A MATTER OF IMPORTANCE, NOT OF MERE CONVENIENCE—LOW VALLEYS LEAST DESIRABLE—BASINS, EVEN IF ELEVATED, SUBJECT TO FROSTS—LOCAL DIFFERENCES OF TEMPERATURE, OFTEN FATAL TO TENDER VEGETATION—THE FROST LINE NOT DEPENDENT UPON MERE ELEVATION, BUT UPON RELATIVE ALTITUDE—MODERATE BLUFFS BESIDE VALLEYS, OR RIDGES IN A PRAIRIE, ARE BETTER THAN HIGH VALLEYS AMONG MOUNTAINS—DRIFT FORMATIONS, PRESENT INEQUALITIES OF SURFACE—FAVORABLE INFLUENCE OF THE WATER OF RIVERS AND LAKES UPON THE CLIMATE—INSULAR POSITIONS AND LACUSTRINE SITUATIONS HAVE A PECULIAR CLIMATE—FOGS—LATENT HEAT BECOMING SENSIBLE—METEOROLOGY WILL FURNISH AID TO THE ORCHARDIST—COLD STORMSAspect—PROTECTION FROM WINDS, ESPECIALLY A PRAIRIE QUESTION—EFFECTS OF AGITATION IN THE ATMOSPHERE—BELTS AND SCREENS OF TIMBER DESIRABLE—WINTER KILLING OFTEN DEPENDENT UPON THE CONDITIONS OF THE TREE—VARIETIES MOST SUBJECT TO THIS—LISTS—SOILS, PERMEABLE AND TENACIOUS—ADAPTATION OF SORTS TO SOILS—GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS TO BE OBSERVED IN MAKING SELECTIONS.
A MATTER OF IMPORTANCE, NOT OF MERE CONVENIENCE—LOW VALLEYS LEAST DESIRABLE—BASINS, EVEN IF ELEVATED, SUBJECT TO FROSTS—LOCAL DIFFERENCES OF TEMPERATURE, OFTEN FATAL TO TENDER VEGETATION—THE FROST LINE NOT DEPENDENT UPON MERE ELEVATION, BUT UPON RELATIVE ALTITUDE—MODERATE BLUFFS BESIDE VALLEYS, OR RIDGES IN A PRAIRIE, ARE BETTER THAN HIGH VALLEYS AMONG MOUNTAINS—DRIFT FORMATIONS, PRESENT INEQUALITIES OF SURFACE—FAVORABLE INFLUENCE OF THE WATER OF RIVERS AND LAKES UPON THE CLIMATE—INSULAR POSITIONS AND LACUSTRINE SITUATIONS HAVE A PECULIAR CLIMATE—FOGS—LATENT HEAT BECOMING SENSIBLE—METEOROLOGY WILL FURNISH AID TO THE ORCHARDIST—COLD STORMSAspect—PROTECTION FROM WINDS, ESPECIALLY A PRAIRIE QUESTION—EFFECTS OF AGITATION IN THE ATMOSPHERE—BELTS AND SCREENS OF TIMBER DESIRABLE—WINTER KILLING OFTEN DEPENDENT UPON THE CONDITIONS OF THE TREE—VARIETIES MOST SUBJECT TO THIS—LISTS—SOILS, PERMEABLE AND TENACIOUS—ADAPTATION OF SORTS TO SOILS—GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS TO BE OBSERVED IN MAKING SELECTIONS.
Site.—The selection of a suitable site for an orchard is a matter of no small moment to him who would be a successful grower of fine fruits. Without, at this time, pausing to inquire into the characters of the soil, let us examine more particularly theaspectof the field to beappropriated to this important crop; for the orchard is a permanent investment, and so much depends upon the site, that we should make some sacrifice of our convenience, rather than commit any error in this particular. In the first place, then, let it be understood that the orchard should be well exposed to the sun and air. The least desirable positions for orchard planting are narrow valleys, particularly limestone valleys in a mountainous country, traversed by a small brook, or where the surface isspoutyfrom springs or subjacent water. Even if such depressions are considerably elevated, but surrounded by higher and abrupt elevations, they will be found obnoxious to late and early frosts in spring and fall, especially the former, which are often disastrous in such situations, after the fruit-buds have expanded in these sheltered nooks. Every one at all conversant with meteorological observations made in a broken country, is aware of the different range of temperature that will be indicated by instruments suspended at different elevations.[19]When the cooling influence of radiation has lowered the temperature of the surface of the earth and of objects near it, the stratum of air in immediate contact will be chilled, and growing heavier, will flow down into the most depressed situations, and, accumulating there, will cause a difference of several degrees of temperature. This, when near the freezing point, will be of the greatest consequence to tender vegetation, which may be preserved in perfect safety at forty degrees, but will be destroyed at thirty degrees, or even at a higher point, in some cases.
Thefrost linebecomes a very important subject of inquiry in the selection of an orchard site, and in some countries we find that its position may be definitely settled within a limited range of elevation; not that a certain level can be indicated, above which there will always be an immunity from frost, while all below will suffer, but we may approximate, in certain situations, so nearly as to indicate that certain sites are safe or unsafe.
Nor is it the absolute elevation alone that is to be taken into the account; in any given locality, we may assume that the higher the orchard is situated above the water levels, the safer it will be, and that the lowest depressions are the most unsafe or frosty. It is not always the mere elevation, but rather the relative elevation of the site, that renders it more desirable than another in the same region. There are many orchards that are situated upon a moderate bluff, with a rapid descent of only a few feet or yards, into a swale or valley of moderate extent; these we find to be uninjured, when another at a greater elevation, but in a depressed basin surrounded by higher lands, will be found to have suffered from the influence of frost. In the one case, the cold air could flow off rapidly into the adjoining depression, while in the other, the cold air from adjoining slopes would collect, and accumulate in the situations described.
In the great plateaus of the world, we often find immense tracts of land so nearly of the same level as scarcely to afford sufficient drainage for the surplus water; of course, we should expect to find, in such places, little variation of temperature arising from difference in elevation. But even in such situations, whether we examine thetable-lands of our timbered regions, or the extended areas of the prairie country, we shall find that the drift formation which covers these vast tracts, has not been distributed evenly, but that there are successive rolls or swells frequently recurring, which give, in some instances, considerable variations of level. A bold ridge, of fifty feet or more in hight, rises abruptly from the level prairie, stretching along for miles, and affording admirable exposures for orchard sites. Such places are observed to be free from late and early frosts. In other places, there is an abrupt depression of the surface, answering the same purpose—drawing off the cold air. These may be very moderate in their extent, as the prairie sloughs, or they may be small vales, the courses of the minor streams, or of larger extent, the valleys of rivers, or the depressions of lakes. In these latter cases, the modifying influences of considerable bodies of water enter into the frost problem as an element of no mean value.
It may be asked: How do these masses of water affect the frost? Science answers: By their evaporated moisture influencing the atmosphere. This may save us from the blighting influence of frost, by enveloping the frozen vegetation in a wet blanket of fog; enabling it to be thawed in the dark, as it were, by which we avoid the influence of a bright sunshine, that would have destroyed the tissues had they been suddenly exposed to it when frozen. An equally important result is derived from the direct influence of the humidity of the atmosphere, which modifies the temperature remarkably, as in the immediate vicinity of large bodies of water. Insular situations especially, even when low, are known to have a more genial climate inconsequence of this condition of the atmosphere, which depends upon the large amount of caloric that is present in the latent form, in the vapor, and which becomes sensible heat as fast as the moisture is condensed; as well as by the sensible caloric, the absolute warmth of the water, affecting the temperature of the atmosphere.
We thus see that very opposite situations, in regard to mere elevation, may both be recommended for orchards; but the latter are the exceptions rather than the rule, for we can not always count upon the saving influence of a fog, nor are the modifying effects of a moderate sheet of water always to be depended upon at the time when most needed. Still, we may find a few favored spots, where an insular position, in a lacustrine situation, receives a double influence—acting at both extremities of the season of vegetation, in quite an opposite way, but in both acting favorably. In such places we shall discover that the spring opens late, being retarded by the cold atmosphere flowing over the chilled waters, that may be even icy, when inland places in the same latitude are rejoicing in a mild and genial temperature, tempting the expansion of the flower-buds. Vegetation on an island thus situated is retarded until all danger of frost has passed, and the air has received the full benefit of warmth from the water. Then, again, in the autumn, when we are in danger from the access of an early frost, such as sometimes, north of latitude forty degrees, destroys the whole crop of corn, almost universally, over hundreds of miles, these favored spots have really a warmer atmosphere, from the influence of a great extent of water, that has enjoyed a summer's sunshine, and which warms the air by giving off its heatvery steadily, but slowly; and besides, as the surface of the land cools by radiation and condenses the watery vapor, it receives accessions of temperature that had been locked up, or was insensible in the vapor. Hence we find that in these places, though the opening of spring was retarded a month, the approach of winter and autumnal frosts is warded off for two months, making the season really one month longer than in the same latitude inland.
It must be confessed, however, that the subject of meteorology is not fully understood. We have but a glimmering of the light that we hope is to be shed upon the subject when the deductions from millions of observations, long continued and systematically conducted, shall have been wrought out for the benefit of the orchardist and the general agriculturist.
We also have storms accompanied by a low temperature, passing across the country, in which, at times, the greatest intensity of cold is at the southern border. Such a one passed from the west to the east in January, 1852, in which the mercury, near Marietta, O., sank to thirty degrees below zero; at Zanesville, O., on the same river, it was twenty-seven degrees; at Lancaster, O., thirty-two degrees; while at Cleveland, O., it was only fifteen degrees below, and at Aurora, on Cayuga Lake, N.Y., influenced by the unfrozen water, its greatest depression was only four degrees below zero.[20]
Aspect.—When considering the orchard site, the bestaspectof the ground becomes a matter of interesting inquiry. To all vegetation, the morning sun is a welcome visitant after the night's repose; for plants, as well asanimals, rest from their functions at night, and all nature rejoices in the return of day; hence an eastern or a southeastern exposure is generally preferred, but we find that practically there is little difference in the different parts of an orchard that can be fairly referred to this cause. Some planters prefer a southern slope, thinking that the fullest exposure to the sun is essential; others select a northern aspect, in the hope that they may there avoid a too early excitation of vegetable life, and also that the heats of summer may be thus moderated. In my own opinion, the aspect is a matter of little consequence to the success of an orchard, though my predilections are in favor of an easterly exposure. The danger of a southern aspect in summer, and the advantages of the northern slope, may, in a great degree, be obtained or obviated by judicious planting and pruning, as will be set forth in another place.
A theory has been started by those who are opposed to a northerly slope, that vegetation continues later in the season in such situations, especially with young trees, and that hence they are not in so good a condition to resist the access of very severe weather at the sudden setting in of winter. The hypothesis is not sustained by long-continued observation, although many facts noted in the autumn and winter of 1859 induced persons to embrace the theory; these were particularly the killing of the peach-buds, upon northern slopes, by the December frosts. There is no evidence that there was any want of perfect ripening of the wood in these situations; on the contrary, it is well known that, long before December, the growth of these very trees had been checked, the wood had been well ripened, and the foliage had been cast to the ground.
The warmer exposure of a southern slope may, and often does, favor the premature swelling of the buds and starting of the sap during mild, pleasant, and bright weather in the winter, and vegetation is often seriously injured from this cause.
In many parts of the country, it is much more important to consider the exposure to the prevailing winds of the region, and to select the site and aspect that shall enjoy the benefit of protection. This, I am aware, is a proposition that has had opponents; as well as advocates, in the broad savannas of the West, where, especially, it becomes a question of the greatest importance. There are benefits as well as evils attendant upon the motions of the atmosphere. The swaying of the limbs, when agitated by the breeze, gives them tone and strength, and may assist in the circulation of the sap within their cells; and the constant agitation of the atmosphere, commingling the warmer with the colder portions, will often modify the temperature to such an extent as to give an immunity from the frost in the open prairie, at the same moment that the more tranquil air, within a limited clearing of forest lands, has been cooled down, by radiation, to the frost point. On every account, therefore, the moderate and reasonable exposure to the influences of a mobile atmosphere is rather to be courted than shunned.
The views that have been advanced by the advocates of protection for orchards on the prairies, have been somewhat modified since they were first promulgated. We are now told, by those who have opposed "protection," that narrow timber-belts of evergreens and deciduous trees, should be planted on the windward sides of orchards, tomoderate, not to cut off, the aerial currents; in this all will agree, and those who have any sympathy for a tree will surely prefer to have the blasts, that sweep over miles of open country, somewhat checked and tempered before reaching either themselves or their orchards. The testimony as to the effects of cold in sheltered and in exposed situations, it must be confessed, appears somewhat contradictory; but this is because we have not all the elements of a complex problem.
Winter-killing.—A most serious evil, both to the nurseryman and orchardist, is the severe injury sometimes done to the trees by frost. This is commonly known by the term "winter-killing," which has, at times, destroyed millions of trees, and thus blighted the hopes of long-continued labor and large investments of capital. Some orchardists have been disheartened, and have given up in despair. The investigation of the causes of this disaster, and the conditions under which it occurs, will be of great value to future planters; and though, perhaps, we have not yet at command sufficient data for the full explanation of the phenomenon, it may be well to look into the attendant circumstances that have been observed; and as some of the most important considerations depend upon the soil and exposure, they may be well introduced in this place.
I have already alluded to the theory, that the north hillsides maintain a later growth than other situations, and have stated that the facts do not sustain the position. The warm exposures on southern slopes and sheltered nooks, are apt to favor the premature starting of the sap in the mild weather that often occurs during the winter, in our changeable climate. On the prairies, and on flatlands elsewhere, an excess of humidity in the soil will contribute to this disaster; and in such situations we may often observe the most terrible destruction following a great and sudden change of temperature. Exposure to long-continued cold, with severe winds, seems to dry up the juices of the plants, in some instances, and thus effect their destruction. This, in the far North, is believed to be a frequent cause of the evil. The condition of the tree upon the access of severe cold is too important a subject to be lost sight of, and has already been alluded to.
Of any given variety, the more perfectly dormant the plant, and the more complete its condition of hybernation, the greater will be its immunity from this evil. The atmospheric changes and conditions we can not control, and we can modify them only in a very limited degree, by hedges, by timber-belts, and by evergreen screens, the value of which begins to be appreciated. The state of the soil, as to its moisture, is under our control, and by thorough and surface-drainage, we may obviate one very important condition that conduces largely to the injury under consideration—the excess of moisture in and upon the soil.
The more perfect ripening of the wood, is likewise a matter of great moment, and this is also subject to our control, particularly in young trees in the nursery and orchard.
Certain varieties are much more subject to injury from cold than others. Among these are some of the most thrifty and free growing sorts. There appears to be an inherent quality of hardiness in others, that enables them to resist the most trying alternations of temperature.Why some should be thus hardy, and others tender, we do not know, but it is not their Northern or Southern origin; some having the former are most tender. Sad experience has taught us the fact, and since the dreadful winters of the past decade, in some parts of the West, the first question asked, respecting a new variety of fruit, is that regarding its hardiness. Pomological societies have endeavored to collate the names of the hardy and tender kinds, and have thus, by their united experience, been enabled to present lists of a few of the known hardy apples, for the guidance of planters.
Soils.—It will be proper, in this place, to say something about the soils best adapted to orcharding. The apple is a gross feeder, but a good-natured one, and, like a good citizen and a cosmopolite, it submits to surrounding circumstances. In our own country, it flourishes alike on the granite hills of New England, or the mountain ranges stretching thence to the southwest, in the limestone valleys amid these ridges, on the sandstones and shales that form the southeastern rim of the great valley of the West, upon the vast drift formations that overlie the rocks from the tide-waters of the St. Lawrence to the sources of the Missouri, upon the rich diluvial and alluvial deposits of our river bottoms, and our vast prairies. I have said that the apple flourishesalikeupon these various soils and under these so different circumstances; perhaps this expression should be somewhat modified; there are varieties that appear peculiarly adapted by their nature for all of these different situations; there are, perhaps, none that will thrive equally well in all.
The orchardists of each section of the country mustascertain for themselves what varieties are best adapted to the peculiarities of their soil and climate; hence, no one region can furnish lists of varieties to be taken as a guide for the planting of others differently situated. Hence, too, the importance of local organizations for pomological study, and the great value of the labors of those who are engaged in the prosecution of these investigations in the American Pomological Society, which will, it is fondly hoped, ultimately give us corrected lists of fruits that are adapted to all the varying circumstances of soil and climate, in each of the great geological regions of our country. This has already been proposed by the excellent general chairman of Fruit Committees, as an important work for the National Society; and so soon as the subject receives a fair consideration, its merits will be appreciated, and a union of the best minds, and the best experience of the pomologists of each district, will be concentrated upon this labor.
Let me not be misapprehended in the statement, just made, with regard to the wide distribution of which the apple appears to be capable. There are soils and situations, in all of the widely-separated regions alluded to, that are wholly unfitted to orchard culture, upon which it were folly to plant an apple-tree; and yet, many of those may be rendered entirely suitable, if subjected to treatment, suggested by science, and executed by human ingenuity and industry; the missing element may be supplied, the compactness of the soil may be overcome by mechanical comminution, and by that effected by aeration; the excessive moisture may be removed by surface and thorough drainage; other disqualifications, such as those ofsituation and climate, may not be so readily overcome; they have already been alluded to; and even in them we may hope for improvement with the advance of science.
Different soils may be designated as porous and compact. Leaving out of view for the present, their chemical composition, let us look to their mechanical structure. Porous soils are composed of materials that always allow of the escape of superabundant moisture; they are generally underlaid by beds of diluvial gravels, or by rocks of a porous character. Such lands are peculiarly adapted to orchard planting. The compact soil, on the contrary, is made up of the finest materials, among which alumina largely predominates. Such are called clayey soils or clays, and are among the most valuable upon the surface of the earth, not because alumina is a component of vegetation, but because the elements associated with it, are all of them in a state of extreme comminution.
Clays are compact soils, not only by reason of the fineness of their particles, but because the predominating alumina swells and becomes pasty when it is wet, and thus prevents the passage of water through them. On this account, soils that are too compact, especially if they be underlaid by stiff clay subsoils, are not so well adapted to orcharding as those that are more porous. This is especially true of level lands, upon which water accumulates, to the great injury of the fruit-trees planted upon them; but even in hilly situations, with good natural surface drainage, the excess of clay is indicated by a "spouty" condition of the surface. So many varieties succeed in clayey lands, however, and some are so superior in their products when planted upon clays, that we need not be discouragedby this apparent difficulty; it may be overcome by the ingenuity of the skillful farmer. Thorough or under-drainage will remedy all the evils of clay soils, and bring out their superior advantages. This will be more fully explained in another place. Much may be done toward removing the redundant moisture, even in the flat clay lands of the prairies and other extended plateaus, by the simple means of ridging up the lands with the plow. What is familiarly called "back-furrowing" enables the plowman to raise a ridge upon which to plant his trees, and at the same time he opens a furrow for the escape of surface water. While a portion of the redundant moisture is thus removed, another great object of drainage is not attained: I allude to the aeration of the soil.
From what has been said upon a previous page, it might be inferred, that as the apple may be cultivated upon soils of such great diversity as those that occur over the range of territory indicated, as well as upon the western coast of this continent, and in the temperate regions of the Old World, the peculiar soils that are characterized by their underlying rocks would be equally acceptable, whether these were granites, shales, sandstones, or limestones. Such is not the fact, however, and we have found, in this utilitarian age, that geology has much to do with the planting of an orchard. There are varieties that succeed better upon one rock than upon another, and there are those that fail to be remunerative when transplanted to a rock, which to them is obnoxious, though it may be a very paradise to other varieties.
These observations are becoming a matter of greatimportance to orchardists, and we may hope that the study of this subject will be developed into some certain data, and that the future discussions of our pomological societies will furnish reliable information to orchard planters.
[19]See Lawrence Young's Experiments, inWestern Horticultural Review, Vol. I. page 190, in Report of Kentucky State Fruit Committee to American Pomological Congress, for 1850.
[19]See Lawrence Young's Experiments, inWestern Horticultural Review, Vol. I. page 190, in Report of Kentucky State Fruit Committee to American Pomological Congress, for 1850.
[20]Western Horticultural Review; also, Statistics of Storm, Jan. 1, 1864.
[20]Western Horticultural Review; also, Statistics of Storm, Jan. 1, 1864.
DRAINAGE—ITS ADVANTAGES—SURFACE DRAINS—MADE WITH THE PLOW—MAY BE FOLLOWED BY TILES, OR MOLE PLOW—THOROUGH PLOWING—TRENCHING—TRENCH PLOWING—SUBSOIL PLOWING—MANURING NOT OFTEN NEEDED IN A NEW COUNTRY—CHARACTER OF MANURES—LIME, ALKALIES—CLOVER—HOW CLOVER ACTS—EXHAUSTED FIELDS TO BE IMPROVED BEFORE PLANTING—DIGGING THE HOLES—DONE WITH THE PLOW—STAKES—THEIR FUNCTION AND OBJECTS—NOT TO TIE TO—HOW TO TIE A TREE WHEN NECESSARY—PLANTING—PREPARING THE TREES—TRIMMING, BRANCHES AND ROOTS—PUDDLING—SET TO THE NORTH OF THE STAKES—DEPTH TO PLANT—LEANING TREES TO THE SOUTHWEST—SEASON FOR PLANTING—FALL OR SPRING BANKING UP AFTER FALL PLANTING—MULCHING, ITS OBJECTS—MATERIAL TO BE USED—CLOVER MULCH.
DRAINAGE—ITS ADVANTAGES—SURFACE DRAINS—MADE WITH THE PLOW—MAY BE FOLLOWED BY TILES, OR MOLE PLOW—THOROUGH PLOWING—TRENCHING—TRENCH PLOWING—SUBSOIL PLOWING—MANURING NOT OFTEN NEEDED IN A NEW COUNTRY—CHARACTER OF MANURES—LIME, ALKALIES—CLOVER—HOW CLOVER ACTS—EXHAUSTED FIELDS TO BE IMPROVED BEFORE PLANTING—DIGGING THE HOLES—DONE WITH THE PLOW—STAKES—THEIR FUNCTION AND OBJECTS—NOT TO TIE TO—HOW TO TIE A TREE WHEN NECESSARY—PLANTING—PREPARING THE TREES—TRIMMING, BRANCHES AND ROOTS—PUDDLING—SET TO THE NORTH OF THE STAKES—DEPTH TO PLANT—LEANING TREES TO THE SOUTHWEST—SEASON FOR PLANTING—FALL OR SPRING BANKING UP AFTER FALL PLANTING—MULCHING, ITS OBJECTS—MATERIAL TO BE USED—CLOVER MULCH.
The more thoroughly the preparation of the soil, the greater will be the success of the orchardist. Good results, fair crops amply remunerating all outlay, often follow the most careless or almost accidental orchard planting; but trees that are properly set, in well-prepared land,upon a judiciously selected orchard site, and for a few years subjected to proper culture, are infinitely more satisfactory in their results, and much more profitable to their owner.
The importance of drainage can not be too often reiterated, not merely for the sake of leading away the excess of water that at some seasons prevails in much of our best lands, but on account of the more thorough admission of the beneficial air to the soil and the roots; this, of course, can only be had by thorough under-draining of the land. Spouty or springy land is not to be selected for an orchard, and yet we often find spots of this character in fields that we wish to appropriate to orcharding; these should certainly be drained.
Mere surface drainage may be cheaply effected by the plow, and should always be done in level lands, especially where the subsoil is compact and tenacious. The expense of thorough drainage is so great, and the success of our orchards, as commonly planted, even on ill-prepared ground, is so generally good, that we can not expect the majority of farmers to use drain tile at present. Still, the importance of draining can not be doubted: the best results follow its use, and he who would reap the best harvests, and attain the highest success, will underdrain his land. For the most of us, surface drainage alone, is all that we can do; this should never be neglected, for no crop can be successful in land that is subject to an occasional drenching with a surplus of water that stands for days, filling it to the surface, causing the fermentation and souring of the organic matter it contains. The fruit tree, certainly, will not thrive in such a situation, and is as sureto fall into a decline, or consumption, if condemned to wet feet, as would a delicate girl under similar exposure.
The expense of under-draining is the only objection that can possibly be urged against it; even this is no real objection, for it has been repeatedly proved that the outlay, whatever it be, insures such increase of crops as to pay a good interest upon the investment, except where the natural under-drainage of the soil, by a porous stratum of rock or gravel, already provides a ready discharge of the superabundant water. It is thus only a question of the cash capital to be invested in the business, for most of our orchard sites are of such a character of soil as to be immensely benefited by the process. With many of us, in this country, the capital is not to be had, or can not be spared, to put underground; our means are limited, and we do not drain our farms, as we should.
Surface drainage may be more cheaply effected, and, on land at all flat and retentive of moisture, it should never be neglected. It may be done while preparing the soil for planting—done with the plow. It has already been premised that the orchard site should be elevated; such land is generally somewhat undulating; indeed, the flattest field that should ever be planted, will always present some inequalities of surface. Let these be noted before laying off the lands for the plow; calculate to have the furrows cross these inequalities of surface, and gather the furrows in narrow lands, lapping them together just where the row of trees is to be placed. This process may be repeated, and thus quite a ridge will be thrown up for the trees, and a corresponding depression will be left in the middle of the space between the rows, which will serveas a gutter to carry off an excess of surface water; thus, a cheap method of superficial drainage may be effected by the mere plowing of the land judiciously; and this will be found of great advantage in level lands with a stiff subsoil. When such fields are selected for the orchard, this plan should always be pursued; nor does it preclude the subsequent use of tile, which is the best draining material, at any period afterward. These gutters being at a distance from the tree rows, can be deepened, and the tile laid, without disturbing the roots; or the mole drain plow may be drawn through these furrows, if the subsoil be of a suitably tenacious character to admit of the use of this implement.
Very satisfactory preparation of the soil is done with the plow and a good team; indeed, except for the limited surface of a small fruit garden, no other and no better implement need be desired. With it we can produce a very thorough disintegration and perfect subversion of the soil; these are the objects we have in view. But here we have a choice of instruments, in which we must be guided by the character of the soil to be dealt with. If this be shallow, or thin, and underlaid by a sterile subsoil that would be unfit for the surface, we must plow more shallow, but there are few sites, in the Western country, where we do not find a sufficient depth of soil to satisfy the most thorough plowman, and beneath it a subsoil that will be benefited by aeration, and which will become good surface soil if subjected to the influences of the atmosphere.
We have few soils that may not be trenched with the plow or spade to any depth that is attainable. And here let me explain what is meant bytrenching: it is thetransposition of two layers of the soil more thoroughly, and to a greater depth, than is done by simply digging or plowing, in which a limited amount, only a thin layer of the soil, is inverted. In trenching with the spade, a narrow strip of land is excavated across one end of the piece to be trenched, eighteen or twenty inches wide, and as deep as the spade can take it out at two diggings. The earth thus removed is thrown aside, to be used at the end of the work. The trench being now open, a similar space is laid off, and the surface soil, to the depth of the spade, is dug and thrown into the bottom of the first trench, after which the subsoil is dug to the same depth, the length of the space, and thrown on top of the surface soil that was put into the bottom of the first trench. A second trench is thus opened, and a third strip being then marked off, the same processes are continued, until the whole piece is trenched, when the pile of earth first excavated is brought into requisition to complete the work, by filling up the last trench. This is common trenching, which reverses the two layers of soil, and stirs the whole to the depth of eighteen or twenty inches. It is an expensive operation, but very desirable in a small fruit-garden—not at all applicable for extensive orchard planting, though often applied to the preparation of extensive vineyards.
Trench plowing is conducted upon the same principle, and is done by using two plows in the same furrow, the first taking off the surface soil and throwing it into the deep furrow of the second plow, which is so constructed as to lift the lower soil and throw it high up over the furrow slice laid by the first, and at the same time, leaving a deep furrow open behind it to receive the next cut ofsurface soil. The two layers are thus inverted and reversed at the same time, and with a proper plow, the whole soil is finely comminuted and reduced to a perfect seed-bed, suitable for a garden. To perform this work, the Double Michigan plow is the favorite implement. It should be properly constructed, for much depends upon having the plow well made; the mold-boards should be formed upon the best models for their respective offices of reversing the surface soil, and of upheaving and comminuting that which lies below it; and these mold-boards should be made of steel. Such plows are manufactured at several points, but all the Double Michigan patterns are not equally good, and some are quite unsatisfactory.
The Deep Tiller plows will do very good work in certain soils, and may often be used to advantage in the preparation of the orchard grounds, either alone, or to follow another plow when trench plowing is desired, and the trench plow is not at hand. These plows, as made at Moline, Illinois, are much used, and give great satisfaction in that State.
Subsoiling is a very useful addendum to deep plowing; its object is to stir the deep layers of the soil without bringing the earth to the surface. This aerates and loosens the subsoil, and thus effects the combined objects of increasing the fertility of the land, of retaining moisture for the crops, and, to a certain extent, of allowing any excess of moisture to percolate away. Subsoiling is most efficacious when combined with draining, but it is of great use without, unless where permanent water is found near the surface. There is a great improvement in the subsoil plows. Those first made were provided with a share onone side, and this wing, as it was called, was tilted up several inches, thus increasing the draft unnecessarily. We now use a sharp steel share, of diamond shape, cutting on both edges, right and left, and very slightly elevated in the centre, only two inches, or two and a half at the most. If the soil is stirred with this implement, the hard earth at the bottom of the furrow, made by the turning plow, is thoroughly broken up, and it does not fall directly back into its place, but the crumbled portions support one another, and the furrow appears to be filled with loose earth. The result is astonishing, when we consider the flat, diamond-shaped plow sole that has done the work.
The depth to which this implement may be made to disintegrate the soil, depends upon its strength, the power of the team, and the character of the subsoil. I have seen it tear up several inches of the shales and other rocks, and aid in making a good soil of them. I have seen it sink to the beam in the alluvium of our river bottoms, and I have seen it almost refuse to do its office in some of the hard white clay subsoils, when drawn by a heavy team, while in more yielding but tenacious clays I have seen it trembling under the strain of three yoke of good cattle, that were scarcely able to pull it through the adhesive soil.
Manuring.—The importance of the application of manures to the orchard, as a part of the preparation of the soil, will depend entirely upon its strength and condition. Trees are great feeders; they need a reasonably fertile soil, for though their roots run wide and deep, in search of nourishment, if the necessary food be not in the soil,they will certainly fail to thrive as they should. The analysis of the ashes of our fruit trees, which contain the elements they have derived from the soils on which they grew, enables us to ascertain what kinds of plant-food should be present in the soil we are about to use, or what materials we may safely and judiciously add to it as manures. Lime, and the alkalies, are generally safe and useful additions, in connection with clover as a green manure; these may be applied to almost any worn soils with great advantage. Clover is an invaluable assistant. Its long roots pierce deeply into the soil, bringing up from below hidden treasures, which are left in the upper layers, modified by the digestion of the plant, and by new chemical changes and combinations, rendered fit food for succeeding crops. The mere disintegration of the soil produced by the roots of clover, is, in itself, a valuable mechanical preparation, quietly performed, without plow or team. The clover lea may be limed with great advantage; an application of twenty-five to fifty bushels of slacked lime to the acre will improve the growth of clover, and will exert its appropriate influence upon the soil, with very happy results for the succeeding crop of orchard trees. Alkalies may be applied, in the form of wood ashes, either at the preparation of the soil, or at any subsequent period, as may be found most convenient. Stable manure, and composts, will seldom be required in lands that have not been nearly exhausted, and therefore unfit for an orchard. In case it becomes necessary to use such a field, the manuring should be done all over the surface, and a crop of clover should be grown and plowed in before planting the trees; upon no account should fresh stable manure bebrought into immediate contact or close proximity with the roots of the young tree. If the necessity for planting on such a piece of land impel immediate action, very thoroughly decomposed composts may be applied, mixed with the soil about the tree, but successive applications of manures will be needed over the entire surface, for the roots are destined to occupy the whole extent of soil between the trees.
The next step in the preparation is the digging of the holes for planting the trees. Some persons lay great stress upon the importance of having these made large and deep, which may be very well in a grass lawn with a few trees, but it is a very expensive matter for the orchard of thousands or even of hundreds. The holes should be prepared as wide as the field, and as deep as the plow can stir it, as already directed; that is the kind of holes that should be dug; if the land have been prepared in this manner, the opening of the holes and planting the orchard, either deep or shallow, becomes a very simple matter.
Having determined the distance at which the trees shall stand from one another, and the order or plan of planting, flag poles are to be set in the line to be occupied by the first row of trees, and a deep furrow is then opened with a large plow, drawn by a pair of steady horses. The poles are moved and set for the next row of trees, and so on, until the whole is laid off, making the furrows as straight as possible. This done, a single horse with a lighter plow is driven across these deep furrows at the proper distance, so that the intersections shall indicate the stations for the trees. Strong stakes, about four or five feet long, are then driven firmly at these intersections, and if themarking-out has been well done, they will range in six directions—N. andS.—E.andW.—N.-E.andS.-W.—N.-W.andS.-E., or to corresponding points of the compass; for it is not a matter of much consequence in what direction the rows of trees stand. The holes are the deep furrows, and tree stations are the spaces beside the stakes, always maintaining the same relative position throughout the orchard; the northern side is to be preferred, on account of the partial shade of the stake. By adopting this plan, there need be no trouble, as is often experienced, in sighting the trees to have them straight, for if the stakes have been correctly placed, the trees will also be right, and will range in every direction, when planted.
Before dismissing the subject of stakes, let us understand their object and function: it is not to tie up the trees, and to force them to attain an erect posture; no, that is not to be effected by staking, as will be set forth in another place. Rather than tie a tree to a stake, it were better to cut it down to the ground, and grow it over again. The real objects of the stakes are, first, to show the planter where to set a tree; second, to show where the tree has been planted; third, to indicate to the plowman and to his horse where to exercise care in passing the infant tree during the first years' culture, for an intelligent animal will very soon learn what objects it is intended for him to avoid injuring during his labors in the field; a fourth function of the stake is to ward off the single-tree which the careless laborer may allow to strike the tree to its manifest injury, tearing the bark, and even breaking the stem. The passage of the wagon through the field will also be directed, by these stakes, to the interspaces,instead of passing over the trees. Here are reasons enough for the use of stakes, but tying the trees to them is not among the number; indeed, it might be called the abuse of the stakes rather than their use, except in rare cases. Even in the windy prairie country, no stakes should be used, as supports, in a properly regulated orchard.
Figure 25.Fig. 25.—MANNER OF STAKING A TREE.
Fig. 25.—MANNER OF STAKING A TREE.
When necessary to support a tree with stakes, after an injury or accident, the plan of C. Rosenstiel, Freeport, Ill., is the best I have seen. He adopts it as a means of keeping his trees from being inclined by the wind. He drives a stake firmly into the ground, about a foot to the southwest of his tree; a band of rye straw is cast about the tree a few feet from the ground; the two ends are twisted and entwined together, forming a stiff rope from the tree to the stake, about which it is then cast, and the ends are secured with a piece of twine. By this appliance, the tree is maintained in an erect position without chafing; it can only yield to the wind by waving to the right or left; the band, by its tension, prevents it from leaving the stake, and, by its stiffness, holds it at a proper distance, and prevents its approach.
Plantingcomes next in order to the marking out, orhole-digging, for these are synonymous; it should be done as soon as possible after the plow, on account of the fresh furrow with its mellow soil. It is really a simple matter and upon this method may be executed with great rapidity. The trees now receive their necessary trimming, which consists in a liberal shortening of the branches, a careful inspection of the roots, and a removal with a sharp knife of such as may have been bruised or torn, and cutting away any mat of fibres; after this, they should be puddled, and then carried out to their stations by a boy. The planter follows; with a bright spade he removes any excess of soil at the station, scraping away such portions of earth as he may find in the way of the roots when the tree is placed by the stake. If the furrow has not been recently made, it will be well always to remove a portion of the surface, so as to have fresh soil next the roots. The tree being placed near the stake, the roots are carefully spread out in their natural direction, and the moist mellow earth is filled in among them, using the fingers when necessary, and gently shaking the tree so as to leave no empty cavities among the fibres. Pretty firm pressure should now be made with the foot, especially upon the fine earth placed above the ends of the roots; this excludes the air, by bringing the particles of soil in close proximity to the roots, ready to receive the new fibres that will soon be emitted from them. It also secures the tree in its place better than tying to the stake, for each root acts as a guy rope. In this manner the work may progress very rapidly, and, at the same time, may be well done. Some planters always pour a liberal supply of water upon the mellow earth, instead of pressing it with the foot. This willsettle the fine soil about the roots very effectually; fresh earth should always be thrown on after the water, to prevent the surface from being caked and cracked.
The depth at which the tree should be planted is a question of interest. Most authorities and most successful planters endeavor to regulate this, so that, when settled, the original collar of the young tree may be at the surface of the ground; deep planting has few advocates. The position of the tree as to the points of the compass, is now believed to be a matter of very little moment, although there are still those who insist that the north side of the tree in the nursery row should be made to occupy the same position in the orchard. With low-headed trees this can make no difference; no others are recommended; on the contrary, if, unfortunately, none but tall trees with naked stems can be procured, it is advised to cut them back severely at planting time, so as to form a new head where wanted. Those who have not the heart to cut back a fine tree, may attempt and will sometimes succeed in bringing out branches below, by nicking the bark with a large sharp pruning-knife, at several points along the stem, on all sides, but especially to the southwest, where the shelter of the branches is most needed. This, however, requires us to wait at least one season, and that the most trying one to the young tree, during which the naked bark is exposed to the sun and insects; and the winds may add to the difficulty, by inclining the stem from the southwest. All this may be avoided by planting trees with low branches, which are becoming more and more common as their merits are more highly appreciated. Some of the most judicious planters, especially in windy districts, haveadopted the plan of inclining all their trees to the southwest at the time of planting, expecting thus to overcome the difficulty so commonly observed everywhere with tall trees—their leaning to the northeast, and then becoming scorched and injured by the frost and sun, and damaged by the borers.
The season for planting is a question of some importance, and must be settled by the attendant circumstances. Fall planting has many advocates and many advantages, but the fewest practice it. In the far north, with a long, trying winter approaching, it can not be recommended; but, as the spring advances, there is a great press of work; everything is to be done at once, and all is hurry; hence, for the milder latitudes, with our charming autumnal weather, comparative leisure, and the soil in good condition, everything invites us to plant in the autumn, and with those south of latitude forty degrees, the planting season will often continue until mid-winter. If we commence this work before the fall of the leaves, care should be taken to strip these appendages from the trees in the nursery, before digging them. Instead of leaving the soil about the tree at or a little above the general level, it should be heaped up in a little mound, which will shed off the rains, support the stem, and, to some extent, protect the roots from frost. This last suggestion is a matter of much importance, for one of the great advantages of autumnal planting, depends upon the fact that, except in the most severe weather, the tree is not dormant—the hybernation is not complete; in mild weather there is some action in the buds and branches, and considerable activity exists in the roots; new fibres are emitted, and, with thefirst opening of spring, the young tree is ready for its summer's growth. Such is not the case with trees that have been badly planted in the fall, in a wet, tenacious soil, where their roots have been immersed in mud and water for months, and the swaying top has strained them in every direction. For such a soil, draining is needed; but, even then, the mound will be of material advantage in fall planting.