1.Worcester’s Dictionary, citing Brande.
Thecolor of both gills and tubes is an important feature in the classification of fungi.
We have now arrived at a point where the amateur may become wearied at the reading of long names and the enumeration of classes and genera. Stevenson has said in his preface to his work on British Fungi that “there is no royal road to the knowledge of fungi,” and if we become enough interested to pursue the subject we will probably discover it at this point. We will try and make this part as simple as possible, and only mention those genera which are most common.
Mushrooms may be divided into three great classes:
I. Gasteromycetes, or “Stomach fungi,” where the spores are produced within the plant.
II. Ascomycetes, or “Spore sac fungi,” where the spores are produced in delicate sacs called asci.
III. Hymenomycetes, or “Membrane fungi,”where the spores are produced on the lower surface of the cap.
This class is divided into six orders:
1. Gill-bearing mushrooms, Agarics, or Agaricini.
2. Fungi with pores or tubes, Polyporei.
3. Fungi with awl-shaped teeth or spines, Hydnei.
4. Fungi with an even spore-bearing or slightly wrinkled surface, Thelephorei.
5. Plants, club-shaped and simple, or bush-like and branched, Clavariei.
6. Gelatinous plants, irregularly expanded, Tremellinei.
The first order, the Agarics, contains most of the well-known mushrooms, as well as most of the edible ones. They have been divided into different classes according to the color of the spores. In a great many cases the color is the same as that of the gills; but this is not always the case, especially in the young plants. The Agarics are divided into four sections:
1. White spores, Leucosporæ.
2. Rosy, salmon or pinkish spores, Rhodosporæ.
3. Brown or ochraceous spores, Ochrosporæ.
4. Dark purplish or black spores, Melanosporæ.
There are an infinite number of mushrooms we shall not mention. The study of fungi has only begun in this country, and there is an immense vista for future students. The amateur or beginner may be well satisfied if after one summer spent in studying mushrooms he can remember the distinguishing types of the various genera, and can say with certainty, “This is a Russula, or this a Cortinarius, or this a Tricholoma.” He will then feel he has taken one important step in this “royal road.”
The names of the genera are all derived from Greek and Latin words. Stevenson, in his book on British Fungi, has given the original words and also their meanings. We take the liberty of copying the English term only, and will place it beside the name of each genus.
The first genus we will mention is:
This genus contains plants growing on the ground. They soon decay. The cap is sticky or watery, the gills often branched. It has a peculiarity in the fact that the hymenial cells, or the layer of mother cells, contained in the gills, change into a waxy mass, at length removable from the trama. The trama is that substance which extends with and is like in structure to the layer of mother cells.1It lies between the two layers of gills in Agarics. The gills seem full of watery juice, and they are more or less decurrent,i. e., extend down the stem. This genus contains many bright-colored and shining species.
We are obliged to refer to the hymenial layer in this place, though the beginner will scarcely understand the meaning of the term. The distinguishing peculiarity of this genus consists in the cells changing to a waxy mass. In the chapter on the structure of mushrooms we havetried to explain something about the cells and the Hymenium.
This genus is fleshy, growing on the ground; the cap is often depressed in the centre. The gills are adnato-decurrent, that is, partly attached and prolonged down the stem. They are waxy, rather rigid and acute at the edge. The distinctive feature is the milk that flows when the gills are cut. Sometimes the milk changes color.
This genus grows on the ground, is fleshy, and soon decays. The cap is depressed, or becomes so at a later stage of growth. The stem is polished, generally white, and is very brittle. The gills are rigid, fragile, with an acute edge, and mostly equal in length. Some species exude watery drops. It contains many species of beautiful colors.
The principal characteristic of this genus consists in the fold-like nature of its gills. The gills are thick, with an obtuse edge, and arebranched and decurrent. The genus is fleshy, soft, and putrescent, and has no veil. Some plants grow on the ground and others on mosses.
The genus is tough and dry, not decaying, but shrivelling, and reviving when wet. The stem is tough (cartilaginous.) The gills are rather distant, the edge acute and entire. The plants often have a peculiar smell and taste, like garlic. They are small and thin, commonly growing on the outside of another plant (epiphytal) on the ground, on putrid leaves, or on roots of grasses.
The origin of this name is doubtful. Galen, an ancient Greek physician, is said to have given the name to some edible fungi (Stevenson). It is distinguished as the only genus that hasboth volva and ring. The young plant is enveloped by a universal veil which bursts at maturity. The volva around the base of the stem is formed by the splitting or bursting of the veil, and its different modes of rupture mark the several species. It is sometimesshaped very prettily, and has the appearance of a cup around the stem. It contains many poisonous as well as edible mushrooms.
This genus has a universal veil. The gills are free. Sometimes the ring, or annulus, is movable on the stem. The cap is often covered with warts, or the skin torn into scales, and the stem sometimes inserted in a cup or socket.
There is no universal veil in this genus, only a partial one that forms a ring, or sometimes only indicating the ring by scales. The species usually grow on the ground.
This genus is especially noted for its sinuate gills. They have a tooth next to the stem. All grow on the ground and are fleshy. There are sometimes fibrils which adhere to the margin of the cap, the remains of the veil. There are no plants in this genus that are considered poisonous.
The gills in this genus are attenuated behind and are attached to stem (adnate) or run down it (decurrent.) The cap is generally plano depressed or funnel-shaped (infundibuliform). Some are fragrant; the odor resembles fresh apricots.
The stem in this genus is tough or stuffed with a pith, and covered with a cartilaginous rind. The margin of the cap is smooth and turned under at first (involute). The gills are soft, free, or only adnexed behind. The plants grow on the outside of wood and leaves, even on fungi, but are often rooted on the ground, and do not dry up. The gills are sometimes brightly colored.
In this genus also the stem is cartilaginous, the cap is sometimes bell-shaped (campanulate) and slender. The plants are generally small and fragile. The cap is from ⅛ to 1½ inch broad. The stem is sometimes filiform, and they grow on stumps and sticks, dead wood, twigs and leaves. They may be foundearly in the season, but oftener from August to November.
photographOmphalia alboflava.Photographed by C. G. Lloyd.
The stem in this genus is cartilaginous. The gills run down the stem. The cap is somewhat membranaceous. It is oftener depressed and funnel-shaped. The gills are often branched. The species grow in moist places. The plants are generally small. The largest only measure 2 inches, the smallest only ½ inch across the cap.
In this genus the stem is sometimes wanting, or it grows on the side, or between the centre and margin (eccentric). The plants rarely grow on the ground. They are irregular and fleshy or membranaceous. The time of growth is generally in the autumn. There are a few edible species.
In this section of Agarics the spores are red, pink, or salmon color.
This genus has neither volva nor ring. The gills are rounded behind and free, entirely separate from stem, white, then flesh-colored, but often tinged with yellow. The cuticle is sometimes covered with fibres, or with a bloom upon it (pruinose). The apex of the stem is inserted in the cap like a peg, and in this it resembles the Lepiotas. The species grow on or near trunks, appear early, and last until late in the season.
This genus resembles Tricholoma, which belongs to the white-spored Agarics and Hebeloma, which is rosy-spored. The species grow on the ground, and are found chiefly after rain. The stem is fleshy or fibrous, soft, sometimes waxy. The cap has the margin incurved, the gills have a tooth (sinuate), and are adnexed to the stem. Some species smell of fresh meal.
This genus has a veil resembling a cobweb. The gills generally become cinnamon-colored. They grow on the ground in woods, during late summer and autumn. Some of our most beautiful mushrooms belong to this group. The veil is not persistent, and soon disappears.
This genus mostly grows on trunks. The partial or secondary veil takes the form of a ring. The cap is often covered with scales.
This genus is distinguished by the silky fibrilose covering of the cap, which never has a distinct pellicle, and by the veil which is lasting and of like nature to the fibrils of the cap. All grow upon the ground.
In this genus the margin of the cap is at first incurved. The gills are attached with a tooth,with the edge more or less of a different color, often whitish. The stem is fleshy, fibrous, somewhat mealy at the apex. They grow on the ground and are strong-smelling, appear early in the autumn, and continue until late in the season.
This genus is fleshy, putrescent; at first the cap has the margin turned under (involute), then it unfolds gradually and dilates. There are some species of both Tricholoma and Clitocybe that resemble it. The gills separate easily from the cap, and in this it is similar to the Boleti, where the tubes separate also with ease.
The common mushroom Agaricus campestris belongs to this group. The gills are rounded behind and free, the stem has a collar. There are many edible mushrooms in this genus. They grow in pastures, and the larger ones are called Champignons. In former times when one spoke of eating mushrooms the species A.campestris, or campester, was always the one denoted.
This genus has a ring. The gills are generally attached to the stem; some species grow on the ground, and some grow on other fungi. They are sometimes bell-shaped and then flattened, often with a mound or umbo.
The veil in this genus is woven in a web which adheres to the margin of the cap. The cap is more or less fleshy, and the margin at first incurved. The gills are attached or have a tooth. There is no ring. The plants grow in tufts on wood, or at the base of trees in the autumn.
The cap in this genus is fleshy, smooth, and the margin at first incurved. Gills turn dusky purple. The stem is cartilaginous, hollow or stuffed. No veil is visible. They grow on the ground.
The cap is conical and soft, the margin at first straight, and then pressed to the stem. The plants are slender, fragile and moist. Gills become purple. They grow on the ground, or on trunks of trees.
In this genus the spores are black. It has two distinctive features: one, that the gills cohere at first, and are not separated when young; and the other, that they dissolve into an inky fluid. The gills are also scissile, that is, they can be split, and are linear and swollen in the middle. The plants last but a short time. Some are edible.
We now pass to the next order, the Polyporei. We will mention four genera:
The name is that of a fungus much prized for its delicacy by the Romans, and is derivedfrom a Greek word meaning a clod, which denotes the round figure of the plant.
The Boleti grow on the ground, are fleshy and putrescent with central stems. The tubes are packed closely together and are easily separated.
In this genus the tubes are free and distinct from one another. They are somewhat fleshy and grow upon wood.
The pores or tubes in this genus are not separate from one another. They are persistent fungi, most of them growing upon wood.
The name of this genus is derived from Daedalus, who constructed the labyrinth at Crete, in which the monster Minotaur was kept. It was one of the seven wonders of the world.
These fungi grow on wood, and become hard. The pores are firm when fully grown; they are sinuous and labyrinthine.
The name is derived from a word meaning a spine. This order contains many genera, two of which we will mention, Hydnum and Tremellodon.
Hydnum is derived from a Greek word, the name of an edible fungus. The plants in this genus are furnished with spines or teeth, instead of gills or tubes, and these contain the spores. The species are divided according to the stem. In some it is central and grows on the ground, in others it is lateral, and the cap is semicircular (dimidiate), and others again have no stem. There are some species that have no cap, and the spines are either straight or oblique. There are a few that are edible, but generally they have a bitter taste. However, some writers say that Hydnum repandum, or the spreading Hedgehog, is “delicious.” This mushroom and the one named “Medusa’s head,” H. caput Medusæ, are perhaps the most conspicuous of the order. The latter is very large. Its color is at first white, then becoming ashy gray. The spines on the upper surface are twisted, whilethe lower ones are long and straight. It grows on trunks of trees. In the spreading Hydnum the margin of the cap is arched and irregular. It grows on the ground.
The fungi in this genus are gelatinous. The cap is nearly semicircular in shape, sometimes fan-shaped and rounded in front. The spines or teeth are soft, white and delicate. We found one specimen in the month of September in the mountains of the State of New York.
In this order the lower surface of the cap is smooth and even, or slightly wrinkled. It is divided into several genera, only two of which we will enumerate, Craterellus and Stereum.
The species called the “horn of plenty,” Craterellus cornucopioides, belongs to this genus, and is often found. Stevenson says it is common. It is trumpet-shaped (tubiform).The cap is of a dingy black color, and the stem is hollow, smooth, and black. We found quite a small specimen, the pileus not more than 1½ inch broad, but it may measure 3 inches. The spore-bearing surface was of an ash color. The margin of the cap was wavy, and it was hollow right through to the base. It was only 2 inches high, and there was scarcely any stem.
The genus Stereum is woody and leathery in nature, somewhat zoned, and looks like some Polyporci. It grows on wood, on stumps, and on dead wood.
This order contains several genera, but one only will be mentioned, that of Clavaria.
The common name often given to this genus is “Fairy Clubs.” We have described several species in our list of fungi, and will only say that these are fleshy fungi, either simple or branched. The expression fleshy, so often metwith in these pages, is used in speaking of plants when they are succulent and composed of juicy, cellular tissue. They do not become leathery. In the genus Clavaria the fungi have no caps, but they have stems. There are a few edible species. One can scarcely walk any distance without seeing some species of Clavaria. They are conspicuous, sometimes attractive looking, and interesting in their variety.
The genus Cortinarius, one of the order of Agarics, has been already described, but it contains so many species that it deserves especial mention.
They are difficult to define. The genus has been subdivided by botanists into tribes which it may be well to enumerate. We have followed Stevenson’s arrangement.
He divides Cortinarius into six tribes.
1. Phlegacium = clammy moisture. In this tribe the cap is fleshy and sticky (viscous), while the stem is firm and dry. In all Cortinarii the gills become cinnamon-colored. There are many large-sized mushrooms in this tribe, the cap sometimes measuring 6 inches across.
2. Myxacium = mucous. This tribe has the stem sticky (viscous), and the universal veil isglutinous. The cap is fleshy but thin. Gills attached to stem and decurrent.
3. Inoloma = fibre and fringe. It contains distinguished species. The cap is at first silky, with innate scales or fibrils, is equally fleshy and dry. The stem is fleshy and rather bulbous.
4. Dermocybe = skin and head. The cap and stem are both thinner in this tribe than in Inoloma. The pileus becomes thin when old, and is dry, not moist. It is at first silky. The color of the gills is changeable, which makes it hard to distinguish the species.
5. Telamonia = lint. Pileus moist; at first smooth or sprinkled with superficial whitish fibres of the veil. Flesh thin, or becoming so abruptly at the margin; the veil is somewhat double, which is a distinguishing characteristic of this tribe.
6. Hygrocybe = moist and head. Cap in this tribe is smooth or only covered with white superficial fibrils, not gluey, but moist when fresh, and changing color when dry. Flesh thin.
The Basidia-bearing fungi, or Basidiomycetes, are divided into three classes, as has been already stated. The third class, Hymenomycetes, or Membrane fungi, has been described, but there remain two other groups of which we will now speak more fully. They may be considered too difficult for beginners, and we would not venture to enter further into the subject were it not that some of the most familiar fungi belong to these classes—such as Puff-balls, Morels, and Helvellas.
The first class, called the Gasteromycetes, or Stomach fungi, matures its spores on the inside of the plant. The distinction between this class and that of the Membrane fungi, which ripens its spores on the outside, may be more readily understood by one familiar with the structure of the fig, whose flowers are situated on the interior of its pear-shaped, hollow axis, which is the fruit.
We will divide the Stomach fungi into four orders—1, the thick-skinned fungi (Sclerodermæ); 2, the Bird’s-nest fungi (Nidulariæ);3, the Puff-balls (Lycoperdons); 4, the Stink horns (Phalloidæ.)
Our attention will be confined to only one genus, and, indeed, one species of this family. We often see in our walks what at a first glance look like potatoes lying along the road, and the suggestion arises that some careless boy has been losing potatoes from his basket on his way home from the country store. We stoop to pick them up, and find them rooted to the ground and covered with warts and scales. We cut them open and find them a purplish-black color inside. It is a mass of closely packed unripe spores. In a few days the upper part of the outside covering decays, bursts open, and the ripe spores escape. This is called the common hard-rind fungus, or Scleroderma vulgare.
This is again divided into three genera. The Crucible (crucibulum), the Cup (Cyathus), the Bird’s-nest proper (Nidularia.)
We often find on a wood-pile or a fallen tree some of the members of the Bird’s-nest family. It is fascinating to examine them in their various stages of development. First we see a tiny buff knot, cottony in texture and closely covered; next, another rather larger, with its upper covering thrown aside, displaying the tiny eggs, which prompts one to look around for the miniature mother bird; then we find a nest empty with the fledglings flown. The characteristic that distinguishes the Bird’s-nest fungi from others consists in the fact that the spores are produced in small envelopes that do not split open, and which are enclosed in a common covering, called the peridium. One species is known by the fluted inside of the covering, which is quite beautiful. They are all small and grow in groups.
The Lycoperdons contain several genera, among which we select the Puff-balls proper and the Earth stars.
What child is there who lives in the country and does not know the Puff-ball? With what gusto he presses it and watches what he callsthe smoke pouring from the chimney. Indeed, the outpouring of myriads of spores in its ripe stage does suggest smoke from a chimney. The puff-ball, when young, is of a firm texture, nearly round, grayish, or brownish outside, but of a pure white within. There are several genera, but we have selected two—1, Lycoperdon; and 2, Earth Star, or Geaster.
The puff-balls vary greatly in size, the smallest measure ½ inch up to the largest, about 15 inches. Professor Peck describes them thus: “Specimens of medium size are 8 to 12 inches in diameter. The largest in the State Museum is about 15 inches in the dry state. When fresh it was probably 20 inches or more. The color is whitish, afterward yellowish or brownish. The largest size was called the Giant Puff-ball (Calvatia bovista).”
These vary greatly in size. The small ones grow on pine needles on the ground or among leaves. Some are mounted on pedicels, some are sessile or seated directly on the earth, butthe family likeness is so pronounced that even the novice need not be doubtful as to the name of the fungus when found. There are two species that have slender, elongated stems. The name is well chosen. In moist weather the points expand and roll back or lie flat on the earth. Then the round puff-ball in the centre is plainly seen.
In dry weather the star-like divisions are rigidly turned in and cover closely the round portion. “When dry it is sometimes rolled about by the wind; when it is wet by the rain or abundant dew it absorbs the moisture and spreads itself out, and rests from its journey, again to take up its endless wandering as sun and rain appear to reduce it once more to a ball and set it rolling.” (Underwood.)
We come now to the fourth and last order of the Stomach fungi (Gasteromycetes) that we shall mention. In spite of their appellation these fungi are strikingly beautiful, but their odor is most offensive. They grow in woods, and are also found in cellars. Their history has been carefully investigated by mycologists,and the novice will find many beautiful illustrations in various works. In their early stage they are enclosed in an egg-shaped veil (volva), having a gelatinous inner layer. Some are bright-colored, others are pure white, and the stems of one species look as if covered with lace work. The most familiar one, Phallus impudicus, “the fetid wood witch,” we have placed in the list of fungi at the end of this book, with its description.
This is the second division of the Basidia-bearing fungi. It includes all the fungi that have the spores enveloped in delicate sacs called asci. It is divided into several orders, but we will only mention the one which contains the most familiar plants. This order is named the Disc-like fungi (Discomycetes). In this the spore-bearing surface is on the upper or outside surface of the mushroom cap. It is divided into many genera, of which we shall mention three—the Cup fungi, or Pezizas, the Morels or Morchellas, and the Yellowish fungi or Helvellas.
These form a very large group, mostly growing on decaying plants. They are typically disc-shaped or cup-shaped, and when young are closed or nearly so, opening when mature. They vary in size from minute species to large fleshy ones, 3 to 4 inches in diameter. They are generally small, thin, and tough. They grow on twigs, leaves, dead wood, or on the ground. Many are stemless. They are both solitary and densely clustered. The color varies from pale brown to a dark gray, resembling, when moist, india-rubber cloth, and then, again, there are many of brilliant hues—red and orange. Some are erect, some are split down at the side like the ear of a hare. The Cup fungi are found in August and September, growing near ditches, and by the roadside where there is moisture. The ear-shaped Pezizas somewhat resemble the Jew’s ear, and the beginner might easily confound them. This latter fungus belongs to the third class of membrane fungi (Hymenomycetes), and it is included in the descriptions of fungi.
The collector during the months of April and May will enjoy a new experience when he first finds a fungus of a bright brown color, deeply pitted, spongy looking, cone-shaped or nearly round; its head supported on an erect, white stem. He will probably find it on a grassy hillside or along a running brook under some forest trees. He has perhaps seen its picture and at once exclaims, “my first Morel.” He will notice its peculiar honey-combed depression, and then cutting it open will find both the head and the stem hollow. Where are the spores? There are no gills as in the Agarics, nor are they concealed in a covering (peridium), as in the Puff-balls, but they are contained in delicate sacs on the cap. The exterior surface of the cap is the spore-bearing portion, and the spores are developed in their sacs, but only seen under a microscope.
This genus may be readily recognized by the form of the cap, which is lobed and irregularlywaved and drooping, often attached to the stem. They grow on the ground in the woods, and sometimes on rotten wood. The genus comprises the largest of the Disc fungi known, some species weighing over a pound. Cicero mentions the Helvellas as a favorite dish of the Romans.
It will be well to finish this section with the mention of the Truffle. It may yet be found in the United States, but hitherto its place of growth has been on the continent of Europe, and especially in France, where it forms an article of commerce, and is highly prized as food. It is subterranean, and requires for its discovery a higher sense of smell than man possesses. It is generally found by the hog and the dog, who are trained to help the truffle hunters. There are some species in our country that resemble it, and grow underneath the ground. One, found in the Southern States, called Rhizopogon, grows in sandy soil. This species, however, does not belong to Class II., but to Class I., the Gasteromycetes, or Stomach fungi. It is not likely that the beginner will find this mushroom, so no description will be given.
1.In the young plant it forms the framework of the gills.
There are certain facts which if committed to memory will be of great help to beginners in classifying mushrooms. There are distinctive features belonging to different genera, which will be enumerated as follows. These facts apply to the order of Agarics, containing the largest number of familiar mushrooms. They have been placed in tables for the convenience of the beginner, and are arranged without regard to family relationship.
There is only one genus that has both volva and ring. Amanita.
1. Pholiota.
2. Annularia.
3. Stropharia.
4. Psalliota.
5. Armillaria.
6. Lepiota.
1. Crepidotus.
2. Claudopus.
3. Pleurotus.
1. Psathyra.
2. Nolanea.
3. Mycena.
4. Marasmius.
5. Naucoria.
6. Leptonia.
7. Omphalia.
8. Collybia.
9. Psilocybe.
10. Galera.
1. Schizophyllum.
2. Trogia.
3. Lenzites.
1. Psathyra.
2. Galera.
3. Nolanea.
4. Mycena.
1. Stropharia.
2. Armillaria.
3. Pholiota.
1. Lentinus.
1. Chitonia.
2. Psalliota.
3. Pluteolus.
4. Pluteus.
5. Volvaria.
6. Lepiota.
7. Amanita.
1. Hypholoma.
2. Tricholoma.
3. Hebeloma.
4. Entoloma.
1. Lenzites.
2. Lentinus.
3. Schizophyllum.
4. Panus.
1. Gomphidius.
2. Paxillus.
3. Tubaria (some species).
4. Flammula (some adnate).
5. Eccilia (truly decurrent).
6. Clitopilus (somewhat decurrent).
7. Panus (some species decurrent).
8. Lentinus (mostly decurrent).
9. Cantharellus.
10. Hygrophorus (mostly decurrent).
11. Pleurotus (some decurrent).
12. Omphalia (truly decurrent).
13. Clitocybe (decurrent or adnate).
14. Lactarius (decurrent or adnato-decurrent).
1. Coprinus.
2. Bolbitius.
It will also be useful to the beginner to see a list of Agarics classified according to botanists by the color of their spores.
1. Leucosporæ (white spores).
2. Rhodosporæ (rosy or salmon spores).
3. Ochrosporæ (ochraceous spores).
4. Melanosporæ (dark purple or black spores).
1. Amanita.
2. Lepiota.
3. Armillaria.
4. Tricholoma.
5. Clitocybe.
6. Collybia.
7. Mycena.
8. Omphalia.
9. Pleurotus.
10. Trogia.
11. Hygrophorus.
12. Lactarius.
13. Russula.
14. Cantharellus.
15. Marasmius.
16. Lentinus.
17. Panus.
18. Xerotus.
19. Schizophyllum.
20. Lenzites.
21. Arrhenia (pallid spores).
1. Volvaria.
2. Pluteus.
3. Enteloma.
4. Leptonia.
5. Nolanea.
6. Eccilia.
7. Claudopus.
8. Clitopilus.