CHAPTER XV.ToC

[23]Practical Entomologist, 518 South 13th street, Philadelphia, fifty cents a year, in advance.

[24]VidePrairie Farmer,American Agriculturist,Country Gentleman, etc.

[25]See Practical Entomologist, Vol. II, p. 32.

[26]See Practical Entomologist, Vol. II, p. 31.

[27]Harris, p. 205.

[28]Harris' Report, p. 310.

[29]For further details of these insects, the reader is referred to Fitch's Report, pp. 82 to 98.

[30]Rept. cit., p. 100.

[31]Rept. cit., p. 122.

[32]Rept. cit., p. 125.

[33]Rept. cit., p. 134.

[34]Trans. N.Y. Ag'l Soc., 1856, p. 359.

[35]Lib. cit. p. 435.

[36]Harris' Rept. p. 211.

[37]For further particulars respecting these insects, consult Dr. Fitch's Rept., p. 5, and Harris's Rept., p. 241.

[38]Vide Harris' Rept., p. 232.

[39]Rept., p. 403.

[40]Rept., p. 241.

[41]Vide Fitch, in N.Y. Trans. 1856, p. 382.

[42]For interesting details vide Fitch's Rept., p. 221.

[43]Rept., p. 256.

[44]See Fitch's Report, p. 176.

[45]See Fitch's Report, p. 252.

IMPORTANCE OF SEIZING THE STRONG MARKS—EXTERNAL; WEIGHT, SHAPE, SIZE, SURFACE—BASIN AND EYE—CAVITY AND STEM—INTERNAL; FLESH, CORE, AXIS, SEEDS, FLAVOR—THESE CONSIDERED SEPARATELY AND ILLUSTRATED—EXPLANATION OF TERMS USED—SHAPE REFERRED TO RELATIONS OF THE DIAMETERS; AXIAL AND TRANSVERSE—LEADING FORMS DESCRIBED AND ILLUSTRATED—SIZE, A COMPARATIVE TERM—SKIN CHARACTERS, COLOR; ITS USE IN CLASSIFYING—PERMANENCE OF STRIPES—LINES—DOTS AND SPECKS—FUNGOUS SPOTS—FORMS OF BASIN AND EYE, OF CAVITY AND STEM, ARE VALUABLE; TERMS USED—THE INTERIOR, AXIS, CORE, SEEDS, FLESH—FLAVOR UNCERTAIN—SWEET AND SOUR GOOD CHARACTERS—QUALITY, TERMS EXPRESSIVE OF.

In the description of a fruit, it is very desirable for the writer to catch the strong characters, so that he, who reads, may the more readily identify the specimen he holds in his hand. Among these several characters there is considerable difference as to their permanence and value; some are evanescent, some variable, while others arefound to be more reliable and constant. Let us consider some of these in the systematic order by which they will be taken in the descriptions that are to follow.

In describing a fruit, the firmness, weight, and external characters, first claim our attention, then the internal; these are taken up in the following order: externally, its shape, size, surface, color, and dots are examined. In the apple and pear the basin is next observed and its characters noted, with any peculiarities connected with the eye, by which term the triangular space is designated that is embraced by the calyx, as shown in an axial section of the fruit; at the same time the length and breadth and shape of the calyx segments are noted. The other end of the fruit is then explored as to the form and markings of the cavity, and the length, size, and peculiarities of the stem. Having thus disposed of the externals, we are now to investigate the nature of the internal structure; to do this, a section is made vertically through the middle of the fruit from the eye to the stem, which exposes the flesh, the axis with its core and the seeds, and which enables us to investigate some very important characters, such as the length of the axis, its form and that of its carpels, and the manner of their union, whether they form an open core or otherwise.

The number, color, and shape of the seeds are noted. The color of the flesh, its texture and juiciness are examined; the latter qualities are always tested by the teeth, and then the palate gives us an account of the degree of richness, acidity, or sweetness and flavor. The investigator is now prepared to render judgment; having the testimony of his organs of touch, sight, taste and smell, hecan pronounce his decision as to quality, and is prepared to specify the particular uses to which the fruit is especially adapted; whether for the table as a dessert, for the kitchen, as in baking and stewing, or for drying, or whether it be valuable for cider-making. A good judge will now be able to decide whether the fruit be especially adapted for the market or for the amateur. The season of ripening should be noted in this place, with any remark as to qualities not already provided for.

Formis one of our most permanent characters; though subject to modifications, the general shape of the specimens is always characteristic of the variety. Even a novice will soon learn the peculiar outline of a variety of fruit.

Before commencing the study of these varieties of form, it will be well to explain some of the leading terms introduced. By referring to the illustrations, it will be observed that the outlines are inscribed in circles to which they are compared; these are drawn with dotted lines, and they are bisected with cross lines representing the two diameters referred to in the classification by form: the vertical or axial diameter,AA, passing through the axis of the fruit, and the transverse diameter,BB, at right angles to the vertical.

TheFormmay beroundorglobularwhen it is nearly spherical; the two diameters, the axial and transverse, being nearly equal; fig. 30.

Globoseis another term of about the same meaning.

Conic, orconical, indicates a decided contraction toward the blossom end, fig. 31;Ob-conicimplies that the cone is very short or flattened.

Figure 30.Fig. 30.—ROUND.Figure 31.Fig. 31.—CONICAL.Figure 32.Fig. 32.—OBLONG OR TRUNCATE.Figure 33.Fig. 33.—OBLONG CONIC.Figure 34.Fig. 34.—OVATE.Figure 35.Fig. 35.—OBLATE.

Figure 30.Fig. 30.—ROUND.

Fig. 30.—ROUND.

Figure 31.Fig. 31.—CONICAL.

Fig. 31.—CONICAL.

Figure 32.Fig. 32.—OBLONG OR TRUNCATE.

Fig. 32.—OBLONG OR TRUNCATE.

Figure 33.Fig. 33.—OBLONG CONIC.

Fig. 33.—OBLONG CONIC.

Figure 34.Fig. 34.—OVATE.

Fig. 34.—OVATE.

Figure 35.Fig. 35.—OBLATE.

Fig. 35.—OBLATE.

Oblongmeans that the axial diameter is the longer, or that it appears so, for an oblong apple may have equal diameters; fig. 32.

Oblong-conic, that the outline also tapers rapidly toward the eye; fig. 33.

Oblong-ovate, that it is fullest in the middle; and like

Ovate, which means egg-shaped, that it tapers to both ends; fig. 34.

Oblate, or flattened, when the axial diameter is decidedly the shorter; fig. 35.

Obtuseis applied to any of these figures that is not very decided.

Cylindricalandtruncateare dependent upon one another, thus a globular, or still more remarkably, an oblong fruit, which is abruptly truncated or flattened at the ends, appears cylindrical in its form.

Depressedis an unusually flattened oblate form.

Turbinateor top-shaped, andpyriformor pear-shaped, are especially applicable to pears, and seldom to apples.

When these forms are described evenly about a vertical axis, as shown by a section of the fruit made transversely, or across the axis, the specimen may be calledregularoruniform, fig. 36; if otherwise, it isirregular, fig. 37,unequal, fig. 38,obliqueorlop-sided, fig. 39, in which last cases the axis is inclined to one side. If the development at the surface is irregular, as in the Duchesse d'Angouleme and Bartlett pears, the fruit is termeduneven.

Figure 36.Fig. 36.—REGULAR.Figure 37.Fig. 37.—IRREGULAR.Figure 38.Fig. 38.—UNEQUAL.Figure 39.Fig. 39.—LOP-SIDED.Figure 40.Fig. 40.—COMPRESSED.Figure 41.Fig. 41.—QUADRANGULAR.

Figure 36.Fig. 36.—REGULAR.

Fig. 36.—REGULAR.

Figure 37.Fig. 37.—IRREGULAR.

Fig. 37.—IRREGULAR.

Figure 38.Fig. 38.—UNEQUAL.

Fig. 38.—UNEQUAL.

Figure 39.Fig. 39.—LOP-SIDED.

Fig. 39.—LOP-SIDED.

Figure 40.Fig. 40.—COMPRESSED.

Fig. 40.—COMPRESSED.

Figure 41.Fig. 41.—QUADRANGULAR.

Fig. 41.—QUADRANGULAR.

When a transverse section of the fruit, made at right angles to the axis, gives the figure of a circle, the fruit isregular; if otherwise, it may becompressedor flattened at the sides, fig. 40;angular,quadrangular, fig. 41;sulcate orfurrowed, fig. 42, when marked by sulcations; orribbed, fig. 43, when the intervening ridges are abrupt.Heart-shapedis a form that applies more especially to the cherry, than any other kind of fruit.

Figure 42.Fig. 42.—SULCATE.Figure 43.Fig. 43.—RIBBED.

Figure 42.Fig. 42.—SULCATE.

Fig. 42.—SULCATE.

Figure 43.Fig. 43.—RIBBED.

Fig. 43.—RIBBED.

Sizeis a character of but second rate importance, since it is dependent upon the varying conditions of soil, climate, overbearing, etc. It has its value, however, when it is considered as comparative or relative. The expressions employed in this work to indicate size, are:very large,large,medium,small,very small, making five grades.

The characters of theSkinand surface are generally very reliable, though the smoothness of the skin as well as the coloring depend upon both soil and climate. We find, however, that a striped apple which has been shaded, though pale, will always betray itself by a splash or stripe, be it ever so small or rare, nor will any exposure so deepen and exaggerate its stripes as to make it a self-colored fruit; and no circumstances will introduce a true stripe upon a self-colored variety. Hence we mayconsider this kind of marking a reliable character, and apply it as an element of our classification. We sometimes findlineson self-colored fruits that are as distinctive as the stripes, but entirely distinct from them.

The skin itself may be eitherthickorthin,smooth,rough, orpolished, and it is sometimesuneven; it may be covered with abloom, it may berussetedin whole or in part, and this may be thickly or thinly spread over the surface, or only net-veined. A sort of russeting occurs about the stem only in some varieties, and is never seen in others, making a pretty good character, but in the same variety it is often much increased or diminished.

This character, russet on the skin, has been very puzzling to young pomologists in the study of pears, owing to its liability to exaggeration in some varieties, under the influence of certain climatic conditions that have even produced it in varieties in which it had not been previously suspected. Some pears are characterized by this russeting of the skin, either generally spread over the surface or confined to a limited area at either end of the fruit, particularly about the insertion of the stem; others have never shown any disposition to put on this character, but, under certain circumstances some varieties, which should have been smooth and fair, become thickly spread with this russeting, that seems even to thicken the skin and which deteriorates the qualities of the fruit. In some cases this appearance is local, occupying one end of the fruit, or making a band around the middle and contracting it like a cincture, as though its presence prevented the proper growth and development of the sarcocarp or fleshy mass of the fruit.

The colors themselves being as various almost as the hues of the rainbow, will be designated by their appropriate or customary names; the manner of their laying on will require the use of certain definite terms, which should be understood to comprehend the classification, which, in part, depends upon this circumstance. Thus a fruit is calledself-coloredwhen it is not striped, though it may beblushedorbronzed, and the coloring may be so broken, without stripes, as to bemixedor curdled,blotched, marbled,mottled,clouded,spotted,stained,shadedordappled; but some of these characters are often found associated with striping also, or they are observed in those kinds of fruit that are always devoid of stripes. Striped fruits are often so deeply colored that the separate stripes do not appear so distinctly, as when there are fewer of them on a lighter ground and they can scarcely be perceived. When the stripes are long and distinct, they are calledstreaks; when short and broken abruptly at their ends, the surface is said to besplashed. Certain pears are striped by a paleness or faintness of color, these are calledpanache, and are considered sports of their namesake varieties which they resemble in other respects. A few peaches are distinctly striped; some plums and cherries obscurely so.

Another class of surface or skin characters consists in theDotsandSpecks, which appear to be very valuable distinctive markings, on account of their uniformity in different varieties. These may belargeorsmall,numerousorscattered,darkerorlightercolored,prominentorindented. In shape they areroundorelongated, and this last is a valuable character because quite rare. Sometimesthe dots are characterized by having a green base or areola around them, which is very noticeable, and in some varieties these marks, which are perhaps the stomata of the skin, are surrounded by distinct rings of a gray color, that resembleocellationsor eyes. No reliance can be placed upon the delicate coloring that is often to be seen upon the surface of certain light colored fruits, making rose, red, or purplish tints about these dots, as they are accidental only and not distinctive markings.

No one should confound these pores, that are designated as thedots, with the superficial and extraneous marks that appear to be the accidental growth of some fungus or lichen, and which are very commonly found upon the surface of many fruits, often giving them a quite pretty appearance that would be seized upon by the fruit painter as a special beauty, unless when so abundant as to produce an unpleasant smutchiness or cloudiness, such as is often found in the product of apple orchards that are situated in low bottom lands, and which peculiarity is attributed to the influence of fogs.

TheBasinorApexof a fruit consists of that portion most distant from the stem. In the apple and pear it is commonly called the blossom end, and is often more or less depressed; hence the termbasin. In other fruits it is called the point orapex. Both are characterized by peculiarities of form that serve as distinctive marks in the description of fruits, and these are characters of considerable value on account of their permanence. In respect to its form, the basin, according to its depth, is calleddeep, fig. 44;shallow, fig. 45;very shallow, ormedium. It isabrupt, fig. 44, when the edges are steep; it isnarrowandpointed, fig. 46,orwide; it isregular, orwavy,wrinkled,plaited,folded,ribbedor angular, fig. 46—when these peculiarities exist.

Figure 44.Fig. 44.—DEEP AND ABRUPT.Figure 45.Fig. 45.—SHALLOW.Figure 46.Fig. 46.—NARROW AND FOLDED.

Figure 44.Fig. 44.—DEEP AND ABRUPT.

Fig. 44.—DEEP AND ABRUPT.

Figure 45.Fig. 45.—SHALLOW.

Fig. 45.—SHALLOW.

Figure 46.Fig. 46.—NARROW AND FOLDED.

Fig. 46.—NARROW AND FOLDED.

Some fruits arerussetedat this part of their surface only, but this marking is a variable character and is found in greater or less degree in different localities; thus the Rhode Island Greening, to which it belongs, is sometimes almost entirely divested of the russeting, and in other localities the surface is thickly spread with it half way to the stem; the Westfield Seek-no-further, which is slightly marked with this character in the North, often becomes a russet apple in more southern latitudes.

The basin of some fruits is very apt to crack into irregular fissures, and this appears to be peculiar to certain varieties, though it is not esteemed a very reliable mark; the termcrackedis used to express this. In some fruits, however, we find a very peculiar cracking that forms a permanent character, upon which great dependence may be placed: all the rim of the basin in these is marked with a slightly cracked appearance that does not rupture the skin, and which resembles the incipient breaking of the surface of a piece of dry leather; it has, therefore, received the name ofleather-crack. This is characteristic of a few sorts, and hence a valuable mark.

Within the basin is theEye, which furnishes characters of great value. This I consider to mean the meeting ofthe segments of the calyx, and more particularly in the apple, the triangular space enclosed by these parts, in which the remains of the stamens and pistils are found. Hence the Eye can only be displayed by making a vertical section of the fruit. There are but a limited number of expressions used in its description; thus the eye is said to belarge,small,longorshort, and it may beopenorclosed. The segments of the calyx may beconvergingorreflexed,persistentorobsolete, according to their condition in the ripe fruit, and these several characters are quite reliable; but the simple fact that the eye isopenorclosed, may depend upon the accidental breaking away of the segments of the calyx, and is of little value as a sign.

Figure 47.Fig. 47.—DEEP, STEM LONG.Figure 48.Fig. 48.—WIDE, STEM STOUT.Figure 49.Fig. 49.—WAVY, STEM CLUBBED.

Figure 47.Fig. 47.—DEEP, STEM LONG.

Fig. 47.—DEEP, STEM LONG.

Figure 48.Fig. 48.—WIDE, STEM STOUT.

Fig. 48.—WIDE, STEM STOUT.

Figure 49.Fig. 49.—WAVY, STEM CLUBBED.

Fig. 49.—WAVY, STEM CLUBBED.

The next character to be considered is the attachment of the stem, which, in some fruits, is so depressed as to constitute what is called theCavity. In the apple this portion has many variations that are quite characteristic of certain varieties of fruit. In form the cavity may be eitherdeep, fig. 47, orshallow;regularorirregular;wide, fig. 48; ornarrow, andacute,wavy, fig. 49; anduneven,folded, and evenlipped, fig. 50; as when a portion of the flesh protrudes against thestem, as in Pryor's Red, Roman Stem, and other apples, and in some pears. This portion is sometimes defaced bycracksthat separate the skin; it is occasionally green, and this is a good and distinguishing character of a limited number of fruits, both apples and pears. The cavity is alsobrownor "russeted" in some fruits, and, though this character is quite variable in its depth, amount and extent, we may consider thebrownorrusseting about the stemquite reliable in both pears and apples.

Figure 50.Fig. 50.—CAVITY LIPPED.

Fig. 50.—CAVITY LIPPED.

The stem has its place of insertion in the region we have just been considering. It is the peduncle of botanists, and in some species it separates from the fruit by a joint—in others it remains attached and separates from the twig, when it is considered a part of the fruit itself, as in the apple and pear. The shape, average length, thickness, and other characters, and especially its mode of attachment to the carpos[46]in the pear, give us some important characters, but these are always somewhat uncertain and variable; hence they are rather relative than positive traits. In apples, stems may belong, fig. 47,short, fig. 48, ormedium, according to their projection beyond or concealment within the cavity, being calledmediumwhen they simply reach the contour of the outline. They areslender, fig. 47;mediumorthick,fleshy,knobbyorclubbed, fig. 49, according to the amount of their substance and its arrangement. They arecurvedorstraight, anddirectandaxial, orinclined, according to their directionand relation to the axis of the fruit; and in pears, they often have a peculiarity of the insertion dependent upon their being more or less fleshy; in both plums and pears, this fullness is often arranged in rings surrounding the base of the stem.

Some pomologists have taken great pains to measure the length of the stems, which they report in inches and lines. As above stated, this is an uncertain quantity, and therefore of little value, except when taken in relation to other measurements by way of comparison; hence I have preferred to use the above-mentioned terms only in their relation to the axial diameter in describing the apples, unless where their extension is unusual. The variable length of this organ in some varieties is remarkable, and we often find the smallest fruits having the longest stems.

When we come to examine the interior portions of a fruit, if it be an apple or pear, we make a vertical section through the axis from basin to cavity. This exposes the internal structure and enables us to judge of the color and other characters of the fleshy pericarp, the length of the axis, the size of the core and carpels, and the number and appearance of the seeds. These characters are possessed of value, and are quite reliable; in many fruits the seeds furnish distinctive indications, and this is particularly the case with the stone fruits, many of which are readily identified by the form and markings of the stones or pits, theendocarpsof botany.

In the apple particularly, we first have our attention drawn to theAxis, which is sometimes veryshort, so that in some decidedly oblate specimens, with deep basin and cavity, there is scarcely room between them for thecore, which is shortened to correspond with the oblate character of the fruit. This is illustrated by many of the outlines given in Class I. It is well also to observe and note whether the axis be inclined. The form of thecoreis not very reliable, but it has characters that are permanent and peculiar to certain varieties. Thus it is alwaysopenin some, and alwaysclosedin other sorts of the apple. In the pear it isgrittyin some varieties, and surrounded with fine grained flesh in others. The core islarge,medium, orsmall, and these distinctions are permanent. Its outline, embracing the group of carpels, may beregularorirregular,longorshort,cordate,wideorcompressed; it may reach the eye or otherwise, and it frequently clasps that portion.

TheSeedsarenumerousor otherwise; they arelongorshort,acuminateorrounded,flat,angular,imperfect, orplump,largeorsmall; they may bepale, evenyellow, orbrown,dark, and nearlyblack; and these shades are distinctive, often enabling the pomologist to decide upon the variety when other characters are less marked. The peculiarities of the stones of peaches, plums and cherries, and of the seeds of the grape, had better be described in immediate connection with those species of fruit.

In theFleshof fruits we find characters that most pomologists, even the amateurs, are generally pleased to have under practical consideration. They are also very reliable, for if the fruits be in good condition, they are always the same in any given variety. In its consistency, this tissue is eitherfirmandcompact, orspongy; it isfine grained,granular,gritty,fibrous, orbreaking, on the one hand, ortender,butteryandmelting, on the other;the flesh is eitherdryorjuicy, and tinted with various shades of color. In some we find a satisfyingrichness, while others arethinand poor. Some have a fine aroma, while others have an unpleasant flavor or are scentless.

So intimately associated are our organs of taste and smell, that it is difficult to separate and distinguish the impressions we receive through these senses. For our present purpose it will be best to consider all under this head, whether really belonging to one or the other sensation; and the lexicographers themselves admit the commonalty of taste and smell in the wordflavor. These qualities of a fruit depend upon so many accidents of season, culture, and especially of the condition of ripeness, that they are of comparatively little value in descriptions, except in their broadest expressions of acidity and its opposite, which indeed are sufficiently pronounced to be used in the classification of fruits.

With regard to theirFlavor, fruits may be said to bevinous,sub-acid,acid, andvery acid, orsugary,sweet,very sweet, andhoney sweet; they may beflatandinsipid, orhighly flavored,mild, orastringent; and as to fragrance, in which they may remind us of many other agreeable odors, they may be said to beperfumedandaromatic, or otherwise.

In deciding upon the quality of the fruit that has thus been subjected to this series of tests, and to this thorough examination, we shall find that the decision will depend upon the individual tastes, the likes and dislikes of those who are called upon to render judgment, and that, at best, the result must be arbitrary. The terms expressive of this division areinferior,good,very good, andbest.

[46]Fromκαρπος, Greek, for fruit.

NECESSITY FOR—BASIS OF—CHARACTERS—SHAPE—ITS REGULARITY. FLAVOR—COLOR—THEIR SEVERAL VALUES—THOMAS' CLASSIFICATION—GERMAN WRITERS—DIEL'S SEVEN CLASSES—MODIFICATIONS BY DOCHNAHL—ROBERT HOGG'S MODIFICATION BASED UPON SEASON—DIEL'S CONSPECTUS OF CLASSIFICATION—DOCHNAHL'S—THE AUTHOR'S CLASSIFICATION EXPLAINED—EXPLANATION OF TERMS—TOPICS COMBINED—CONSPECTUS OF CLASSIFICATION USED IN THIS WORK.

The need of some classification grows more and more pressing, as our fruit lists have become more extended, and they now reach many hundreds. A good and reliable systematic classification has become absolutely necessary, and has received a great deal of consideration.

Upon what principle shall this classification be founded? The common alphabetical arrangement of most text books may be very convenient for a mere dictionary of fruits, but is utterly useless to the novice who does not know the name of his specimen. The arrangement by seasonand size has its difficulties in the uncertainty and variation of these characters in the different soils and climates of our extended country, and a sub-division and grouping of fruits by their quality of excellence is not only unreliable, but is altogether arbitrary, and subject to the greatest diversity of opinion arising from the various tastes of different individuals. We must look to some marked and reliable characters that are always present, easily recognized, and permanent or fixed. Among these shape or figure stands pre-eminent, notwithstanding the acknowledged fact that some varieties are almost protean. The shape of the general outline appears to be the best character for the broad divisions of a classification. A sub-division may again be made, which is to be based upon the regularity or irregularity of the shape.

The next character, and one of considerable value, is that dependent uponflavorin its broadest characters of sweet and sour, which, though sometimes giving rise to a puzzling question, is, in most varieties, sufficiently marked to constitute the basis of a minor sub-division.Color, which is notoriously the poorest character and least esteemed by botanists in their descriptions, on account of its liability to variation, is, however, of sufficient importance in pomology to take a high rank and to appear very prominently in fruit nomenclature. Still it should be reserved for the lowest sub-divisions of a classification.

Among our American writers, who deservedly stand prominent as pomologists, the most satisfactory attempt at classification is found in the little work prepared by J.J. Thomas. No one who has realized the advantages to be derived from the simple and clear sub-divisions madeby this author, will ever be satisfied with a fruit-book that is not arranged upon the basis of some classification. Thomas, in his excellent work, makes three great divisions of apples according to their period of ripening, as theSummer,Autumn, andWinterfruits, to which some of us would desire to addSpring, or long-keepers. Each of these he has divided into two classes—those characterized by their flavor assweetapples, and those possessed of more or less acidity; and each of these classes is subdivided into two sections, according to their color, as striped with red and not striped; so that in this arrangement we have eighteen groups, and, with specimen in hand, this synopsis enables us at once to decide in which of these groups of moderate dimensions we may look for the description we desire; and, if it be contained in the book, it may readily be found. The labor of searching through the whole list is thus obviated.

The Germans have made many attempts at the classification of fruits. Christ, Diel, Dochnahl, Manger and Sickler, have been engaged in this work; and Diel's Synopsis, though far from perfect, has been generally adopted. He makes seven classes, with orders under each. Dochnahl, a later writer, has modified this by making two sections according to the shape, whetherangularorspherical, and four classes also based upon their form.

Robert Hogg, in hisBritish Pomology, which is an excellent account of the apples cultivated in England, has given a modification which answers a good purpose for classification. He makes three great sections, according to season,Summer,Autumn, andWinter. Each of these is divided into two classes, according to shape: 1st,Round,roundish, oroblate; and 2nd,Oblong,conical,oval, orovate. These again are grouped according to their colors: A,pale; B,striped; C,red; and D,russet.

As a matter of interest I will give Diel's classification.

CLASS I.—RIBBED APPLES.1. They are furnished with very prominent, but regular ribs around the eye, extending also over the fruit, but which do not render it irregular.2. Having wide, open, and very irregular cells.ORDER I.—TRUE CALVILLES.1. They taper from about the middle of the fruit toward the eye.2. They are covered with bloom when on the tree.3. They have, or acquire, by keeping, an unctuous skin.4. They are not distinctly and purely striped.5. They have light, spongy, delicate flesh.6. They have a strawberry or raspberry flavor.ORDER II.—SCHLOTTER ÆPFEL.1. The skin does not feel unctuous.2. They are not covered with bloom.3. They are either of a flat, conical, cylindrical, or tapering form.4. They have not a balsamic, but mostly a sweetish or sourish flavor.5. They have a granulous, loose, and coarse-grained flesh.ORDER III.—GUELDERLINGE.1. They are not balsamic, like Order I., but of an aromatic flavor.2. They have a fine flesh, almost like that of the Reinettes.3. They are either of a conical or flat shape.4. They are most prominently ribbed around the eye.CLASS II—ROSENÆPFEL—ROSE APPLES.1. They are covered with blue bloom when on the tree.2. They have not unproportionally large, but often only regular cells.3. They emit a pleasant odor when briskly rubbed.4. The skin does not feel unctuous.5. They are handsomely and regularly ribbed around the eye, and often also over the fruit.6. They have a tender, loose, spongy, and mostly fine grained flesh.7. They have a fine rose, fennel, or anise flavor.8. They are mostly of short duration, and are often only summer or autumn apples.9. They are mostly striped like a turnip.ORDER I.—FRUIT TAPERING OR OBLONG.ORDER II.—FRUIT ROUND OR FLAT.CLASS III.—RAMBOURS.1. They are all large apples, and comprise the largest sorts.2. They have mostly, or almost always, two unequal halves—namely, one side lower than the other.3. They are constantly furnished with ribs around the eye which are broad, rising irregularly, one above the other, and extending over the fruit so as to render it irregular in its shape; they are also compressed, and have one side higher than the other.4. They are constantly broader than high, and only sometimes elongated.5. They have all a loose, coarse grained and often very pleasant flesh.ORDER I.—WITH WIDE CELLS.ORDER II.—WITH NARROW CELLS.CLASS IV.—REINETTES.1. They have a fine grained, delicate, crisp, firm flesh.2. They are mostly the ideal of a handsomely shaped apple; in them the convexity or bulge of the middle of the apple towards the eye is the same as that towards the stalk, or not much different.3. They are all gray dotted, or have russety patches, or completely covered with russet.4. They have rarely an unctuous skin.5. They have all the rich, aromatic, sugary, and brisk flavor, which is called the Reinette flavor.6. They decay very readily, and must, of all apples, hang longest on the tree.7. The really sweet and at the same time aromatic apples belong to the Reinettes, only as regards their shape, their character, and their fine and firm flesh.8. Apples with fine, firm, crisp flesh, which cannot of themselves form a distinct class; for instance, the Pippins belong to this class.ORDER I.—SELF-COLORED REINETTES.1. Having a uniform green ground color, which changes to the most beautiful golden yellow.2. Having no lively colors or marks of russet on the side next the sun, except those that are very much exposed, and which assume a slight tinge of red.3. Having no covering of russet, but only slight traces of russety stripes.ORDER II.—RED REINETTES.Having all the properties of the self-colored Reinettes, but of a pure red on the side next the sun, without any mixture of russet.ORDER III.—GRAY REINETTES.1. The ground color is green, changing to dingy dull yellow.2. The coating of russet, or the russety patches, spread over the greater part of the fruit, are very conspicuous.3. The side next the sun is often dull brownish or ochreous red.ORDER IV.—GOLDEN REINETTES.1. On the side next the sun they are washed or striped with beautiful crimson.2. The ground color changes by keeping to a beautiful deep yellow.3. Over the ground color, and the crimson of the exposed side, are spread light thin patches, or a complete coat of russet.CLASS V.—STREIFLINGE—STRIPED APPLES.1. They are all, and almost always, marked with broken stripes of red.2. These stripes are found either over the whole fruit, or only very indistinctly on the side exposed to the sun.3. The stripes may be distinct—that is to say, truly striped; or between these stripes on the side next the sun the fruit is dotted, shaded, or washed with red; but on the shaded side the stripes are well defined.4. The cells are regular.5. They are of a purely sweet, vinous, or acid flavor.6. They have not the same flavor as the Rose apples.7. They do not decay, except when gathered before maturity.ORDER I.—FLAT STREIFLINGE.1. They have the bulge at the same distance from the eye as from the stalk, and are broadly flattened.2. They are constantly half an inch broader than high.ORDER II.—TAPERING STREIFLINGE.1. They are broader than high.2. They diminish from the middle of the apple towards the eye, so that the superior half is conical or pyramidal, and not at all similar to the inferior half.ORDER III.—OBLONG OR CYLINDRICAL STREIFLINGE.1. The hight and breadth are almost equal.2. They diminish gradually from the base to the apex.3. Or from the middle of the fruit they gradually diminish toward the base and apex equally.ORDER IV.—ROUND STREIFLINGE.1. The convexity of the fruit next the base and the apex is the same.2. The breadth does not differ from the hight, except only about a quarter of an inch.3. Laid in the hand, with the eye and stalk sidewise, they have the appearance of a roundish grape.CLASS VI.—TAPERING APPLES.1. They have the cells regular.2. They are not covered with bloom.3. They are not striped, and are either of a uniform color, or washed with red on the side next the sun.4. Constantly diminishing to a point towards the eye.5. They are sweet or vinous, approaching a pure acid.6. They do not readily decay.ORDER I.—OBLONG, CYLINDRICAL OR CONICAL.Characters the same as Order III. of the Streiflinge.ORDER II.—TAPERING TO A POINT.Characters the same as Order II. of the Streiflinge.CLASS VII.—FLAT APPLES.1. They are constantly broader than high.2. They are never striped.3. They are either of a uniform color, or, on the side exposed to the sun, more or less washed or shaded with red.4. They have regular cells.5. They are not unctuous when handled.6. They do not readily decay.7. Flavor purely sweet, or purely sour.ORDER I.—PURELY FLAT APPLES.1. The difference is obvious to the eye.2. The breadth is constantly half an inch more than the hight.ORDER II.—ROUND-SHAPED FLAT APPLES.1. The eye cannot easily detect a distinction between the breadth and hight.2. The breadth rarely exceeds the hight by a quarter of an inch.3. The fruit, cut transversely, exhibits almost or quite two equal halves.

CLASS I.—RIBBED APPLES.

1. They are furnished with very prominent, but regular ribs around the eye, extending also over the fruit, but which do not render it irregular.

2. Having wide, open, and very irregular cells.

ORDER I.—TRUE CALVILLES.

1. They taper from about the middle of the fruit toward the eye.

2. They are covered with bloom when on the tree.

3. They have, or acquire, by keeping, an unctuous skin.

4. They are not distinctly and purely striped.

5. They have light, spongy, delicate flesh.

6. They have a strawberry or raspberry flavor.

ORDER II.—SCHLOTTER ÆPFEL.

1. The skin does not feel unctuous.

2. They are not covered with bloom.

3. They are either of a flat, conical, cylindrical, or tapering form.

4. They have not a balsamic, but mostly a sweetish or sourish flavor.

5. They have a granulous, loose, and coarse-grained flesh.

ORDER III.—GUELDERLINGE.

1. They are not balsamic, like Order I., but of an aromatic flavor.

2. They have a fine flesh, almost like that of the Reinettes.

3. They are either of a conical or flat shape.

4. They are most prominently ribbed around the eye.

CLASS II—ROSENÆPFEL—ROSE APPLES.

1. They are covered with blue bloom when on the tree.

2. They have not unproportionally large, but often only regular cells.

3. They emit a pleasant odor when briskly rubbed.

4. The skin does not feel unctuous.

5. They are handsomely and regularly ribbed around the eye, and often also over the fruit.

6. They have a tender, loose, spongy, and mostly fine grained flesh.

7. They have a fine rose, fennel, or anise flavor.

8. They are mostly of short duration, and are often only summer or autumn apples.

9. They are mostly striped like a turnip.

ORDER I.—FRUIT TAPERING OR OBLONG.

ORDER II.—FRUIT ROUND OR FLAT.

CLASS III.—RAMBOURS.

1. They are all large apples, and comprise the largest sorts.

2. They have mostly, or almost always, two unequal halves—namely, one side lower than the other.

3. They are constantly furnished with ribs around the eye which are broad, rising irregularly, one above the other, and extending over the fruit so as to render it irregular in its shape; they are also compressed, and have one side higher than the other.

4. They are constantly broader than high, and only sometimes elongated.

5. They have all a loose, coarse grained and often very pleasant flesh.

ORDER I.—WITH WIDE CELLS.

ORDER II.—WITH NARROW CELLS.

CLASS IV.—REINETTES.

1. They have a fine grained, delicate, crisp, firm flesh.

2. They are mostly the ideal of a handsomely shaped apple; in them the convexity or bulge of the middle of the apple towards the eye is the same as that towards the stalk, or not much different.

3. They are all gray dotted, or have russety patches, or completely covered with russet.

4. They have rarely an unctuous skin.

5. They have all the rich, aromatic, sugary, and brisk flavor, which is called the Reinette flavor.

6. They decay very readily, and must, of all apples, hang longest on the tree.

7. The really sweet and at the same time aromatic apples belong to the Reinettes, only as regards their shape, their character, and their fine and firm flesh.

8. Apples with fine, firm, crisp flesh, which cannot of themselves form a distinct class; for instance, the Pippins belong to this class.

ORDER I.—SELF-COLORED REINETTES.

1. Having a uniform green ground color, which changes to the most beautiful golden yellow.

2. Having no lively colors or marks of russet on the side next the sun, except those that are very much exposed, and which assume a slight tinge of red.

3. Having no covering of russet, but only slight traces of russety stripes.

ORDER II.—RED REINETTES.

Having all the properties of the self-colored Reinettes, but of a pure red on the side next the sun, without any mixture of russet.

ORDER III.—GRAY REINETTES.

1. The ground color is green, changing to dingy dull yellow.

2. The coating of russet, or the russety patches, spread over the greater part of the fruit, are very conspicuous.

3. The side next the sun is often dull brownish or ochreous red.

ORDER IV.—GOLDEN REINETTES.

1. On the side next the sun they are washed or striped with beautiful crimson.

2. The ground color changes by keeping to a beautiful deep yellow.

3. Over the ground color, and the crimson of the exposed side, are spread light thin patches, or a complete coat of russet.

CLASS V.—STREIFLINGE—STRIPED APPLES.

1. They are all, and almost always, marked with broken stripes of red.

2. These stripes are found either over the whole fruit, or only very indistinctly on the side exposed to the sun.

3. The stripes may be distinct—that is to say, truly striped; or between these stripes on the side next the sun the fruit is dotted, shaded, or washed with red; but on the shaded side the stripes are well defined.

4. The cells are regular.

5. They are of a purely sweet, vinous, or acid flavor.

6. They have not the same flavor as the Rose apples.

7. They do not decay, except when gathered before maturity.

ORDER I.—FLAT STREIFLINGE.

1. They have the bulge at the same distance from the eye as from the stalk, and are broadly flattened.

2. They are constantly half an inch broader than high.

ORDER II.—TAPERING STREIFLINGE.

1. They are broader than high.

2. They diminish from the middle of the apple towards the eye, so that the superior half is conical or pyramidal, and not at all similar to the inferior half.

ORDER III.—OBLONG OR CYLINDRICAL STREIFLINGE.

1. The hight and breadth are almost equal.

2. They diminish gradually from the base to the apex.

3. Or from the middle of the fruit they gradually diminish toward the base and apex equally.

ORDER IV.—ROUND STREIFLINGE.

1. The convexity of the fruit next the base and the apex is the same.

2. The breadth does not differ from the hight, except only about a quarter of an inch.

3. Laid in the hand, with the eye and stalk sidewise, they have the appearance of a roundish grape.

CLASS VI.—TAPERING APPLES.

1. They have the cells regular.

2. They are not covered with bloom.

3. They are not striped, and are either of a uniform color, or washed with red on the side next the sun.

4. Constantly diminishing to a point towards the eye.

5. They are sweet or vinous, approaching a pure acid.

6. They do not readily decay.

ORDER I.—OBLONG, CYLINDRICAL OR CONICAL.

Characters the same as Order III. of the Streiflinge.

ORDER II.—TAPERING TO A POINT.

Characters the same as Order II. of the Streiflinge.

CLASS VII.—FLAT APPLES.

1. They are constantly broader than high.

2. They are never striped.

3. They are either of a uniform color, or, on the side exposed to the sun, more or less washed or shaded with red.

4. They have regular cells.

5. They are not unctuous when handled.

6. They do not readily decay.

7. Flavor purely sweet, or purely sour.

ORDER I.—PURELY FLAT APPLES.

1. The difference is obvious to the eye.

2. The breadth is constantly half an inch more than the hight.

ORDER II.—ROUND-SHAPED FLAT APPLES.

1. The eye cannot easily detect a distinction between the breadth and hight.

2. The breadth rarely exceeds the hight by a quarter of an inch.

3. The fruit, cut transversely, exhibits almost or quite two equal halves.

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