flat on both sides of the Lewes. The soil here is poor and sandy, with small open timber. At Pelly River there is a flat of considerable extent on which the ruins of Fort Selkirk stand. It is covered with a small growth of poplar and some spruce. The soil is a gravelly loam of about eight inches in depth. This flat extends up the river for some miles, but is all covered thickly with timber except a small piece around the site of the fort.

"I think ten townships or 360 square miles, would be a very liberal estimate of all the places mentioned along the river. This gives us 230,400 acres, or, say 1,000 farms. The available lands on the affluence of the rivers would probably double this, or give 2,000 farms in that part of our territory, but on most of the farms the returns would be meager. Without the discovery and development of large mineral wealth, it is not likely that the slender agricultural resources of the country will ever attract attention. In the event of such discoveryhowever, some of the land might be used for the production of vegetable food for the miners, but even in that case with the transport facilities which the district commands it is very doubtful if it could compete successfully with the South and East.

"The amount of timber fit for use in building and manufacturing in the district along the river is not at all important. There is a large extent of forest which would yield firewood and timber for use in mines, but for the manufacture of lumber there is very little. The great bulk of the timber in the district suitable for manufacturing the lumber is to be found on the islands in the river. On them the soil is warmer and richer, the sun's rays striking the surface for a much longer time and more directly than on the banks.

"To estimate the quantity of timber in the vicinity of the river, I would say that one-fourth of the area I have given as agricultural land would be a fair conjecture, but it must be borne in mind that there is not more than a square mile or so of that in any one place, and most of the timber would be small and poor.

"It may be said that the country might furnish much timber, which, though not fit to be classed as merchantable, would meet many other requirements of the only industry the country is ever likely to have, viz., mining."

Surveyor Ogilvie's official report on the fauna of the Klondike district is in the main as follows:

"The principal furs procured in the district are the silver, gray and black fox, the number of which bears a greater ratio to the number of red foxes than in any other part of the country. The red fox is very common, and a species called the blue, is very abundant near the coast. Marten, or sable, are also numerous, as are lynx, but otter are scarce, and beaver almost unknown. It is probable that the value of gray and black fox skins taken out of the country more than equals in value all the other furs.

Indian Packers Fording a River

"Game is not now as abundant as before mining began, and it is difficult, in fact, impossible, to get any close to the river. A boom in mining would soon exterminate the game in the district along the river.

"There are two species of caribou in the country, one, the ordinary kind found in most parts of the North-west, and said to much resemble the reindeer; the other, called the wood caribou, a much larger and more beautiful animal. Except that the antlers are much smaller it appears to me to resemble the elk or wapiti. The ordinary caribou runs in herds often numbering hundreds.

"There are four species of bear found in the district—the grisly, brown, black, and a small kind locally known as the silver-tip, the last being gray in color, with a white throat and beard, whence its name. It is said to be fierce and not to wait to be attacked, but to attack on sight. I had not the pleasure of seeing any, but heard many 'yarns' about them, some of which I think were 'hunters' tales.' It appears, however, that miners and Indians, unless traveling in numbers, or especially well armed, give them as wide a berth as they conveniently can.

"Wolves are not plentiful. A few of the common gray species only are killed, the black being very scarce.

"The Arctic rabbit or hare is sometimes found, butthey are not numerous. There is a curious fact in connection with the ordinary hare or rabbit, which I have observed, but of which I have never yet seen any satisfactory explanation. Their numbers vary from the very few to myriads in periods of seven years.

"The Alaskan birds include the grouse, ptarmigan, snipe, mallard and teal duck, goose, loon, gray and bald eagle, sea parrot, gulls, auks and many other sea fowls. The sea birds supply the Indians with a profitable pursuit, gathering their eggs from the rocks. The eggs are a staple article of diet with the natives.

"The food fishes are numerous, but the salmon easily leads them all in importance, and the canning and drying of this dainty fish make the third industry of this territory, gold being now the first, of course, and furs the second."

No account of the animal life of the Klondike district would be complete without mention of the insects, which make life a burden during the summer in the interior. In the summer season when the days are sometimes really hot there are swarms of mosquitoes and gnats which have not their equal in the world, and which are enough alone to discourage most men. The horse fly is larger than the insect of the same name in the United States. In a preceding chapter Schwatka reports that one of his party, bitten by a horse fly, was completely disabled for a week. He adds, "At the moments of infliction it was hard to believe that one was not disabled for life.

"The mosquitoes are equally distressing. According to the general terms of the survival of the fittest and the growth of muscles most used to the detriment of others, a band of cattle inhabiting this district in the far future, would be all tail and no body, unless the mosquitoes should experience a change of numbers.

The White Horse Rapids

"The Indians smear the hands and face with a mixture of grease and soot, which prevents the pest from biting. At some seasons in this country they are in such dense swarms that at night they will practically cover a mosquito netting, fairly touching each other and crowding through any kind of mesh. I have heard it asserted by people of experience that they form cooperative societies and assist each other through the meshes by pushing behind and pulling in front."

The actual discovery of the great north-western peninsula of the American continent cannot be dated further back than the middle part of the eighteenth century. Its remoteness from the centres of European settlement and from the lines of trade and travel, and its inhospitable climate made Alaska one of the latest regions to yield to the advances of the explorer, surveyor and settler. At a date when the colonies on the North Atlantic coast of America numbered millions of prosperous people, already preparing to take independent rank among the nations of the world, the very existence of this enormous country was unknown. At a very early date, however, voyagers from many lands began their advances toward the far North-west, and the story of the discovery of Alaska must naturally include a brief outline of these.

As early as 1542 the Spanish adventurers Coronado and Juan Rodriguez de Cabrillo went up the Pacific coast of Mexico, and sailed for some distance along the coast of what is now the State of California. The memory of the former has been locally honored in California in the name of Coronado Beach. At this time the Spanish considered themselves sole masters of the South Sea, as the Pacific was called, and of all lands bordering upon it. But their supremacy there was soon disputed by the intrepid Sir Francis Drake. He not only ravaged their South American seaports, but, in1579, sailed far to northward in a little schooner of two hundred tons, entered the Golden Gate, and refitted his vessel in what is now the harbor of San Francisco. Thirteen years later the Spaniards pressed still further up the coast. Apostolos Valerianos, best known as Juan de Fuca, sailed from Mexico and passed through the straits that bear his name, and discovered Puget Sound. There adventure from the south made pause for many years, still a weary distance from the Alaskan peninsula.

More than a hundred years after the voyages of Coronado, a different people, from a different direction, began to move toward the same goal. These were the Russians, who had already taken possession of the greater part of Siberia, and who were now persistently pushing on to the occupation of the whole realm between the Baltic and the Pacific. They had already gone eastward as far as the Kolyma River, and possessed the town of Nijni Kolymsk, in about 160° degrees east longitude. In 1646 they advanced still further. Isai Ignatieff, with several small vessels, sailed from the Kolyma, and effected a landing on Tchaun Bay, in the country of the Tchukchees. He found the trade in walrus ivory so profitable that his example was soon followed by others. The very next year the Cossack Simeon Deshneff, with four vessels, sailed eastward, to take possession of all the land in the name of the Russian crown. The Anadyr River, of which reports had been heard from the natives, was his goal. At the same time, Michael Stadukin led an expedition overland in the same direction. But both these enterprises failed. The year 1648, however, saw Deshneff's venture repeated. Three ships sailed for the Anadyr, commanded respectively by Simeon Deshneff, Gerasim Ankudinoff, and Feodor Alexieff. They reached Behring Strait, not knowing it was a strait, and Ankudinoff's vessel was wrecked on East Cape. He and his men were taken on the other vessels, and the expedition kept on. Deshneff made his way around Cape Navarin and Cape Olintorski to the coast of Kamtchatka. There his vessel was wrecked and he and his men made their way home overland, surveying, as they went, the Anadyr River. Again in 1652 Deshneff explored the Anadyr, in a boat, and the next year planned a trade-route, by sea, from that river to Yakutsk, on the Lena.

Many other expeditions to Kamtchatka and the western part of Behring Sea were soon thereafter made. Taras Stadukin in 1654 discovered the westernmost Kurill Islands, and sailed round Kamtchatka into Penjinsk Bay. In 1696, Lucas Simeonoff Moroscovich explored Kamtchatka by land, and during the next year the Cossack Vladimir Atlassoff followed him thither and by force of arms made the Kamtchatdales subjects of the Czar. This conquest was marked by wholesale butcheries of the helpless natives, and confiscation of their goods. The conquest of the Tchukchees was attempted in 1701, but failed, as did a second expedition against them ten years later. This latter, however, under the Cossack Peter Iliunsen Potoff, in 1711, had one highly-important result. It brought back definite reports of the narrowness of Behring Strait, of the location of the Diomedes Islands, and of the proximity of the American continent. Then, for some years, all further advance was stayed.

The next movement was undertaken by no less a personage than Peter the Great,

"——that CzarWho made of tribes an Empire."

It was at the end of his reign and life. Two passions moved him. One was the zeal for scientific exploration and knowledge of the world; the other, the desire to extend his dominion across the Arctic borders of another continent. Accordingly in 1725 he planned a great expedition, drew up full instructions with his own hand, and delivered them to Admiral Apraxin; then died. His widow, who became Autocrat in his stead, ordered the plan fulfilled, and it was done promptly. On February 5th, 1725, the chief members of the expedition set out from St. Petersburg, their leader and commander being the illustrious Captain Vitus Behring.

The explorers made their way by slow stages to Okhotsk. There they built two ships, the "Fortuna" and the "Gabriel," and on July 20th, 1728, set sail on their adventurous voyage. On this occasion they contented themselves with traversing Behring Strait, and returned without seeing the American coast or even the Diomedes Islands. A second voyage, in 1729, was altogether fruitless, and in the spring of 1730 Behring returned to St. Petersburg without having achieved a single work of importance or won the first fraction of his later fame. But one of the objects of his expedition was presently attained by others, accidentally. The Yakutsk Cossacks, under Athanasius Shestakoff, had been for years fighting to subdue the indomitable Tchukchees, with little success. A party of them took the ship "Fortuna," abandoned by Behring, to make a war-like cruise alongthe Tchukchee coast. They were soon wrecked in Penjinsk Bay, and were routed in battle with the Tchukchees. But the engineer and navigator of the expedition, Michael Gwosdeff, made a boat from the wreck of the "Fortuna," and with his surviving comrades sailed to the Anadyr River. Thence they sailed to Cape Serdze, expecting there to meet a Cossack expedition from overland. In this they were disappointed. And presently a great storm arose from the eastward and drove them, helpless, before it. Right across the strait they were driven, to the American coast. Upon the latter, however, they could make no landing. The shore was inhospitable and the storm was furious. For two days they cruised along the coast, and then, the storm abating, made their way back to Asia.

Despite the failure of his first expedition, Behring was received with honors and promotion at the Russian capital, and preparations were pressed for another venture under his command. For several years he was engaged in voyages along the Siberian coast, and to Japan. But in 1741 the great achievement of his life began. His pilot, Ivan Jelagin, had gone to Avatcha with two ships, the "St. Peter" and the "St. Paul." On Niakina Bay he had founded the town of Petropaulovsk, named for the vessels. Thither went Wilhelm Steller, the Franconian naturalist, and Louis de Lisle de la Croyere. Thither, finally, went Behring, and on June 4th, 1741, sailed for America. On June 20th the two vessels were parted by a storm, and did not come together again; nor did Behring and Chirikoff, their commanders, ever meet again in this world. Chirikoff, in the "St. Paul," made quickest progress. On July 15th he reached theAmerican coast, and anchored in Cross Sound. His mate, Dementieff, and ten armed men, in the long boat, went ashore. They did not return, and on July 21st Sidor Saveleff with other armed men went after them, in the only other boat of the "St. Paul." They did not return either. But the next day two canoes filled with savages came from the shore toward the ship, showing only too plainly what had become of the landing parties. The savages did not venture to attack the ship, but Chirikoff had no more boats in which to effect a landing. So on July 27th he weighed anchor and sailed back for Kamtchatka. He passed by numerous islands, and on October 9th re-entered the harbor of Petropaulovsk. Twenty-one of his seventy men had perished; among them Louis de Lisle de la Croyere, the French naturalist, who died of scurvy on the day of their return.

The "St. Peter," with Behring and his comrades on board, meanwhile, was driven blindly through tempest and fog toward the Alaskan coast. On Sunday, July 18th, he reached the land and disembarked. He was at the foot of some low, desolate bluff which skirted the shore for a long distance, and beyond which rose the savage splendors of Mt. St. Elias and the Arctic Alps. The spot was near what is now called Kayak Island. For six weeks Behring tarried in that neighborhood, refitting his storm-strained ship, laying aboard supplies of water and food, and making a few explorations of the coast. The two capes between which he landed he named St. Elias and Hermogenes. Here the naturalist Steller found many interesting traces of the natives. Going further north, into Prince William's Sound,Behring became confused by the number of islands and the difficulties of navigation, and abandoned the direction of the vessel to Lieutenant Waxel. They kept on, past the Kenai Peninsula, past Kadiak Island, and down the coast of the slender Alaska Peninsula, to the south-west, until they reached a group of islands which they named Shumagin, for a member of the company who died and was buried there. This was on August 29th. On September 3d a terrific storm arose, before which they were driven, helpless, far out into the North Pacific, southward to latitude 48°. Scurvy broke out among them with fatal force, and the disheartened men resolved to return to Kamtchatka.

Thenceforward for weeks they suffered almost incredible hardships. Every one was suffering from scurvy. So weakened were they by disease and famine that it took three men to hold the helm. Only a few sails were used, for the men were not able to hoist and manage more. When these were torn away by the storms, the helpless craft drifted under bare poles. The weather was a chaos of wind and fog and snow. For weeks they drifted blindly, now eastward, now westward, scarcely hoping to see land again, and utterly ignorant of the part of the ocean into which they had been borne. But on November 4th a particularly furious gale drove them ashore on an unknown coast. They were in the south-eastern part of Behring Sea, on one of the Kommandorski group of islands. The vessel was completely wrecked, and the men built huts on the shore for winter quarters. Waxel was still in command. Behring was a victim to natural stupidity, constitutional cowardice, and scurvy. All through the dreadful voyage fromPrince William Sound he had remained in his cabin, shivering in abject terror. A few weeks after landing, on December 8th he died. In honor of him his men named the island Behring Island, and the group the Kommandorski, while Behring Strait and Behring Sea in their names give immortality to one of the least worthy of men. Waxel, Steller, and the others remained on Behring Island all that winter, feeding on the flesh of sea-lions and the monster Arctic manatee or sea-cow, now extinct. They collected a considerable store of furs of the sea-otter, blue fox and other animals, which they took back to Russia and thus greatly stimulated the zeal of further conquest. In the summer of 1742 they made their way to Petropaulovsky in a boat constructed from the wreck of their ship. Waxel reached St. Petersburg with the official report of the expedition in 1749.

Thenceforward the greed of gain led many Russian adventurers to the waters and shores of Behring Sea. Emilian Bassoff discovered Attoo Island, the westernmost of the Aleutian chain, in 1745, and Michael Novodtsikoff, in the same year, discovered other islands near by, and got a rich cargo of furs. Other explorers, who followed up the Aleutian chain were Ribinski, in 1748; Trapesnikoff, in 1749; Yagoff, in 1750; and Ivan Nikiforoff, who reached Unimak Island in 1757. Simon Krasilnikoff, Maxim Lazeroff and others kept up the work of discovering islands, getting furs, and massacring the natives. The Andreanoffsky Islands were discovered in 1761, and named in honor of Andrean Tolstoi, who fitted out Lazeroff's expedition. In the winter of 1761-2, Pushkareff and his men livedon the shore of False Pass. They were the first to spend a winter on the mainland of Alaska. The atrocities committed by them excited the hostility of the natives, and they were glad to get away in August, 1762. They took with them thirty natives, mostly women, as prisoners and slaves; but on the voyage home they wantonly murdered them all except two.

War to the knife thereafter prevailed among the natives and the Russians. The latter waged it with the most ferocious energy, but were by no means always victors. A whole expedition of fifty men was destroyed on Unimak Island in 1762; and a similar party met the same fate in 1763, on Ounalaska. Indeed, for years the history of Russian progress in Alaska was one of unrelieved horror, an inferno of lust, torture and death.

And now the advance of the Spanish and others from the southward was resumed. Juan Perez sailed from Monterey in 1774, and discovered Queen Charlotte Island and Nootka Sound. The next year Bruno Heceta discovered the mouth of the Oregon or Columbia River. Then the famous English navigator, James Cook, came upon the scene. In 1778 he reached Nootka Sound; saw and named Mount St. Elias; explored Cook's Inlet; stopped for a time at Ounalaska; sailed up Behring Sea, through Behring Strait, to Icy Cape; explored Norton Sound and the adjacent waters; touched again at Ounalaska; and then sailed away to the Sandwich Islands, where he was killed in February, 1779. In these few months this immortal Yorkshire man and his Connecticut and Virginia comrades had done more active work of discovery and survey thanall the Russian pillagers who had frequented that part of the world for seventy-five years before.

The first permanent industrial and commercial settlement was effected by the Russians under Shelikoff on Kadiak Island in 1783. Three years later the ill-fated La Perouse visited the Alaskan coast and saw Mt. St. Elias. In 1787, two Russians, Lastochkin and Pribyloff, discovered two islands in the south-east part of Behring Sea, which have since become of enormous value. They named them St. Paul and St. George, and called them together the Suboff Islands. They are now known, however, as the Pribyloff Islands, and are famous as one of the chief homes of the fur seals.

The Russian Government, about 1788, formally laid claim to all the Alaskan lands and waters, and even to the northern part of the Pacific Ocean. At the same time the Spanish and English laid conflicting claims to the region about Nootka Sound, and in 1789 came into violent conflict there. United States expeditions were also busy with explorations in that region, but the Spaniards made no objection to their presence. Captain Gray, of the "Washington," Captain John Kendrick, of the "Columbia," Captain Metcalf, of the "Fair American," Captain Ingraham, of the "Hope," Captain Crowell, of the "Hancock," Captain Roberts, of the "Jefferson," and Captain Magee, of the "Margaret," were among the Americans conspicuous in exploration and trade, chiefly about Nootka Sound and the Straits of Juan de Fuca. Captain George Vancouver, already mentioned as a member of Cook's expedition, also spent much time in exploring the coast, from the island which bears his name northward to the Prince of Wales Islands, in theBritish service; and Alexander Mackenzie traveled across the continent from Canada and explored the great river which has been named for him. The surveys of Vancouver were the most thorough and accurate that had been made.

To return, however, to the Russians. In 1782, Gregory Shelikoff, of Rylsk, Siberia, a man of great ability and energy, of remarkable brutality, and of unsurpassed unscrupulousness, entered upon an important campaign for the establishment of trading posts. In this he was accompanied by his wife, Natalie Shelikoff, a woman of extraordinary ability. In 1787, the Czarina Catherine II, gave him a medal in recognition of his services; and in 1790, by an imperial ukase, that notorious but brilliant sovereign gave to a company, of which Shelikoff was the head, the practical monopoly of the Alaska fur trade. Alexander Baranoff, one of Shelikoff's subordinates, was soon made Chief Director of Affairs in the Russo-American colonies. He, like his chief, was a man of consummate executive ability, and utterly destitute of humane feelings or moral sense. In the summer of 1793 he prevailed upon the Czarina to issue another ukase, authorizing the sending of missionaries to America to convert the natives to the Orthodox Greek faith, and also the sending thither of Russian convicts to teach them agriculture. Thirty convicts were thus settled by Baranoff on the Kenai peninsula, and the Archimandrite Joasaph, elder of the Augustin friars, also went thither. Many other convicts and their families, and monkish missionaries, were in 1794 landed at Kadiak and Cape St. Elias. As soon as they were landed, Shelikoff refused to support them, and theywere compelled to work for their living. In consequence the missionaries sent bitter complaints to the Czar; and these were accompanied by still more bitter complaints from the natives, who were being subjected to such brutalities as cannot be described in print. These had little effect, however. In 1795, Shelikoff died, and his wife succeeded him as president of the company. At this time the population of Kadiak was more than 3,600 adults. The next year the first Greek church was erected there, and Father Joasaph was made Bishop. In 1799 the Czar Paul chartered anew the Shelikoff company, re-organized as the Russian-American Company, for a term of twenty years. He gave it absolute control of all the American coast-lands and waters north of latitude 55°. The Company was required to survey the region, plant settlements, promote agriculture, commerce and other industries, propagate the Greek faith, and extend Russian influence and possessions as widely as possible. As for the natives, they were by the same decree made the slaves of the Company. Baranoff was made practically the supreme head, the autocrat of the entire realm, on whose word were suspended the issues of life and death.

Under this newrégimethe old policy of cruelty and outrage toward the natives was pursued with added intensity. Generally the Russians worked their will with impunity, though sometimes the natives rose against them with vengeful might, and on several occasions the Russians were glad to flee to British and American ships for shelter. Meanwhile explorations went on. The American ship "Atahualpa" in 1802 discovered the mouth of the Stikine River. Baranoff exploredthe lower part of the Copper River. In 1804 Baranoff took Sitka from the natives, after a hard battle; renamed it New Archangel, gave the island on which it stood his own name, and made it thenceforth the chief station in the colony. About this time an attempt was made to plant trees on the Aleutian islands. The Imperial Chamberlain, Count Nicolas Petrovich Resanoff, founded a school at Kadiak, and effected some valuable administrative reforms, especially in the colonial courts and in the financial system. Then he went back to Russia to get the Czar's consent to his marriage with the daughter of Don Luis de Arguello, the Spanish governor of San Francisco. As soon as he was gone, Baranoff undid all his reforms. Resanoff died on his way to Russia. His betrothed never believed he was dead, and never would marry another; but waited patiently for his return until she became very old and died.

John Jacob Astor, having formed a company for the Pacific fur trade, sent a vessel to Sitka in 1809, and in 1811 an agent to St. Petersburg to negotiate with the Directory of the Russian-American Company. The negotiations were successful, and in October, 1811, were approved by the Czar, Mr. Astor was to furnish provisions and supplies at stated prices, and to take pay therefor in furs from the Company. They were to assist each other against smugglers, respect each other's hunting-grounds, and not to sell intoxicating liquors to the natives. In 1817 Baranoff, having grown old and weary of his toil, resigned the Chief Directorship of the colonies, and was succeeded by Captain Leontius Hagenmeister. He resigned within a year, and wassucceeded by Lieutenant Janoffsky. At this time an Imperial Commissioner, Vasili Golofnin, was sent to investigate and report on the abuses of administration. As a result, in July, 1819, the Czar made sweeping changes in the regulations of the colonies, which effected some substantial reforms.

There were now Russian settlements on five of the Aleutian islands, four on the shores of Cook's Inlet, two on Chugach Gulf, and one at Sitka. The last named was a large and handsome place, surrounded by gardens and wheat fields. In 1821 the charter of the Company was renewed for twenty years. The profits of the enterprise, however, were now declining. Not one of Baranoff's successors had a tithe of his ability, and the result of his loss was seen in shrinking dividends. Explorations, however, were pushed vigorously. A two years' expedition surveyed the coasts of Norton Sound, Bristol Bay, and Nunivak Island. The Alexander Archipelago also was thoroughly explored. The Russian Government in 1821 issued a proclamation of sovereignty over the whole Pacific Ocean north of the 51st parallel, and forbidding vessels of other nations to approach within one hundred miles of the shores thereof, save in cases of extreme distress. Against this the United States and England vigorously protested, and with effect. In 1824 a convention was signed between the United States and Russia, by which the North Pacific was opened to American ships, and latitude 54° 40' was recognized as the southern boundary of the Russian possessions; and a similar treaty was made with England the next year.

Kotzebue Sound was explored by the English Captain Beechey in 1826. Captain Staninkovich explored much of the northern coast of Alaska in 1828. In 1830 Chernoff examined the harbor of Nuchek and the mouth of the Kaknu River; and Kolmakoff surveyed the bay and river of Kuskoquim. In this year the Company took formal possession of all the Kurile Islands. The next year Baron von Wrangell became Director of the Colonies, and an era of progress began. The colony was opened for settlement to all Russians. Fort St. Michael's, on Norton Sound, was established. Measures were taken to check the destruction of seals and other sea animals. An observatory was founded at Sitka. In 1835 Glasunoff explored the deltas of the Kuskoquim and Yukon rivers, ascending the latter stream as far as Anvik. Small-pox now broke out at Sitka, and for several years ravaged all the settlements, nearly depopulating some of them. In 1838 Malakoff went up the Yukon River to Nulato, and Kushevaroff thoroughly explored the northeastern coast as far as Point Barrow. The next year Mt. St. Elias was observed for the first time to emit smoke, but no further eruption occurred. In 1843 Lieutenant Zagoskin ascended the Yukon as far as Nowikakat, Malakoff explored the Suchitna, Gregorieff the Copper River, and Kashevaroff the shores of Behring Sea.

The second charter of the Company expired in 1841, and strong efforts were made to have it renewed at once. The Government hesitated, but finally, in 1844, renewed it on even more liberal terms than before. In the summer of 1848 the first whaling vessel passed through Behring Strait. It was the American ship "Superior," commanded by Captain Roys. The experiment was highly successful, and in the next season no less than one hundred and fifty-four American whalers followed the example, all making great catches, and the industry was thus established in those waters. English and American explorers continued to visit to northern coasts of Alaska, and surveyed almost every portion of it.

As the ending of the third charter of the Company approached, efforts were made to secure still another renewal. A complete report on the operations of the Company was made at the end of 1861. According to it, the original capital was $73,500. In 1818 it was "watered," and the shares were made $100 instead of $112.50 each. In 1844 the Company had accumulated a surplus of $337,500. At the end of 1861 the capital was $495,000, and the surplus $553,000. The original investment had paid from six to ten per cent. net annually, besides the enormous peculations of the officers and employes. Despite the earnest endeavors of the Company, however, the Czar finally refused to renew its charter, and the Company began to wind up its business. In 1864 there was a great increase of American interests in the colony. The Western Union Telegraph Company, of New York, doubting the practicability of operating a cable under the Atlantic, planned to construct a telegraph line to Europe by way of Alaska and Siberia. In this the Russian Government agreed to co-operate. A surveying expedition was accordingly sent to Alaska, and much exploring work was done at a cost of more than three million dollars. The incident, though without practical result in itself, drew so much attention to Alaska and its resources that an American syndicatewas formed to purchase for itself the charter which the Czar refused to grant to the old Russian Company. This came to the ear of Mr. Seward, the American Secretary of State, and he soon concluded that it would be a good bargain for the United States to buy the whole country outright from Russia. This was done in 1867. The United States paid Russia $7,200,000 for the whole Territory of Alaska. Nearly all of this went, at St. Petersburg, to satisfy old debts and obligations incurred by Alaskan enterprises. The treaty of sale was agreed upon on March 30th; it was ratified by the United States Senate on May 28th; proclaimed by the President on June 20th; General Jefferson C. Davis was appointed to take command of Alaska on September 6th; and on October 18th the United States took formal and actual possession of the country.

This new Territory was looked upon as an Indian country and General Davis was really a military commander. His headquarters were at Sitka, where he had a garrison of about 250 men. A number of enterprising business men accompanied General Davis to Sitka, and immediately began erecting storehouses and offices, and purchasing the property of the old Russian Company. In less than a week several new stores were erected and two drinking saloons, two bowling alleys and a restaurant were in operation. All sorts and conditions of men began flocking in, including pioneers and squatters, and aspirants for political honors in the Territory. There was talk of framing a city charter, and of creating numerous lucrative offices. The usual amount of crime and disorder of a frontier settlement occurred, and soon all respectable inhabitants were compelled to lock their doors at nightfall and not venture out again until daylight. Difficulties with the Indians also soon began, and for many years the Territory was in a state of disorder and confusion, lacking any organized government.

In February, 1868, the Russians began to return home and to abandon the Territory to its new owners. In this year many serious troubles with the Indians occurred on the Yukon River, and on the first of January, 1869, there was some disturbance at Sitka itself. In April, 1869, the publication of a newspaper was begun at Sitka by a man who also followed the avocations of lawyer and tailor. This paper passed out of existence after about a year and was not revived. In 1870 the withdrawal of the military garrisons occurred, excepting those at Sitka and Wrangell. In 1874 an attempt was made to colonize Alaska with Icelanders, who were at that time leaving their own country in large numbers. Several of them visited Alaska and were pleased with the appearance of the country. An offer was made to transport thither five hundred Icelanders free of charge, but it was not accepted, and the scheme of colonization was finally abandoned. In 1878 a serious outbreak of Indians occurred at Sitka, and the inhabitants of that town were compelled to appeal for protection to the commander of an English war-ship. In 1884 a regular territorial government was established and a civil governor appointed, the military garrisons having been withdrawn.

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