Fruit-rooms.—For those who wish to reap the highest rewards and the greatest profits from a near and convenient market, as well as those who desire to preserve their fruits, prolong their enjoyment of them, and to bring them to the highest perfection, the fruit-room or fruit-house becomes indispensable. These should be so constructed as to meet the required conditions of an equable and cool temperature, with darkness, and a sufficient amount of dryness to insure freedom from mold and damp. To avoid the precipitation of atmospheric moisture, the apartment should be tight, and seldom opened, particularly in damp weather. To absorb the exhalations from the fruit itself, and that emitted from the burning candle or the breathing of the visitor, the introduction of certain chemical absorbents has been suggested; among these, freshly burned lime has been recommended and used, but Mr. Du Breuil advises the introduction of dry chloride of calcium, which has so great an affinity for moisture as to absorb it completely from the atmosphere. This is the material used by B.M. Nyce, of Cleveland, Ohio, in his patent fruit preserving establishments; and this mode of preserving a dry atmosphere is a leading, and indeed, the chief feature and element of his success.
In the construction of fruit-houses, the fluctuations of the outer atmospheric temperature must be guarded against by making double walls, and by filling the spaces with non-conducting materials. The floors and the ceiling should be similarly arranged—unless where the cooling is effected by a layer of ice above the fruit-room, when theceiling should be metallic, so as to enable the caloric to be rapidly abstracted from the space below. The house, patented by Prof. Nyce, is essentially a large refrigerator, with the ice at the top, and provided with absorbents for removing from the air the moisture it has received from the fruit. Its construction will be understood from the accompanying diagrams and description. The lettering of similar parts is the same in all three diagrams; the description is that of the inventor.
Figure 27.Fig. 27.—NYCE'S FRUIT PRESERVING HOUSE. (CROSS SECTION.)
Fig. 27.—NYCE'S FRUIT PRESERVING HOUSE. (CROSS SECTION.)
(A) Foundation walls. The ground floor is leveled off, and made solid, and even with the foundation walls. (B) A covering oftarandpitch, one-half inch thick, put over the ground and foundation walls, to prevent the entrance of moisture. The tar and pitch should be mixed so as to be only moderately hardened by the temperature of the ground. (D) The filling between the walls is composed of short dry shavings, chaff, or other poor conductors, 3-½ feet thick, on the bottom and sides. (C) Joist for plank floor, 3-½ feet above the ground. The floor is made level throughout. (F) Chloride of calcium, ordried waste-bittern, from salt works, spread on every part of the floor of the preserving room, to absorb moisture. (I I) Air-tight casings, made of common sheet-iron, No. 26; the edgesthickly painted, and nailed to upright studding. The outer casing in some houses is made of brick. The inside of the brick wall is covered with roofing cement, or pitch, or some other air-tight coating. (K K) doors 6 or 8 inches thick, filled with chaff or shavings, and fitted tightly to the door-frames, by listing or cloth nailed over thin layers of cotton. (X) The ice-chamber. (L) Joists to support the ice floor, resting 2 inches on the posts atQ. (N) Iron bars, 1-¼ inches wide, and ¼ inch thick, gained ½ inch into the joists, and placed crosswise to them. A bar must always be put directly under the seams and rivets. Three bars are enough to be under a sheet 30 inches wide. (M) The galvanized-iron ice floor, No. 18 or 20; the edges joined with rivets not more than 1 inch apart, and very carefully soldered. The ice floor is put on the edges of the iron bars so as to expose every part of its surface, on which ice directly rests, to the air of the room below. (S) Sides of ice room made of uprightplanks. Better have it lined with zinc or galvanized-iron, inside of the plank. Scantling, 2 by 6 inches, are placed on the ice, 4 feet apart, made even with the ice. Wide plank (P) are placed loose across the scanting, the edges as close as may be put together, to prevent the filling falling on the ice. Saw-dust, 6 inches thick, is placed on the plank (P). Shavings are not compact enough on the top to keep the air from the ice. (O) A discharge pipe to conduct the water from the ice. (W) An ante-room with an ice-water trough, (Y), in which canned fruit is kept, in large stone crocks, for retailing by small measure.
Figure 28.Fig. 28.—NYCE'S FRUIT PRESERVING HOUSE. (LONGITUDINAL SECTION.)
Fig. 28.—NYCE'S FRUIT PRESERVING HOUSE. (LONGITUDINAL SECTION.)
Figure 29.Fig. 29.—NYCE'S FRUIT PRESERVING HOUSE. (GROUND PLAN.)
Fig. 29.—NYCE'S FRUIT PRESERVING HOUSE. (GROUND PLAN.)
The following estimates are given by the inventor, for a house, with room 15 ft. square, 8 ft. high, 22 ft. square on outside, with capacity for holding 500 bushels. The cost would be about as follows:
Common iron, at 7-½ cts. per lb., cost in the house$210 00Galvanized iron, No. 26, at 20 cts. per lb.105 00Galvanized iron, No. 20, at 18 cts. per lb.80 00Whole cost, probably800 00
The frame and roof being simple, their cost need not exceed that of similar structures.
[21]Bursting open of the pods, or of the hulls of nuts.
[21]Bursting open of the pods, or of the hulls of nuts.
[22]Balfour's Manual.
[22]Balfour's Manual.
When the preparation of this work was undertaken, the author desired to make it as perfect as possible in all its parts. He very soon discovered, from his own observations in the orchard, that one of the greatest difficulties we all have to contend against in fruit-growing, was the ravages committed upon our fruits and fruit-trees by hosts of noxious insects.
Here then was a new branch of investigation, a new field of study to be entered. He was not an entomologist, nor could he gain any assistance from his friends who were such, because, though they were scientific, and able to assist him in names and descriptions of the insects presented, still they were notpractical entomologists; their knowledge of these creatures was purely scientific, and while they could descant learnedly upon the systems set up by the great masters of the science, for the most perfect classification of insects, they could render us practical men but little aid in combatting our insect foes. Greatassistance they have rendered, however, in providing names for all these wonderful creatures, in describing their habits and their economy, and in assigning them places in the beautiful classification that has been provided for them.
On turning from men to books, but little more assistance or encouragement was met with; these too would only give the names, the places, and the descriptions, in the most approved language of the science, but they are not attractive nor intelligible to the unlearned. Any person can soon acquire the language of the science, with a little study, but these scientific books do not give us directions how to rid ourselves of the pests.
Among the books that are accessible and that are adapted to the general reader, and to the student of practical entomology, two were found of eminent utility as far as they went. These are the excellent reports to the Massachusetts and the New York Agricultural Societies, by Messrs. Harris and Fitch, which are clothed in popular language, and which treat particularly of the insects injurious to vegetation, and they put us in the way of combating our foes. The former, which has been reprinted and illustrated in beautiful style, is worthy of a place in every farmer's library, and will prove a valuable aid in the study: the latter is printed in connection with the Society's reports. To both of these, the author acknowledges his indebtedness, and from both has he drawn liberally.
Other popular treatises, though attractive, have proved of very little practical value, and the student will find even the reports above referred to imperfect, as theywere prepared for a limited region, and do not mention several insects that are common in other parts of the country than the States for which these reports were prepared. It were much to be desired, that every State Society would have similar reports, respecting the insects, peculiar to its state.
Thus the author found himself compelled to investigate this broad field of study for himself—it became necessary to grasp the elements of the classification, and to go into the field and the orchard, to use his eyes, and to observe for himself. This was a labor of time, and required considerable effort; but it brought its own reward in the pleasure attendant upon this delightful study. At the same time there was great satisfaction in the thought that all these facts, gathered from the works of men of science, confirmed by personal observation, and rendered useful and applicable in practice by his fellow laborers in the garden and orchard, would be a valuable contribution to them, and would constitute a useful portion of theAmerican Pomologyhe was then preparing.
Unfortunately for himself, he has discovered that his collections, in this department, covered several hundred pages of manuscript, and that, if printed, they would render his volume too cumbrous. Upon consulting with his publishers, it was concluded best to lay the matter aside, for the present at least, and to prepare anew a brief account of some of the insects most injurious to the orchard, with short suggestions as to the best methods of combating their ravages. This conclusion has been the more readily yielded to, because the public now have a medium of communication with the scientificentomologists, which well supplies the great want we had begun to experience. I refer to a monthly publication, issued by the Entomological Society of Philadelphia, in which the questions, that are constantly occurring to farmers, are answered in the most simple, clear, and satisfactory manner.[23]Besides this, we find in our best agricultural journals, a page or a column, devoted to the consideration of insects injurious to vegetation.[24]
For the sake of convenience and system, these notes will be presented in the order of the approved classification of insects. Omitting further introduction or discourse upon the wonderful instincts and habits of insects, and explanation of their metamorphoses and the principles of classification, and confessing my poor qualification for the task, let us proceed at once to the catalogue.
COLEOPTERA.—Beetles.
In this class of insects we find both, friends and foes. The former assist us by their voracious appetites, that can only be satisfied with gourmandizing upon other insects, particularly the juicy bodies of their larvæ. The latter embrace some of our most troublesome pests, especially as they consume vegetable matters, in the perfect as well as in the larval condition, and in both stages are exceedingly voracious. Moreover, they generally commit their depredations under cover, or at night. Some live in the soil and consume the roots of our plants, and others mine their way into the solid wood of the stems of our finest trees; while some only affect the twigs and smallerbranches, and others devour the foliage, flowers, and fruits. A few of the most familiar and troublesome of these will now be introduced; and allusion will also be made to some of those which befriend us by their destruction of other insects.
Saperda bivittata.(Say.)—The Apple Tree Borer.—This is a nocturnal insect, which has been found very destructive to our orchards. The female deposits one egg in a place, generally low down on the stem of the tree; this hatches, and enters the tissues of the bark, where it feeds for a time, a footless grub. As it grows, it burrows deeper, and upward, until it reaches the sap wood, upon which it feeds. When half grown, it burrows still deeper, and upwards into the heart of the tree, and then outward through the sap wood to the bark, but retires again toward the centre, as to a place of safety, to undergo its transformation, after packing the hole with shreds of wood and with its castings to make its retreat secure. In the spring, the perfect insect opens its way outward, and emerges to the light of day.
Remedy.—Observe the bark of young trees very closely during the summer, to discover the castings that are ejected; notice the discolored or depressed portions of bark, and cut into them to find and destroy the worm—if it has penetrated the solid wood, pursue it with a piece of stout but flexible wire.
Preventives.—Alkaline washes have been highly recommended, as a means of driving away the mother beetle; soft soap may be used, and a portion of soft or hard soap, placed in the forks of the branches, will dissolve with the rains, and wash down on the bark. Theseapplications, to be efficacious, should be made in May or June. In August, the bark should be examined, and when the worms are cut out, the soap suds may be injected with advantage, especially if the larvæ have not been reached. Birds should be encouraged, particularly the Picæ tribe, which destroy many grubs of the wood-boring insects.
Chrysobothris femorata, or the Thick-legged Buprestris, is another kind of apple-tree borer, very common in some parts of the West. The perfect insect may be seen running up and down the stems of our trees, in June and July. It is a blackish beetle, about half an inch long. The hole, bored by the grub, is flat, and not cylindrical like that of theSaperda. This beetle attacks the stem higher up than theSaperda, but burrows under the bark, and then sinks into the wood much in the same way.
RemediesandPreventivesare similar to those above mentioned. Seek for the young worms in their shallow burrows in August, before they have gone deeply into the tree.
Dicerca divaricata, (Say.), or the Cherry-tree Borer, is similar in its habit of boring in the sap wood under the bark, and may be combated in the same way. The perfect insect appears in June and July.
Prenocerus supernotatus, or the American Currant Borer, feeds upon the pith of the stalk. The larva is a small, white grub, which changes into a slender, long-horned beetle; black, edged with chestnut-brown. The wing covers are marked with two small grey dots, anteriorly, and a crescent-shaped one behind the middle.
It is very injurious to the currant bushes in many parts of the country, and constitutes a serious obstacle togrowing the plants to a single stem, tree fashion. In the bush form of this plant, the constant reproduction of new shoots compensates for the destruction caused by the borer.
There is another currant borer, an European, which is confined to young shoots; as it is not the larva of a beetle, but of a butterfly, it will be treated in its proper place.
Bostrichus bicaudatus, or the Apple-twig Borer, affects the small twigs, and when numerous, will produce an effect like that called twig-blight, by causing the death of the part and the withering of the leaves, at mid-summer. A small hole will be found near the axil of a leaf; this turns with the twig, and often extends several inches along the pith. The insect is a small, chestnut-brown beetle, 0.25 to 0.35 of an inch long, and is characterized by two projections or horns at the hinder end. Has been found rather common from Michigan to Kansas.
Remedy.—Kill, when found.
Scolytus pyri, or the Pear-blight Beetle, affects twigs of pear, apple, and other fruits, which wither and die at mid-summer. Small perforations, like pin holes, will be found, and issuing from them small cylindrical beetles of a deep brown or black color.
Remedy.—not known.
Lucanus dama, or Horn-beetle, is a large insect, the larvæ of which are said to feed upon the trunk and roots of old apple and other trees. The perfect insects are of a dark mahogany color, smooth, and polished. Like other Stag-beetles, they fly at night, are not very harmful,and are believed to be several years in reaching the perfect state.
Leptostylus aculiferus, bores under the bark of apple trees. It is a short, thick, brownish-gray beetle, with thorns upon its wing-covers; hence, the scientific name of needle-bearer. Length, 0.35 inch; season, August. The larvæ are small worms, occurring in multitudes under the bark, and making long-winding burrows.
Tomicus mali, or the Apple-bark Beetle, is described by Dr. Fitch as new. He says, it is a small, smooth, black or chestnut-red, cylindrical beetle; the larvæ feed under the bark, and then enter the wood, killing the young tree.
Conotrachelus Nenuphar, (Herbst), is the noted and notorious and yet little known Plum Weevil, that is such an abomination to plum planters, and which has proved very injurious to our peaches and is even accused of producing deformities in our pears and apples.
The egg is deposited in the fruit, where it soon hatches and feeds, approaching the stone. This causes the fruit to fall, and when the grub has attained its full size it descends into the ground to perform its transformation. The perfect insect, a small, dark-gray beetle, either crawls up the stem, or flies to the trees. Mr. Walsh reminds us that Dr. Trimble has found these insects hybernating in sheltered places.
Remedies.—It is lamentable that we have been able to do so little to prevent the ravages of this insect. The plan of shaking off, and destroying the affected fruits, promises the best results, by diminishing the next crop. It was suggested by David Thomas, of New York, but ismost successfully practised by Dr. E.S. Hull, of Illinois, who has invented an inverted umbrella on wheels, which receives the insects, as well as the defective fruits, when it is bumped against the trees. By the use of this, he is enabled to harvest splendid crops of stone-fruits.
Pomphopœa Sayi, (orCantharis pyrivora, ofFitch), is called by him the Pear Blister-fly. He describes it as a long blistering beetle, of a green-blue color; found on a pear tree about the first of June, eating the young fruit voraciously.
Euryomia Inda, or the Indian Cetonia, is a beetle about six-tenths of an inch long. The head and thorax dark, copper-brown, thickly covered with short, greenish-yellow hairs; wing-cases light yellowish-brown, changeable, with metallic tints. These are called flower-beetles, because they consume the pollen, and bury themselves in our flowers; but in the autumn, they consume our choicest fruits, especially peaches.
Lachnosterna fusca, (Frœlich), is the White Grub, or May Beetle. A heavy brown insect, an inch or more in length, which makes its appearance with the first warm evenings, when the Black Locust begins to open its fragrant blossoms, to which these beetles are attracted. They also attack the foliage of other trees, particularly the cherry, which they entirely strip of leaves and fruit. Though very destructive in the perfect form, these insects are most to be dreaded while in the larval condition, which is supposed to continue for some years. They then work under cover, and can only be traced by the ravages they commit. Every strawberry grower is familiar with the large White Grub that so often destroys his hopes ofa crop, by killing the plants when in full growth and fruitage, by cutting off all the fibres.
Remedy.—The full-grown insects are very busy in the evening, but become stupid and lethargic before morning, clinging to the leaves and twigs, when they may be shaken down, caught on sheets, gathered, and destroyed. If let alone, they will fall to the ground toward day break, and secrete themselves in the grass and soil until night. All that can be killed in this stage of their existence, the better, as this will prevent the deposition of innumerable eggs. The White Grubs must be destroyed one at a time in cultivated grounds; kill them whenever found. Encourage chickens and birds to follow the plow and spade, as they will consume great numbers. Hogs will find and eat them greedily, and may be allowed to root them out even from a meadow, if badly affected; for, though a harsh remedy, it is not so bad as the disease.
Pelidnota punctata, or the Spotted Pelidnota, is a large yellowish insect, with a black dot on each side of the thorax, and three others on the outer side of each wing-cover. It is found in the day time, upon the leaves of the grape vine. Like the rest of the tribe, these insects are voracious, and the grubs may also feed upon the roots of the grape; therefore they had better be destroyed, though as their numbers are seldom large they are not found to be very injurious.
Haltica chalybea, or the Grape Vine Flea-beetle, appears early in the season, and eats holes in the buds and leaves. It is small, 0.16 inch long, oval; shining, deep greenish-blue, or deep green, or purple. This insect spends the winter in the earth about the roots of the vine, and feeds upon them.
Anomala lucicola, or the light-loving Anomala, is found on the grape vine in July. It resembles the May Beetle, but is smaller, being 0.35 inch long.
These are not all the beetles that feed upon the grape vine.
Macrodactylus subspinosa, or the Rose-chafer, is another melolonthian beetle, which is exceedingly destructive to grapes and various other plants in many parts of the country, in May and June. This insect is smaller than the others of its group, but is equally destructive as a leaf-eater, on account of its numbers. On the grape, it cuts off the young bunch of buds and blossoms, and thus seriously diminishes the crop, as well as by destroying the foliage. It is of a buff-yellow, with black feet, about 0.33 inch long. They continue to ravage vegetation about a month, and then retire into the ground, an inch deep, and deposit their eggs, which hatch in about twenty days, and the young grubs feed upon tender roots, attaining their full size, three-quarters of an inch, before winter, when they descend deeper to hybernate.
The Rose-beetle has many natural enemies, among which are the Dragon-flies; but we must depend upon human efforts for their destruction, an almost hopeless task, for their name is legion, but so much the greater necessity for the effort, and as they are sluggish, they may easily be caught and thrown into hot water, or otherwise destroyed.
Tree Prunersare the larvæ of beetles that excavate a burrow in small limbs of trees, so as to make a section almost across their substance; most of them then bore upward into the limb, and await the action of the winds to break off the part and waft them to the ground, wherethey pass through their change to the perfect insect. They exercise a wonderful instinct in leaving just fibres enough to support the branch until they are ready for their descent, but it often happens that the twig breaks off partially and hangs by a thread, dying, of course; we see the brown leaves on the trees, and this is the first indication of the presence of the insects. If we examine the fallen spray, we shall be surprised to observe the cause of its falling. In the case of the oak tree, the damage is done by theElaphidion villosum, (Fabricius), a long-horned beetle. The larva remains in these twigs until the next season, hence the importance of gathering and burning all that fall to the ground.
An insect of somewhat similar habits often cuts off stout shoots of the Hickory, making a very neat section of a small limb, leaving only the bark, so that it readily breaks off with the wind; and a similar effect has been observed in strong annual shoots of the pear, toward the end of summer. The fallen piece and the stump are cut as neatly as by the shears, but no perforation is discovered along the axis, in which the larva could be concealed; hence we have but to suffer the trimming thus performed without our will, and look upon it as a sort of natural shortening-in of our trees.
Blister-flies, or Beetles.—There are several species of these insects, each of which appears to have its favorite pasturage. They are exceedingly voracious, but confine themselves chiefly to the destruction of herbaceous vegetation, and are therefore obnoxious to the farmer and gardener, who know them as the potato insects, than to the fruit-grower. Their appetites are not very discriminating,however, and when they are abundant they may consume the foliage of our trees. These Blister-flies belong to the genusLytta, and are used as a substitute for the Spanish-fly of Europe, as they are possessed of blistering qualities in no mean degree. They are wholly different from the new potato destroyer of the West, theDoryphora 10-lineata, which is hemispherical, and is a leaf-eater, in the larval as well as in the perfect state.
Remedy.—Catch and kill all that can be found in the garden, or potato field; scald, dry, and sell to the apothecary.
Before closing this section, it is but due to our many insect friends in this order, to introduce a few of them to the reader. There are several large families that are really serviceable to man; some of these are called Scavengers, because they consume large quantities of decaying matter that might prove noxious to us, were it allowed to decay upon the surface of the ground. Among these are the Dung-beetles, and the Carrion-beetles: others are carnivorous, and some of these are calledCicindelidæ, or Tiger-beetles, from their voracious consumption of other insects, which they devour in great numbers, both in their larval and in their perfect form. These day beetles are large, brightly colored, and very active in their movements, as they run about in the sunny paths and roads, and cannot fail to attract attention. Few persons are aware, however, of the valuable aid they are rendering to man, nor of the credit that is due to them for the preservation of our crops from the invasion of other insect foes. Too often they are either unobserved and overlooked, or even treated with the aversion and cruelty of menwho ignorantly attempt to stamp out all insect life, as though these creatures were intruders upon their preemption. The intelligent observer of nature will soon learn to respect each aid, which has been so wisely furnished to assist him in his labors as a cultivator of the soil, and all may admire the Wisdom that has provided at the same time such beautiful and such useful creatures for the work.
Calosoma scrutator, is well named the handsome, for it is one of our most beautiful insects of this class. This, and the red-spottedC. calidum, may be seen upon trees, seeking caterpillars, upon which they feed. One of our most intelligent horticulturists has so high an appreciation of these insects, that he will not allow them to be disturbed, and whenever he sees any caterpillars in his orchard, he takes these beetles to the tree, and gives himself no further concern, knowing that the Calosoma will soon destroy every worm.
Coccinelidæ, or Lady-birds, are most valuable aids to the cultivator, who is constantly liable to have his crops destroyed by the various species of Aphides. These little hemispherical beetles are familiar to every one, and known to the children as Lady-birds; but all may not know their value, nor be so well acquainted with the larvæ of these insects, which are the chief agents in the destruction of our troublesome plant-lice. Most persons would be very apt to crush these curious, diminutive, lizard-looking creatures, even at the time they were attacking the Aphides, instead of leaving them to carry on the warfare more effectually without our aid.
These little friends have had a superstitious regard shownto them in many countries, which indicates that a glimmering idea prevailed respecting their usefulness. The Germans call them theMarienkaefer, or Lady-beetles, of the Virgin Mary. The French call themVaches de Dieu, the Lord's cows, and our own children are all familiar with the nursery rhyme about the Lady-birds. These insects find their way to trees or plants that are infested with their proper food, the Aphides.
These beetles hide under the leaves that cluster in sheltered nooks about or between the large roots of forest trees, where they can be found on any mild winter day, and may be carried to the green-house or to the window plants that are infested with plant-lice. They will not only devour these pests, but will soon lay eggs that hatch and produce the larvæ which are so voracious as to clear the plants in a short-time. A little attention to the habits of these insects may spare us great losses from the plant-lice.
ORTHOPTERA.—Grasshoppers.
The insects of this order have an imperfect transformation. The eggs hatch at once into young insects, that resemble their parents in form and habits, excepting that they do not get their wings till they approach the adult state. The young consume food voraciously, and the perfect insects are not only still more hungry, but, having increased powers of locomotion, they are more widely destructive. These are the trueLocusts, and though chiefly injurious to the farm and garden, infesting the meadowsand corn-fields, the grasshoppers, when winged, often attack the foliage of our young orchard trees toward the end of summer. But when we contemplate the invasion of the great western plague, belonging to this order, which rivals that terrible scourge, the Locust of the eastern continent, in numbers and voracity, we may well dread their increase and appearance in other parts of the country. The grasshoppers that have invaded Kansas and other Western States are, like all the rest of this group ofOrthoptera, true Locusts.
This order is calledOrthoptera, from their straight wings; it embraces several groups, cockroaches, crickets, grasshoppers, or locusts, etc., which are all injurious, except theMantis, which is predacious, and therefore useful.
HEMIPTERA.—Bugs and Harvest-flies.
This order contains many insects that are injurious to the nurseryman, to the orchardist, and to the gardener. They are characterized by having a proboscis instead of a mouth with jaws; they can suck, but they cannot bite. The proboscis is often horny, and armed with two pair of bristles, when it becomes a more formidable weapon for attack. Bugs have four wings; they do not pass through the usual metamorphoses of insect life; but are born with legs and feeding apparatus like the perfect insects, except that some have no wings. Bugs are all injurious to man, excepting such as are predacious, which are serviceable by destroying other insects. Many are very small; and yet their countless numbers and wonderful fecundity enablethem to do immense damage, as is true of theAphidesandCoccidæ, theTingis, theTettigonia vitis, called the Thrips by our vine-dressers; and still more so of the Chinch-bug of the Western prairies, which destroys whole crops of our most important cereals.
The colored juice of some bugs is used in the arts. The coccus of the prickly pear, in Central America, is gathered and dried to form the cochineal of the shops.
Hemipterous insects are divided into two groups. True bugs, calledHemiptera heteroptera, having the wing-covers opaque at the base, and laid horizontally, and crossing each other obliquely at the end, overlapping; and the Harvest-flies, such as Plant-lice and Bark-lice. These, theHemiptera homoptera, have the wing-covers of one texture throughout, not horizontal, but more or less sloping, and not crossing one another behind. Among these, which all feed upon plants, some very troublesome pests will here be noticed.
COCCIDIANS.—Bark-lice.
Aspidiotus conchiformis, or the Apple Bark-louse, is very numerous in many parts of our country, particularly north of latitude 40 degrees. It commits sad devastations in some sections. Individually, it is but a little scale; but these animals are wonderfully prolific and soon cover every twig of the tree, obstructing its transpirations, and abstracting its vital juices; the leaves, and even the fruit are overrun with these miserable scales, but the twigs are their favorite resort. These scales are oblong, shapedlike an oyster shell; flat and brown, often crowding upon one another. In the winter and spring, they contain or cover a number of small, round, white eggs, which hatch out in the spring, in May, attach themselves to the bark, and absorb the juices: various remedies have been suggested, and more or less thoroughly tested. The restoration of the thrifty growth of the tree is considered essential to success; and without this, all remedies are looked upon as unavailing. Some orchardists think that thorough drainage and cultivation of the land would alone banish the lice, but this can hardly be hoped. Strong lye, or solutions of potash, or soda, white-wash, and sulphur, have been used, and tobacco boiled in lye, soft-soap and tar mixed with linseed oil, which makes a kind of varnish. Mr. Walsh tells us that applications, to destroy this insect, are better made in May or June, as the eggs are protected by the scale in winter, and it is impermeable to watery solutions. This pest has been imported from Europe. Walsh recommends the use of Lady-birds to check the Bark-lice.[25]
Lecanium pyri, (Fitch), or the Pear Bark-louse, is a hemispherical brown scale, as large as a split pea. They may be found in summer on the under side of the limbs, and are the remains of dead females, which cover the eggs and young brood. This insect would be very injurious, were it to increase in numbers considerably. Let young trees be examined in June, when the scales may easily be found, removed, and destroyed.
Lecanium persici, or the Peach Bark-louse, is described, by Fitch, as similar in size to the above, found onsmooth bark near a bud; it is blackish, uneven, shining, with a pale margin.
Another pear tree bark-louse was described by the lamented A.O. Moore, of New York, as a white, papery scale, giving a claret-colored juice when scraped. This, in the winter, consists of a defunct mother and her brood of eggs, the breaking of which gives the color. Alkaline washes are recommended to be applied in the spring. Mr. Walsh thinks this insect cannot be the same as that mentioned by Dr. Harris, on p. 222 of his report, under the name ofCoccus cryptogamus, (Dalman), who found it upon the Aspen, and therefore he has named itCoccus? Harrisii.[26]
Lecanium vitis, (Linn.), or the Vine Bark-louse, is mentioned by Fitch as having been found on grape vines in June. It is hemispherical and brown. A cottony substance was extruded from one end of the scale, and this increased until July, when minute insects crept out and scattered over the bark, upon which they fixed themselves. This insect is not very common, but its first appearance should be closely watched, and its destruction promptly effected.
APHIDES.—Plant-lice.
These are the most extraordinary insects, being found upon almost all parts of plants, and there is scarcely a species which does not support one or more kinds peculiar to itself. Then they are so exceedingly prolific!Reaumur proved that one individual, in five generations, may become the progenitor of nearly six thousand millions of descendants. Most of these insects, which we find so abundant upon our trees, are wingless females. Winged insects, both male and female, appear later in the season, and after laying their eggs, they soon perish. Some lay in the fall, others wait till spring. When these eggs hatch, the brood consists wholly of females, which are wingless, and do not lay eggs, but are viviparous and produce from fifteen to twenty young lice in the course of a day. This second generation are also wingless, and at maturity produce their young, and so on to the seventh generation, without the approach of a single male, until the autumn, when a brood of males and females appears, which are both winged at maturity, and then the eggs are laid for the next year's brood, and the parents die.[27]
The injuries occasioned by plant-lice, are much greater than would at first be expected, from an observation of the small size and extreme weakness of the insects; but these make up by their numbers what they lack in strength individually, and thus become formidable enemies to vegetation. By their punctures and the quantity of sap they draw from the leaves, the functions of these important organs are deranged, or interrupted, the sap is withdrawn or contaminated, and unfitted to supply the wants of vegetation. Plants are differently affected; some wither and cease to grow, their leaves and stems become sickly, and die from exhaustion. Others, not killed, are greatly impeded in their growth; the tender parts, which are attacked, become stunted and curled. The punctures of thelice appear to poison some plants, producing warts or swellings, which are sometimes solid, sometimes hollow, containing within them a swarm of lice, descendants of a single individual.[28]These last are often seen upon the leaves of the Elm, and upon some Poplars, and other trees; but I have not found any upon the foliage of our cultivated fruits, unless it be those on the grape.
Aphis mali, or the Apple Leaf-louse, is a small, green insect without wings, accompanied by a few black and green ones having wings. These are all crowded together upon the green tips of twigs, and under the leaves, sucking the sap. The eggs remain in deep cracks of the bark during the winter, and hatch as soon as the buds expand in the spring. The most successful treatment is to scrape off the loose bark, and to apply to the stems of the trees alkaline or lime washes. Many of our familiar little winter birds consume these eggs. In the spring and summer, alkaline solutions may be used with advantage, syringed or sprinkled upon the affected shoots and foliage.
The smell of these insects is peculiar, which, indeed, is generally characteristic with bugs. Each sort seems to derive a special flavor from the tree or plant upon which it feeds. Most insects of this family secrete copiously a sweetish fluid, called the honey dew, which is ejected from two little horns or nectaries, that project, one on each side of their bodies. This sweet material attracts a great many flies, and other insects, particularly ants, which are the constant attendants of these creatures, and are said to protect them from their enemies in order to obtain theirsweet secretion. Some entomologists have calledAphidesthe Ants' cows.
No one, who is acquainted with theAphides, and the various insects which prey upon them, will ever permit a valuable plant to suffer injury from these pests. He will collect some of theAphis'enemies alive, carry them to the affected plant, and set them free to do their work; there they will remain while the food lasts. TheAphideshave more numerous, more active, and more inveterate enemies than insects of any other group—these are the means by which their wonderful fecundity is kept in check. Among them are the Aphis-lions, which are the larvæ of the Golden-eyed and Lace-wing flies, belonging to the orderNeuroptera. They are reddish-brown, with a dark stripe down the middle, and a cream-colored one on each side; bodies long, narrow, and wrinkled transversely. Their jaws are long, curved like sickles, projecting forward from their heads horizontally.[29]
TheCoccinellidæ, mentioned as useful members of the orderColeoptera, on a previous page, are among the most active enemies of theAphides. The eggs are laid in clusters of twenty to forty on the under side of a leaf, to which they are closely glued; they are oval, and light yellow. They hatch into small blackish larvæ, which are active, and which boldly attack anAphismuch larger than themselves, leaving only the empty skin. They consume hundreds while in the larval state, about two weeks, when they attach themselves by the tail, and go into the pupa state. One of the largest of these Lady-birds is theMysia 15-punctata; the larva is a clear white, the middle of the back tinged with red, and two or three black spots on each segment—nearly a hundred species of Lady-birds are found in this country. The perfect insect, as well as the larvæ, feed uponAphides, and instead of being destroyed, they should be cherished and encouraged.
Besides these, there are other inveterate enemies of the plant-lice in theSyrphidæ, which are two-winged flies, resembling the common house-fly, but handsomer. They deposit their eggs whereAphidesexist; the maggot, which hatches from these, seizes upon the firstAphisthat comes within his reach, and sucks its fluids. A medium-sized worm will consume a hundred lice in an hour. They are always found in a colony ofAphides.[30]
Aphis prunifoliæ, or the Plum Leaf-louse, is black, with pale green abdomen. It is found on the under side of the leaves, which become wrinkled and distorted. It is not so abundant as some other species, but its habits are similar.[31]
Aphis cerasi, (Fabric.), or the Cherry Plant-louse, is very common, very numerous, and very black. They appear with the first expansion of the leaves, and continue or are renewed when destroyed, and remain until mid-summer, when they generally disappear. Their numbers are almost incredible, and they give a young cherry tree a wretched appearance. On the under surface of a small leaf, three-fourths of an inch long, Mr. Fitch counted one hundred and ninety lice, on one side only of the midrib. Their natural enemies come to the rescue to checktheir wonderful increase, and sometimes will utterly rout theAphidesin a single week.[32]
The remedies advised for the apple treeAphides, are equally applicable to those of the cherry, and their natural enemies are the same and equally efficacious; butAphideshave internal foes likewise, that may be named here. The Ichneumon-flies are parasitic, their larvæ feed upon the substance of theAphides. The genusAphidiusis particularly provided to furnish parasites to these insects, in which they deposit a single egg selecting a louse of the proper size to sustain their progeny: the egg hatches to a larva, which exhausts theAphisby the time it has attained its growth, when the poor creature fastens itself securely to the leaf, and dies, leaving its carcase a secure resting place for the pupa of the Ichneumon. These parasitic-insects, which feed internally upon theAphides, are as effective in their destruction as the Aphis-lions, or any other class of their enemies.[33]
Aphis persicæ, or the Peach Tree-louse, punctures the leaves of this plant, and Dr. Fitch[34]thinks, is the common though not the only cause of the curl in the peach tree leaves. Our intelligent orchardists have found these insects occasionally in the curled leaves of the peach, but do not agree with this distinguished entomologist, in considering them a cause of that malady.
Aphis vitis?, or the VineAphis, is often quite troublesome on vigorous young shoots of the grape vine, both wild and cultivated, particularly the former. Theseinsects soon cripple the growth of the shoot. The species is not known to be different from that of Europe. This insect is briefly mentioned by T. Glover, in Patent Office Rept. for 1854, p. 79. Dr. Fitch describes as a grape leaf-louse, thePemphigus vitifolia, which inhabits the gall-like excrescences upon the foliage of some varieties, particularly those with thin leaves.
Aphis ribis, (Linn.), is theAphisof the currant. It causes the leaves to present a blistered appearance above; the lice are found on the under side; the wingless are pale yellow, the others have glossy wings, mostly black, with abdomen light green.[35]
Aphis lanigera, now calledEriosoma, or the WoollyAphis, was first described in 1801 as infesting the apple trees in Germany. It has been noticed in England in 1787, and has since acquired the name of American Blight, from the erroneous supposition that it had been imported from this country; but it was known to French gardeners for a long time previous.
The eggs of this insect are microscopic, and are enveloped in a cottony substance. They are deposited in chinks of bark, and crotches of limbs, at or near the surface of the ground. When first hatched, the insects are covered with short down; as they grow, the down increases in length. When fully grown, they are one-tenth of an inch long; the head, antennæ, sucker, and skins, are blackish, the abdomen of a honey-yellow color. Their punctures produce warty excrescences, the limbs become sickly, the leaves turn yellow and drop off, and the whole tree perishes as the insects spread over it. The remediesappear futile on badly affected trees. Young trees were treated by painting over the affected parts with a mixture of melted resin and fish oil, in equal parts, applied warm. Sir Joseph Banks removed them with a stiff brush. Spirits of tar, turpentine, oil, and soft soap, have been recommended. After scraping off the rough bark, wash the tree with alkaline solution, apply the same to the main roots after laying them bare of earth.[36]
Phemphigus pyri,Eriosoma pyri, (Fitch), orPemphigus Americanus?, (Walker), is the Apple-root Blight. It produces a similar condition in the roots, and was also called the American Blight in England. It is composed of warty excrescences upon the roots, containing in their crevices minute lice, having their bodies covered with a white cottony substance. Removal of the earth, and the application of soapsuds, has been recommended as a probable remedy for the injuries done by this insect.[37]
Psylla Pyri.—SomeAphideshave the power of leaping, like the leaf-hoppers, but they differ from those insects in having very large transparent upper wings, which cover the sides of the body like a steep roof. The genus embracing these insects, is calledPsylla. One of the species was observed by Dr. Harris, upon a pear tree. They live by suction, and having gorged themselves, the juice runs down on the bark, producing a blackish color; young trees suffered excessively. As Dr. Phumb, of Salisbury, Conn., had observed them in 1833 on some imported pear trees, of which he lost several hundred in afew years, Dr. Harris suspected the insect to be thePsylla pyri, of Europe. Kollar recommends brushing off the insects, and crushing them under foot; and also advises to destroy the winged females in the spring. This being tedious and uncertain, it is recommended to wash the twigs with a brush, dipped in a mixture of strong soapsuds and flowers of sulphur, before the buds expand, to deter the insects from laying their eggs. A weaker solution, or the whale oil soap, might kill the young insects after they have fastened upon the bark, if applied with a syringe.[38]
Cicada septendecim, or the Seventeen-year Locust, as it is erroneously called, is no Locust at all, but should be calledCicada, because, as already stated, when considering the orderOrthoptera, the true Locusts, are, what we call Grasshoppers.
This insect is remarkable for the long period of its pupal existence, which is subterranean, and during which it feeds upon the juices of roots. In its perfect state, it does not eat, and is neither able to bite nor to sting. The injury it does to our orchards is effected by its piercer in depositing its eggs, causing twigs to break and fall off. There are several Harvest-flies that belong to this order.
Tree Hoppers, being members of the same order, feed upon the juices of plants, through their suckers, and are thus injurious; but their numbers are not sufficient to render them of much consequence.
Palæothrips mali, (Fitch), is the name of an insect described by Dr. Fitch[39]as infesting apple trees in themonth of August, where they were attacking the fruit. They excavated a little hollow near the blossom end of the apple about the size of a pea, which was occupied by small insects. Until the habits of the insect are more thoroughly understood, it will be difficult to advise any remedies.
There is quite a number of insects in this class that affect the grape vine, some of which may become troublesome, and we should watch their habits. The following accounts are condensed from Dr. Fitch's Report:
Raphigaster sarpinus, or the large Green Tree-bug, is grassy-green, edged with yellow, and a black point at every joint of the abdomen; found in September.
Pentatoma ligata, or the Bound Tree-bug, is also grassy-green, but more widely bordered all round, except the head, with pale red, and has a pale red spot on the middle of its back and on the apex of its scutel; antennæ green.
Arma modesta, or the Modest Tree-bug, is tawny, yellowish-gray, thickly dotted with brown punctures; the wing-covers are red at the apex of their leathery portion, and have a brown spot at the tip of the hyaline portion; the under side is whitish, with a row of black dots along the middle, and another on each side.
Thelia univittata, (Harris), or the Single-striped Treehopper, is chestnut-brown, shaped like a beech-nut, with a perpendicular protuberance on the fore part of its back, higher than wide. It is tawny white in front, a white stripe along the back to the tip; length 0.37 inch; July and August.
Ceresa bubalus, or Buffalo Treehopper, is of a lightgrass-green, freckled with whitish dots; with a sharp short point on each side, projecting like horns.
Ceresa taurina, is like the preceding, but the space between the horns is concave.
Acutalis dorsalis, is a small, triangular, shining Treehopper, with a smooth round back; it is greenish-white, with a large black spot, from the anterior corners of which a line runs off to each eye. Plentiful about the last of July, a few remaining until October.
Erythroneura vitis, (Harris), or the Vine-leaf hopper, is pale yellow, with two broad blood-red bands, and a third dusky one on the apex. Swarms of these small insects occur in August, and often bleed the foliage so as to injure it seriously.
Erythroneura tricincta, or the Three-banded Leaf-hopper, is like the preceding species, but the bands are narrower.
Erythroneura vitifex, or the Vine-destroying Leaf-hopper, is yellowish-white; the wing-covers have oblique confluent, blood-red bands, and a short, oblique, black line on the middle of their outer margin. The thorax commonly has three red stripes, the middle one forked anteriorly and confluent, with two red stripes on the crown of the head. When the wing-covers are closed, they look red, with a cream-colored spot, shaped like a heart placed anteriorly, and on the middle, a large diamond-shaped spot, with a small red spot in its centre.
These insects are sometimes seen in such numbers upon the grape vines in September, that, when the leaves are disturbed, they fly out and resemble a shower ofsnowflakes. The young resemble their parents, but are destitute of wings.
AREMEDYis much needed.
Erythroneura vulnerata, (Fitch), or the Wounded Treehopper, is tawny yellowish, sometimes tinged with red; the wing-covers have white spots and veins, and on the middle of the outer margin an oblique black streak, between two creamy white spots; the hind one smaller, and an oblique blood-red line at its end; tips smoky-blackish; length 0.12 inch; September.
Otiocerus Coquebertii, is a slim fly of yellowish-white color, with a bright carmine-red stripe along each side of the body and wings, which are widely forked behind. Length 0.42 inch; July until autumn, on the wild grape vine.
There are a great many insects of this order, which are familiar to most country residents on account of their unpleasant smell. These are the true bugs, and belong to the sub-division calledHeteropterous Hemiptera. The Squash-bug is a familiar illustration of these insects; it is called theCoreus tristis, from its sad dull color; they are quite destructive to all plants of the Squash family.
Reduvius trinotatus, is one of this order, which is a valuable aid to the horticulturists, because its sucker is armed with sharp instruments, that enable it to pierce and consume other insects, many of which are destroyed by it. This insect has been introduced into the West for the sake of its valuable services.