CHUNKEY STONE: A polishedstonedisk that was used as a bowl in various types of games.
CIVILIZATION: See note,page 26.
CLASSIC: The term used in this paper to designate thephaseto which the HopewellianCivilizationof theWoodlandpatternbelongs.
CLOVISPOINT: A type of leaf-shaped spearhead with a longitudinal groove (channel or fluting) generally extending one fourth to one half the length of the piece from its base toward its tip.
CLUB: An adaptation of a stick for a weapon or a tool for hurling (throwing stick) or battering (warclub). The warclubis often weighted with astonehead for greater effectiveness. It differs from thetomahawkin that it has no cutting edge.
CONCHOIDAL FRACTURE: The property offlintand certain other stones when struck with a hammer of chipping away in flakes which leave concave or shell-like scars or hollows. By suitable control methods, tool and weapon heads of desired types can be produced.
CONOIDALorCONICALBASE: The characteristic pointed base ofWoodlandpots.
CRAB ORCHARD: A division of the Baumersubculture.
CULTURE: Culture as used in this paper has one of two meanings, each readily understood in its context. In a general sense, it means the significant beliefs, customary activities and social prohibitions peculiar to man (together with the man-made tools, weapons and other material objects that he finds or has found necessary) that modify, limit or enhance in some manner, most of his discernible natural activities due to his physical animal inheritance and organization.Culturein a specific sense refers to the significant cultural features of the group orperiodunder consideration, the way of life. SeeFEATURE, CULTURAL.
CUMBERLAND: Asubcultureof the Middle (Mississippi)Phasethat flourished in southern Illinois, western Kentucky and Tennessee, archaeologically known as Gordon-Fewkes or Tennessee-Cumberland.
DAGGER: A long sharp-pointed blade offlint(or a copper pin) presumably hafted with a wooden handle, used as a hunting knife or in hand-to-hand fighting.
DARTHEADS: Medium-sized weapon heads (2½ to 4 inches long) presumably used to tip lances or javelins.
DICKSON MOUND: Aburial moundnear Lewistown in Fulton County where some three hundred skeletons together with their grave offerings have been exposed to view. It is now a State Park and open to visitors.
DIGGING STICK: A conveniently-shaped stick used by primitive peoples in collecting tubers and roots and small animals, digging storage pits, and for preparing the soil for planting. Antler was sometimes shaped and presumably employed in like manner.
DIGGING TOOL: Any implement employed by primitive peoples in digging—adigging stick, a shell hoe, or a chippedflinthoe.
DOMESTICATION: The breeding and rearing of plants and animals under man’s control and for his needs.
DRIFT(rarely drifter): A blunt tool of antler or bone presumably held in the hand and pressed against aflintto flake it, or one held against the flint piece and struck with a hammer for a like purpose.
DUGOUT: A boat made by hollowing out a log with fire and tools and shaping its exterior suitably for water travel.
ECONOMIC ASPECT: That division of primitivecultureconcerned primarily with securing and preparing food, shelter, clothing, and raw materials for tools, weapons and other material devices, and the technologies involved. This required considerable knowledge of natural resources, properties of materials, and lay of the land and permits freer direct creative intellectual effort than does any other aspect.
ECONOMY: The chief means of securing food and other basic physical requirements of man, as a hunting-collecting economy.
EFFIGY: Any artifact resembling in outline, in relief, or in the round some living organism or mythical being.
EFFIGY MOUND: Amoundof earth in low relief shaped in outline form to resemble an animal or some geometric or other conventionalized form. They are often found in groups together with conical and elongated or linear mounds in Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa and Illinois.
EFFIGY POT: A pottery vessel made in the form of an animal, human being, or a part of one, or having conventionalized bird or animal head and tail projecting from opposite sides of rim or mouth (generally of shallow bowls), occurring most commonly in the Middle (Mississippi)Phase.
EXTENDED: As applied to burials, a skeleton lying at full length usually on its side or back.
FAMILY, EXTENDED: A man, his wife or wives, their descendants in the male or female line as custom dictates, and their families who consider themselves as a distinct social unit usually with an acknowledged leader or headman. The extended family usually lives in a local settlement or a limited territory.
FAMILY, SIMPLE: A man, his wife or wives and their unmarried children.
FAMILY-TYPE SOCIAL CONTROL: The manner of maintaining peace, order, and obedience to elders and to custom in tribes and local groups in theSelf-DomesticationStagesecured by early and strict indoctrination of the young in thefamilyand through public opinion (social approval and disapproval) rather than by force and political agencies.
FEATHER CLOTH: Robes or blankets made by attaching overlapping feathers to the outer surface of a textile or netting to simulate a bird skin.
FEATURE, CULTURAL: Any type of cultural organization (or institution) within a tribe or independent cultural unit such as marriage, thefamilydivision of labor,social control, political governing agency,Sacred Tradition(“mythology”), etc.
FERTILITY RITES: The religious ceremonies performed in a primitive tribe for the purpose of insuring its welfare, the continuance of an abundant supply of food animals and other natural resources on which it depends, and possibly with expressions of gratitude for past benefits.
FESTIVALS: The term applied to the religious ceremonies of plant-raising peoples that relate to planting and the harvesting of crops.
FINAL PHASE: The decadentWoodlandculture, archaeologically known as late Woodland, is characteristic of much of Illinois in the interval between the fall of Hopewellian and the rise ofMississippi.
FLAKER(DRIFT): A flint-working tool either used alone with simple pressure or as a punch struck by astonehammer (indirect percussion).
FLAKINGorCHIPPING: The method of workingflintinto tools and weapons by direct hammer blows,indirect percussionor by pressure with aflaker.
FLEXED: As applied to burials, a skeleton (generally lying on its side) with knees drawn up to or near chest, arms close to side or with hand(s) near head.
FLINT: In this paper, anystonethat flakes with aconchoidal fracturethat was so used by Amerindians to make chipped tools and weapons.
FOLSOMPOINT: Aflintspearhead having the faces of the blade hollowed out by chipping (channeling or fluting) except for a narrow strip paralleling each edge including the tip (seeFigure 3,page 11).
FOOD-DRAFT ANIMALS: The large mammals (especially the ox) that were domesticated by man and besides providing him with a continuously available supply of meat, served as a beast of burden or to draw a wheeled vehicle, to drag the plough, and as a source of energy to turn the mill. Animals were not generally so used in North America.
FOOD-STORERS: Those peoples who by virtue of native ingenuity and some special natural resource in their region were enabled to store up sufficient food supplies to last them for several months.
FORMALIZED RELIGION: The forms of prayer, worship, devotion and ritual and the organization of priests, etc. by which plant-raising tribes carry on their assumed relationships with the world of the unknown agents of natural forces.
GORGET: (pronounced gor´-jet) A large flat artifact, possibly at times aninsigne, ofstone, shell, copper or bone worn on the chest.
GRAVE GOODS: Thejewelry,insignia, weapons or implements of a dead tribesman together with offerings that may have been placed in his grave by friends or relatives, including vessels containing food and water. Also called beigaben, funeral offerings, grave furniture, etc.
GRINDING: The process by which astone, bone, shell or metal artifact was shaped by rubbing with sand and water or against a piece of sandstone (abrader).
GRINDING STONE: A large flat or slightly hollowedstoneon which seeds, berries, or nuts were crushed or ground by a smaller hand stone (muller or pestle).
GUARDIAN SPIRIT: Among primitive peoples, a being from the invisible spirit world who appeared to a person in a dream and was believed to serve the dreamer thereafter as his personal protector.
HAMLET: The name used in this paper for local settlements ofArchaicand InitialWoodlandsites. They probably had populations of less than one hundred persons.
HAMMERSTONE: Astonehammer. Any native or modified cobblestone used as a hammer.
HATCHET: A groundstoneor coppercelthead.Tomahawkor hafted hatchet.
HOUSEHOLD: A man, his wife, and children, married and unmarried together with slaves and others, if any, who customarily in theirculturelive under one shelter or roof.
INDIRECT PERCUSSION: The use of a punch with a hammer, especially in the chipping ofstone.
INITIAL PHASE: The earliest pottery-making cultures ofWoodlandin northern Illinois, archaeologically known as early Woodland.
INITIATION RITES: Puberty rites. As used in this paper, the ceremonies by which a boy on “becoming of age” is admitted to adult membership in the tribe. Somewhat simpler rites are performed for girls also in some tribes.
INSIGNE: (Pluralinsignia) Any artifact worn byprimitive peopleas a symbol of rank or class, birth (in a particularfamily), office, priesthood, or of individual prowess.
INSTITUTIONS: SeeSocial Structure.
JEWELRY: Any object other thaninsignia, paint, or clothing worn by primitive man as personal adornment.
KINCAID COMMUNITY: The site of aMiddle Phasevillage, mounds, fortifications and other cultural remains in Pope and Massac counties, Illinois, on the Ohio River a few miles above Paducah, Kentucky.
LAKE BAIKAL: A large inland lake in the south of Siberia. Pottery from the surrounding region resembles generalizedWoodlandware, especially that of theInitial Phase.
LINEAGE: The social group (including dead persons) whose members are descended from some certain or mythical ancestor, either male or female as the custom prevails, and which considers itself a distinct social unit. (See alsoExtended Family.)
LITHIC: A term employed in this paper as embracing cultures roughly equivalent to those of the Self-DomesticationStage, but without pottery.
MANA: Superhuman power that primitive man believed to reside in certain inanimate objects, in certain persons at times and in spirits, that under suitable conditions could be transferred either wholly or in part to other objects or persons. Improperly handled it was a source of grave danger.
MIDDLE PHASE: The archaeological term for the highest development of theMississippipatternin the United States. In Illinois it is represented by the Cahokia andCumberlandsubcultures.
MISSISSIPPI: The major archaeologicalpatternthat succeeded the earlierWoodlandin most of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains and High Plains and that was still in existence in some parts of this country as late as 1700 A.D. It is characterized by relatively intensiveplant-raising, political government, walled villages, temples (or sacred groves) and a priesthood, semi- to permanent dwellings, pottery of varied shapes, with globular bodies and secondary features, the bow and arrow.
MODOC ROCK SHELTER: An ancient settlement ofArchaicpeoples in Randolph County, Illinois, dating from 8000 to 2100 B.C. See Bibliography under Deuel, and Fowler and Winters.
MOUND: Any rise or hill of earth and/orstonethat resulted from some activity of man, such as refuse mound, shell mound, burial mound, temple mound, etc. SeeBURIAL,EFFIGY,TEMPLE.
MOUND BUILDERS: A term having little significance, meaning any group that erected mounds. In Americanarchaeologyit sometimes refers specifically to Hopewellians, to Mississippians or to both.
MYTHOLOGY: SeeSACRED TRADITION.
OBSIDIAN: Volcanic glass, a material imported by Hopewellians possibly from Wyoming. Rare in Illinois.
PALEO-INDIAN(SeeClovisandFolsom): Hunters of big game who roamed over North America in glacial times.
PATTERN: The largest archaeological unit in the McKern Classification System.
PECKING: The process (other than chipping) by which astoneartifact was brought to general shape by breaking off small particles with a stone hammer.
PEOPLE: The term “people” as used in this paper does not refer to a physical type but simply to cultural groups unless specifically stated to the contrary.
PERIOD: Unless otherwise specifically stated, the word applies to a cultural level regardless of time and place.
PHASE: The major division of thepatternas used in the McKern Classification System.
PLANT-RAISING: Theeconomyor culturalstatusof a cultural group who grew food (and fibre) plants but were without domesticated food-draft animals.
POLITICAL ORGANIZATION: A formalized social means of controlling the members of a nation or tribe and compelling compliance with established customs or laws with defined customary or lawful penalties for violations together with the machinery for determining equity, rights, or damages in non-criminal disputes through governmental agencies such as officers (chiefs) and official bodies (councils) regularly selected for these purposes.
POLISHING: A process by which the surface of a groundstoneartifact was brought to a high degree of smoothness and gloss by rubbing with fine earth and water. It is readily distinguishable from polish due to wear in digging.
PRIEST: Any person selected in a regular and customary manner for religious office who by virtue of installation into that office and acceptance of the duties is (believed to be) invested with the power to communicate and intercede with members of the spirit world, a god or gods or in certain instances to act for them on behalf of his group.
PRIMITIVE PEOPLE: Refers to anypeoplein theSelf-DomesticationStageand to the simple plant-growers of the FarmingPeriod.
PROTOCULTURAL: Astagepresumed to have existed prior to man’s discovery of the principle of conchoidal fracturing offlint, when he used native sticks and stones as tools, and sometimes by haphazard breaking of these secured new forms more suitable for his purposes.
PROTOMISS: An abbreviated form for Protomississippi, the earliest knownsubcultureof the Middle (Mississippi)Phasein southwestern Illinois. Dillinger is the type site.
RELIGION: The set of beliefs (Sacred Tradition), rules (tabus), and activities (including rituals) that govern the life of a society with regard to those superhuman forces with which the individual feels himself surrounded and which neither he nor his group by themselves can control. Religious practice includes prayers or requests for the continuance of well-being and life’s necessities, thanksgiving for past blessings, and a belief in the necessity of right conduct of the individuals in their daily living. In all known primitive religions, a belief in some form exists of spirit beings and/or gods with superhuman powers. SeeFORMALIZED RELIGION.
ROCK SHELTER: An overhanging rock ledge facing away from the prevailing wind that afforded protection to a primitivefamilyfrom the elements and wild animals.
ROUGH STONE: This term refers tostoneused as it occurs in nature with virtually no artificial modification other than that resulting from use such as a commonhammerstone, an unworked abrader, or agrinding stone. The stone may have a relatively smooth surface due to natural causes.
SACRED TRADITION: The term used here to signify the embodiment of the significant (effective) beliefs and rules that governed the behavior and activities of a primitive tribe in matters relating to the unseen world of spirits (or gods) and unknown forces, which were handed down from generation to generation. It is usually included in the inept term “mythology” which may also contain tales and legends that serve for mere entertainment.
SELF-DOMESTICATIONSTAGE: The earliest stage of true humanculturewhich began presumably with the discovery of controlledflintchipping and the invention of flint tool types. During this stage, man is enabled to secure a fairly constant food supply by hunting and collecting, keeps his young under parental care and control for several years and learns to accommodate himself more or less peaceably to hisfamilyand to fellow tribesmen during brief periods of religious and social gatherings.
SHAMAN: A person who by virtue of dreams or visions believes he can communicate with spirits, obtain from them superhuman powers for the benefit of his social group and tribe and who has demonstrated these abilities over a greater or longer time to the satisfaction of his fellows.
SHELLS, MARINE: Shells from the ocean or Gulf of Mexico, raw materials secured by traders or through exchange for other goods. The most common marine shells found in Illinois cultures are theCassis madagascarensis(Hopewellian), the Busycon or Fulgar (MiddleMississippiand Hopewellian),Marginella(InitialWoodland, Hopewellian and Middle Mississippi),Oliva(Middle Mississippi), andOlivella(Hopewellian).
SOCIAL ASPECT: That division of primitiveculturethat is concerned preeminently with preserving and stabilizing fundamental customs, with the maintenance of peace and order within its primary social units, and to this end, in the organization, functioning and continuation of such units.
SOCIAL CONTROL: Any general social means by which a social or political group preserves peace and order within itself and group protection against outsiders (seeFamily-typeandPolitical Agency).
SOCIAL STRUCTURE: The persisting system of significant relationships in a society that prevails without regard to the particular individuals involved.
SPEARHEADS: Projectile points 3 to 6 or 6½ inches long presumed to have been used to tip spears.
SPEARTHROWER(ATLATL): A short stick by which increased leverage is obtained in hurling a spear. It gives greater range and an accuracy comparable to the bow at shorter distances.
SPEARTHROWER WEIGHT: A weight secured to thespearthrowerfor controlling it and increasing the speed of the spear.
SPEAR, THRUSTING: A long spear that is fitted with a long, narrow head generally without barbs or shoulders, that can be easily withdrawn from a wound. It is primarily for use in the hand, not for throwing.
SPECIALIZATION(CRAFT): An occupation in which a man orhouseholdof a primitive community engages primarily to the considerable exclusion of the general economic pursuits or the remainder of his group. It should not be confused with the production of a highly skilled craftsman.
SPECIALIZATION (OF TOOLS): Applies to numerous variations in the forms derived from a general artifact type presumably to accomplish better and more easily certain special requirements of construction or manufacture.
STAGE(CULTURAL): One of the major periods into which cultures may be divided by virtue of its degree of development which depends primarily on the fundamental invention that ushered it in.
SPIRITUAL ASPECT: That division of primitivecultureconcerned primarily with tribal values,religion, recreation and the arts.
STATUS(CULTURAL): A subdivision of astage. Asubstage.
STONE: Unless otherwise noted any kind of stone generally used by primitive peoples forpecking,grindingandpolishinginto weapons, tools, etc., for example, granite, greenstone, gneiss, shale, limestone, basalt.
STONE VAULT GRAVE: A type ofburial moundconsisting chiefly of flat stones enclosing a walled-up tomb chamber, the whole covered with earth. In Illinois known at present only from Adams County.
STONE VAULT SUBCULTURE: A division of FinalWoodlandPhasethat is characterized bystonevault graves.
SUBCULTURE: Any archaeological grouping smaller than aphase.
SUBSTAGEorSTATUS: A subdivision of aStagethat develops as the result of a significant invention, discovery of a special resource, or some other condition of the surroundings.
TECHNOLOGY: The processes by which any artifact is produced.
TEEPEE: A conical framework of poles covered with bark, skins, brush, mats, etc. used as a shelter or hut by primitive peoples.
TEMPERING: Foreign material such as sand, crushed limestone, plant fibers, crushed shell, etc. mixed with the clay in pottery-making to render the vessel less likely to crack in firing.
TEMPLE MOUND: A rectangular pyramid with a flat top on which a temple was built. Similar mounds were used for council andchief’s houses among historicMississippipeoples. Flat-topped pyramidal mounds are characteristic of the important Middle Mississippi sites in Illinois.
THERMAL MAXIMUM: A time interval (roughly between 5000 and 2000 B.C.) in which the climate was warmer and drier than at present.
TOMAHAWK: A haftedhatchetofstoneor metal used in fighting.
TOTEM: An animal, plant or inanimate object that is regarded as the symbol of a social or political group.
TUMPLINE: A sling or pack strap that rests on the forehead, passes over the shoulders, and is used for carrying a load on the back.
TURKEY-TAIL: A large spearhead, broadly oval in the middle and double-pointed with notches near one end.
TYPE STATION(S): The site (or sites) that at present seem, to the author, to give the fullest view of life in asubculture, including as far as possible a village (or camp) and burial site.
WAR(ARCHAIC): The blood feud. In the Archaicperiod, this was the method of interfamily or intergroup retaliation for murder or other serious injury to onefamilyor local group by a member of another. It was carried on by alternate sneak raids between the local settlements involved, with the object of killing one or more members of the group attacked, (destroying property), and escaping without loss.
WAR (PLANT-RAISERS): Hostilities between plant-raising tribes were pursued by sneak raids having for their objectives the surprise and attack of villages, the ambush of enemy parties, and the capture of prisoners. (Murder, black magic, and other crimes committed within the tribe were generally dealt with by socio-judicial custom).
WATTLE AND DAUB: A framework of posts, interlaced with branches and twigs and plastered over with clay for house and fortification walls common inMiddle Phaseand probably in other periods.
WIGWAM: As used here, a roughly hemispherical hut having a framework of poles set in the ground with their tops arched over and secured together, the whole covered over with leafy branches, skins, bark, mats or thatch.
WINDBREAK: A vertical or inclined framework of poles covered with branches and leaves, skins, bark, etc. erected by primitive peoples as a shelter against wind, sun, and storm.
WOODLAND: One of the major archaeological patterns of the eastern, southern and central United States, characterized by plant-raising (except possibly in itsInitial Phase), by elongated globular clay pots (with cord-roughened exteriors, pointed bottoms, and incised line and punctate decoration), hamlets or small villages (except in theClassicPhase), withflintspearheads(but noarrowheadsexcept inFinal Phase).
WRAP-AROUND-SKIRT: A rectangular piece of clothing made of skin, fur, or cloth worn by Hopewellian and MiddleMississippiwomen. It was wrapped around the body from the waist to the knees or below and was secured at the top by a belt or other means.
YUMA POINTS: Chippedspearheadsof various general shapes including leaf-shaped forms, without channeling.