The Gurung and Limbu tribes, already described, are, however, shepherds provided with numerous flocks. In winter they retire to the lower mountains and vallies; but in summer they ascend to the Alpine regions, which bound the country on the north, and feed their herds on some extensive tracts in the vicinity of the regions perpetually frozen, but which inwinter are deeply covered with snow. The sheep which these people possess are said to be very large, and are called Barwal, and their wool is said to be fine. It is woven into a cloth, which is finer than that of Bhotan. The sheep of this breed give also much milk, with which, if I understand the account of the natives right, they make a kind of cheese. Whether or not the Barwal is of the same breed with the sheep employed to carry loads, and afterwards to be mentioned, I do not exactly know.
There is another kind of sheep called San-Bhera, which are never sent to the Alpine pastures.
The cattle of the ox kind resemble those of the low country, and are not numerous.
Buffaloes are brought from the low country and fattened for slaughter, but are not bred. The same is the case with hogs and goats, although the country seems admirably adapted for the latter kind of cattle.
Horses are imported from Thibet, for they do not breed on the south side of the Alps. The same is the case with the Chaungri cattle, (Bos grunniens,) and the goat which produces the wool from whence shawls are made.
This part of the country consists in many places of granite, and contains much iron, lead, and copper, with some zinc (Dasta) and a little gold found in the channels of some rivers. The specimens which I procured of the ores were so small, that I can say little concerning their nature. The copper ore which I saw adhered to whitish hornstone, or earthy quartz. The iron ore is a dark red stony substance, with a fine grain. I have not seen any of the lead or zinc ores. The following details respecting the management of these mines, will enable the reader to judge concerning their value.
The copper mines seem to be quite superficial, and the oreis dug from trenches entirely open above, so that the workmen cannot act in the rainy season, as they have not even sense to make a drain. Each mine has attached to it certain families, who seem to be a kind of proprietors, as no one else is allowed to dig. These miners are called Agari. Each man in the month digs, on an average, from two to fourmansof the ore, that is, about 30mansin the year. Themanis 40sersof 64siccaweight, so that the total ore dug by each man may be about 1970 lb. This is delivered to another set of workmen, named Kami, who smelt, and work in metals. These procure charcoal, the Raja furnishing trees, and smelt the ore. This is first roasted, then put in water for two or three days, then powdered, and finally put in small furnaces, each containing from two to threesers, or from three to five pounds of the powdered ore. Twosersof ore give from one to one and a halfserof metal, or, on an average, 62½ per cent. The total copper, therefore, procured by one miner’s labour is 1232 lb. Of this, the man takes ⅓ = 410⅔ lb., the Raja takes as much, the smelter takes 1/5 = 246⅔ lb. The remainder, 164-3/11 lb. is divided equally between the Raja, the miner, and a person called Izaradar, who keeps the accounts, usually advances a subsistence to the whole party, and often gives loans even to the Raja, the system of anticipation being universally prevalent. The miner, therefore, makes about 465 lb. of copper in the year, and the Raja, for each miner, has as much. The smelter gets about 300 lb. but one smelter suffices for about two miners, so that he makes better wages. It must be observed, that copper bears in India a much greater value in proportion to silver than it does in Europe, so that the profits of the miner are high.
The iron ore is also found near the surface, and the mines of it are nearly on the same footing as those of copper, only thesame persons (Kami) dig and smelt, and are allowed one third of the whole produce, while the Raja and superintendent (Izaradar) receive each as much. I have received no estimate of the amount of each man’s labour. The iron of different mines is of very different qualities, some being so excellent, that, even without being converted into steel, it makes knives and swords.
Only two mines of lead are at present wrought, because all the metal is reserved for the Raja’s magazines; but, so far as I can learn, lead is found in a great many places quite on the surface. These, however, are concealed with care by those who observe them, and who are thus able to work in private.
Colonel Kirkpatrick[78a]was informed, that the people, owing to want of skill, could not smelt their lead ore, and procured the metal from Patna; but it would be extraordinary, if a people who could smelt iron and copper, should be unable to smelt lead. He, in the same place, observes, that the lead of Nepal, as usual, contains silver.
Colonel Kirkpatrick had received information of mines of antimony and mercury, but considered the information vague. I am well assured of the existence of the latter in the form of a native cinnabar, which is calledSabitaby the natives, and is exported to the low country for sale.
The position of such of the mines as have come to my knowledge, will be seen in the maps.
Mines of sulphur are said to be numerous in these regions. Colonel Kirkpatrick[78b]says, that the government of Gorkha was obliged to desist from working them, on account of theirdeleterious qualities. This was probably owing to an admixture of arsenic, which he says is also found.
Corundum of the compact kind, such as is found in the western provinces under the presidency of Bengal, is called Kurran by the Hindus of the mountains, and is found in great quantities on the hills of Isma and Musikot; and at Kathmandu, I was shown some of a coarse nature, said to be brought from the surrounding mountains; but what is most esteemed in that capital is said to come from Thibet. In both the Company’s territory and in Nepal, it is always found in detached rounded masses lying on the surface, but often of considerable size. In Nepal, these masses seldom exceed four or five pounds, but in the Company’s provinces they are much larger.
I saw masses of the Agalmatolite, used in China to make images, and in Ava for pencils. They were said to be brought from the mountains in the vicinity of Kathmandu.
I have seen very fine specimens of Talc brought from Nepal as a medicine; but I have no information concerning the place where it is found.
On the banks of the Gandaki, at Muktanath, is a precipice, from which the river is supposed to wash the Salagrams or black stones, which are considered by the Hindus as representatives of several of their deities, and which are the most common objects of worship in Bengal, where images are scarce. They are of various kinds, and accordingly represent different deities. Pilgrims, who have been at the place, say, that the stones are found partly in the precipice, and partly in the bed of the river, where it has washed down the earth. On account of its containing these stones, this branch of the river is usually called the Salagrami, and the channel every where below Muktinath, until it reaches the plain of India at Sivapur,abounds in these stones. All the Salagrams consist of carbonate of lime, and are in general quite black, but a few have white veins. Their colour is probably owing to some metallic impregnation, which also occasions their great specific weight. They rarely exceed the size of an orange, and they are rounded, I suppose, by the action of water. Most of them are what naturalists call petrifactions, and by far the most common are Ammonites, half imbedded in a ball of stone, exactly of the same nature with the petrified animal. Others, which are reckoned the most valuable, are balls containing a cavity formed by an Ammonite, that has afterwards decayed, and left only its impression, or they are what Wallerius callsTypolithi Ammonitarum. The Ammonites or their impressions are called the Chakras or wheels of the Salagrams, but are sometimes wanting. The stone is then a mere ball without any mark of animal exuviæ. Some balls have no external opening, and yet by rubbing away a portion of one of their sides, the hollow wheel (chakra) is discovered. Such Salagrams are reckoned very valuable.
In many parts of these mountains, the substance calledSilajitexudes from rocks. I have not yet satisfied myself concerning its nature; but intend hereafter to treat the subject fully, when I describe the natural productions of Behar, where I had an opportunity of collecting it, as it came from the rock.
The valley of Nepal Proper, which contains Kathmandu, or, as many call it, Kathmaro, Lalita Patan, and Bhatgang, is the largest in the dominions of Gorkha, and in this plain there is not naturally a single stone of any considerable size. The whole, so far as man has penetrated, consists of what is called alluvial matter, covered by soil. In some places the alluvial matter consists of thick beds of fine gravel and sand, much ofwhich is micaceous. Among these beds are found concretions of the same materials, united into balls, about the size and shape of a turkey’s egg. At one end these are generally perforated with a small hole, and some, but not all of them, are hollow. The Newars call them Dungoda; but can give no account of their formation, nor did I observe any thing that could lead to an explanation.
A large proportion of the alluvial matter consists of a blackish substance resembling clay. It seems to approach nearer to the nature of turf than any thing with which I am acquainted, and I have no doubt is of vegetable origin. It is called Koncha by the Newars, who dig out large quantities, and apply it to their fields as a manure. The beds, in which it is disposed, are often very thick and extensive; and it is always much intermixed with leaves, bits of stick, fruits, and other vegetable exuviæ, the produce of plants, similar to those now growing on the neighbouring hills.
The various rivers that pass through the above-mentioned Koncha, have washed from its strata another harder and blacker substance, but still having so strong a resemblance, that it is calledHa Koncha. This is most commonly found in the channels of the rivers, and by the natives is supposed to be decayed charcoal; but the great size of some of the masses seems to me incompatible with the truth of this opinion.
A kind of blue martial earth, the earthy blue iron ore of mineralogists, by the Newars called Ong Shigulay, is also found commonly intermixed with the Koncha. It is never in large masses, and, in my opinion, has derived its origin from some vegetable substance that has been gradually impregnated with iron. Cones of the pine may be traced in all stages, from those retaining a half of their vegetable nature, to thoseentirely converted into martial earth, and only distinguishable by their shape as having once been vegetable productions. The half-formed specimen that I procured is a cone of thePinus strobus; but the more common ones are exuviæ of thePinus longifolia.
In the alluvial matter of the plain of Nepal are also found large strata of clay, fit for the potter and brickmaker.
The greater part of the mountains which enclose the valley of Nepal consists of grey granite, of which the surface is very much decayed wherever it has been exposed to the air. On the south side of Chandangiri, about four miles west from Pharphing, is a very large stratum of fine white sand, which the Parbatiyas callSeta mati, or white earth. It seems to me to be nothing more than decayed granite; and I think it probable, that the sandstone found on Sambhu, and the neighbouring hill towards Hilchuck, is composed of this granitic sand reunited into rock. This sandstone is used in a few buildings, but I have seen no large blocks, and the difficulty, or impracticability, of procuring such, has probably occasioned this stone to be in general neglected.
The stone usually employed in Nepal for building is a rock containing much lime, which is so impregnated with other matters, that, though it effervesces strongly with acids, and falls to pieces in a sufficient quantity of these liquids, yet, by calcination, it cannot be reduced to quicklime fit for use. It is disposed in vertical strata, is very fine grained, has a silky lustre, cuts well, can be procured in large masses, and powerfully resists the action of the weather, so that it is an excellent material for building.
Limestone is so scarce, that clay is the only mortar used by the natives. We, however, visited a quarry on the mountain called Nag Arjun, where the people obtain lime forwhite-washing their houses, and for chewing with betel. It is a vertical stratum, about two feet wide, and running parallel with the other strata of the mountain. It consists of small irregular rhombic crystals, which agree with the character given by Wallerius of theSpathum arenarium.
In the lower part of the hills, which borders immediately on the plain, are found large masses of a hard red clay, considered by some naturalists, to whom I have shown it, as decomposed schistus. It is called Lungcha by the Newars, and used by them for painting the walls of their houses.
The whole of this mountainous region is copiously watered by limpid streams and springs, and the vegetable productions are of most remarkable stateliness, beauty, and variety. Except at the summits of the mountains, the trees are uncommonly large; and every where, and at all seasons, the earth abounds with the most beautiful flowers, partly resembling those of India, but still more those of Europe.
I have already mentioned the vegetable productions of the mountains, so far as they are objects of cultivation. I shall now mention a few of its spontaneous plants that are applied to use.
The timber trees consist of various oaks,[83a]pines, firs, walnut,[83b]chesnut, hornbeam, yew, laurels, hollies, birches, Gordonia,[83c]Michelias, etc, most of them species hitherto unnoticed by botanists; but some exactly the same as in Europe, such as the yew, holly, hornbeam, walnut, Weymouth pine, (Pinus strobus, W.) and common spruce fir, (Pinus picea, W.) As, however, the greater part are of little value, from theinaccessible nature of the country, I shall only particularize a few kinds.
TheMalayagiriis a tree, of which I have only seen a branch with leaves, and I cannot with any certainty judge what its botanical affinities may be. It has a pale yellow wood, with a very agreeable scent, and on this account might be valuable for fine cabinet work, and might bear the expense of carriage.
TheTinmue, orTaizbulof Colonel Kirkpatrick,[84a]is a species ofFagara. In the mountains of Nepal I have only seen the shrubby kind; but, on the lower hills, I observed another species, which grows to be a tree, and which is probably the larger sort alluded to by the Colonel.
The maleSinkauri, orSilkauliof the mountain Hindus, is a species of Laurus, which is either theLaurus japonicaof Rumph,[84b]or approaches very near to that plant. Both its bark and leaves have a fine aromatic smell and taste, and this quality in the leaves is strengthened by drying. They are carried to the low country, and sold under the name ofTejpat; but the tree is of a different species from the Tejpat of Ranggapur.
The female Sinkauri, or Silkauli, like the male, is another tree nearly related to the cinnamon; but its aromatic quality resides in the bark of the root, which has a very permanent fragrance, and would probably give a very fine oil. The specimens brought from the mountains of Morang, appeared to differ in species from the plant of similar qualities that has been introduced into Ranggapur from Bhotan.
Both male and female Sinkauli are considered by ColonelKirkpatrick as one species, which he callsSingrowla,[85a]probably by a typographical error.
TheLalchandan, or Red Sandal, is a timber tree, the foliage and appearance of which have some resemblance to the Laurels. It seems to be a fine timber for the cabinetmaker, but has little smell, and is not the Red Sanders or Sandal of the shops.
TheSiedburrooa, mentioned by Colonel Kirkpatrick,[85b]as the plant from which the Nepalese make paper, is a species of Daphne, very nearly allied to that which botanists callodora.
TheKarphul, mentioned also by Colonel Kirkpatrick,[85c]as a small stone fruit, resembling a cherry, is a species ofMyrica.
TheJumne mundrooof Colonel Kirkpatrick[85d]I consider as a species ofLeontice, although it is a small tree, and has strong affinities with theBerberis. Its leaves are pinnated; but each division, as the Colonel notices, has a strong resemblance to the leaves of the holly.
TheChootraphulof Colonel Kirkpatrick[85e]is, in fact, a species of barberry, to which the Colonel compares it.
There are two species of theChirata, a bitter herb, much and deservedly used by the Hindu physicians in slow febrile diseases, as strengthening the stomach. The smaller is the one most in request. I have not seen its flowers, but the appearance of the herb agrees with some short notices in manuscript, with which I was favoured by Dr Roxburgh, of the plant sent to him as the Chirata, and which he considers as a species of gentian. The larger Chirata is a species ofSwertia, but approaches nearer in appearance to the common Gentian of the shops than to any other plant that I know. Its root,especially, has a great resemblance, and might probably be a good substitute, were not the herb of the smaller Chirata a better medicine. Both species, however, approach so near to each other, that they are often sold indiscriminately.
The dried scales of a tuberous root are imported from these mountains into the Company’s territory, and the druggists there call themKshir kangkriorTitipiralu. Some people of the mountains, whom I employed, brought me the living bulbs, certainly of the same kind, and these had young stems then very thriving, but which soon withered from the heat. They had every appearance of being a species ofLilium, and the people who brought them said, that they were theTitipiralu, while theKshir kangkri, according to them, is a plant of the cucurbitaceous tribe. Other hill people, however, brought for the Titipiralu a species ofPancratium, which I cannot trace in the works of botanists; but it has a great resemblance to thePancratium maritimum. This is certainly not the plant sold by the druggists of Nathpur.
The same druggists gave me a medicine which they calledJaintiorBhutkes. Some of the hill people said, that it grows among the mosses, on large stones, on the higher mountains, and is evidently the lower part of the stems of one of theorchidesof that kind ofepidendra, which have an erect stem, many of which, I know, grow in Nepal in such situations. Others of the mountaineers alleged that this was not the true Bhutkes, or Bhutkesar, which they say differs from the Jainti; and, in fact, they brought me from the snowy mountains a very different plant, which they calledBhutkesar.
Singgiya Bikh, orBish, is a plant much celebrated among the mountaineers. The plant was brought to me in flower, but was entirely male, nor did I see the fruit, which is said to be a berry. So far as I can judge from these circumstances, Isuppose that it is a species ofSmilax, with ternate leaves. To pass over several of its qualities that are marvellous, the root, which resembles a yam, is said to be a violent poison. The berries also are said to be deleterious, but, when applied externally, are considered as a cure for the swelling of the throat, which resembles the goitre of the Swiss, and is very common among the mountaineers.
TheJhulis imported by the druggists of the Company’s territory, and what was brought as such to me, consisted of four kinds of Lichen, intermixed with some straggling Jungermannias. By far the greater part, however, of the Jhul consisted of two kinds of Lichen, the furfuraceus, and one very like the farinaceus. These grow on stones among the mountains.
With respect to the breadth of this mountainous region, there is reason to think, from the observations of Colonel Crawford, that, immediately north and east from Kathmandu, the horizontal direct extent may be from thirty to forty British miles; but farther west, the breadth of this region probably exceeds that extent. I have, however, no solid grounds for judging; as days’ journies, given by travellers on routes, in such a country, can give but a very imperfect notion of horizontal distance.
The alpine region belonging to the chiefs of Gorkha, which bounds the mountainous district on the north, is probably of nearly an equal breadth; that is to say, over a space of thirty or forty miles from north to south, there are scattered immense peaks covered with perpetual snow, before we reach the passes at the boundary of Thibet, where almost the whole country is subject to everlasting winter. Between these scattered peaks there are narrow vallies, some of which admit ofcultivation, and, being of the same elevation with the higher parts of the mountainous region, admit of similar productions.
It is indeed said by Colonel Kirkpatrick,[88a]that, in the alpine vallies occupied by the Limbus, there is raised a kind of rice calledTakmaro, which he thinks may be probably found to answer in the climate and soil of England. Whether or not this Takmaro may be the same with the grain calledUya, which will be farther mentioned in the account ofMalebum, I cannot take upon myself to determine, although I think it probable, from the situation in which both are said to grow, that Uya and Takmaro are two names for the same grain. In this case the grain may probably be rye, although this also is uncertain.
By far the greatest part, however, of the Alpine region, consists of immense rocks, rising into sharp peaks, and the most tremendous precipices, wherever not perpendicular, covered with perpetual snow, and almost constantly involved in clouds. No means for ascertaining the height of the central, and probably the highest peaks of Emodus, have come to my knowledge; but, while at Kathmandu, Colonel Crawford had an opportunity of observing the altitude of several of the detached peaks, the situations of which will be seen from the accompanying map, copied from one of this excellent geographer.[88b]The accompanying table also will give the result of his estimate of the height of these peaks above the valley of Nepal. In the five wooden plates, taken from drawings by Colonel Crawford, a view of these mountains from Oba Mohisyu, in the valley of Nepal is represented, and will give an idea of their appearance, as well as that of the valley of Nepal itself, althougha better judgment may be formed of this from the two copperplates that will be afterwards mentioned.
The southern face of these alps differs very much from those of Switzerland; for the rains being periodical, and falling in the hottest season of the year, the snow continues almost always stationary. It is only the few showers that happen in winter, and the vapours from condensed clouds, that dissolve in the beginning of summer, and occasion a small swell in the rivers, which spring from the south side of these alps.
The country on the north side of these lofty peaks, so far as I can learn, more resembles Europe. It is exceedingly high and bare, and is far from being mountainous. The rains, however, are not periodical, and the greatest falls happen in summer, so that, although several Indian rivers come from thence, they do not swell much by the melting of snow in the heats of spring.
The ridge of snowy alps, although it would appear to wind very much, has few interruptions, and, in most places, is said to be totally insuperable. Several rivers that arise in Thibet pass through among its peaks, but amidst such tremendous precipices, and by such narrow gaps, that these openings are in general totally impracticable. By far the widest is on the Arun, the chief branch of the Kosi, where Maingmo on the west, and Mirgu on the east, leave a very wide opening occupied by mountains of a moderate height, and which admit of cultivation. Even there, however, the Arun is so hid among precipices, that it is approachable in only a few places, where there are passes of the utmost difficulty. Again, behind this opening in the snowy ridge, at a considerable distance farther north, is another range of hills, not so high and broken as the immense peaks of Emodus, but still so elevated as to be totallyimpassable in winter, owing to the depth of snow; for the road is said to be tolerable, that is, it will admit of cattle carrying loads. Somewhat similar seems in general to be the nature of the other few passages through these alpine regions.
It is about these passages chiefly, and especially beyond Maingmo and Mirgu, that there is the greatest extent of the alpine pastures, which I have already mentioned; but in every part, bordering on the perpetual snow, these occur more or less.
Colonel Kirkpatrick[90]thinks, that there are two distinct ranges of Emodus or Himaleh; the lower of which, separating Nepal from Thibet, is only streaked with snow, while the highest separates Kuchar, or the lower Bhotan, from Thibet. He also thought, that, from the summit of the Lama Dangra hills above Chisapani, he saw the highest ridge. Now, in the maps which I obtained from the natives, three ridges may in some measure be traced, as proceeding from about the lake Manasarawar, which may be considered as the centre of Emodus. The summits of even the most southern of these ridges, which is probably the lowest, are not covered with mere patches of snow, as Colonel Kirkpatrick seems to have thought, but on them the snow is perennial to a very great extent.
The most northern ridge, which is probably the highest, as it is nowhere penetrated by rivers, approaches Hindustan only at the lake Manasarawar, where the remarkable peak called Kailasa may be considered as its centre. This peak may perhaps be visible from the southward, although there exists no certainty of its being so; but the portions of this ridge, which extend west and east from Kailasa, bordering onthe north, the upper part of the Indus, and Brahmaputra rivers, are certainly invisible from every part of Hindustan, and very little is known concerning them.
The middle ridge of Himaleh, which separates Thibet from Hindustan, taking this word in its most extended sense as including Kasmir, the dominions of Gorkha, etc. extends probably to the Chinese Sea along the northern frontier of the provinces of Quangsi and Quantong, lowering gradually as it advances to the east. Although, so far as connected with Hindustan, it is of enormous height, yet it is perforated by many rivers, such as the Indus, Sutluj or Satrudra, Karanali or Sarayu, Gandaki, Arun, Brahmaputra, etc.
Mr Colebrooke, indeed,[91]doubts of any rivers crossing this chain; for he says, “It is presumable that all the tributary streams of the Ganges, including the Sarayu, (whether its alleged source in the Manasarawar lake be credited or discredited,) and the Yamuna, rise on the southern side of the Himaliya;” and again he says, “From the western side of the mountains, after the range, taking a sweep to the north, assumes a new direction in the line of the meridian, arise streams tributary to the Indus, or perhaps the Indus itself.” On this I would remark, that all the rivers I have enumerated, no doubt, arise from Thibet, and penetrate this chain. If, indeed, the Sarayu, or rather Karnali, arises from the lake Manasarawar, which is undoubtedly on the north side of the Himaleh ridge, how could Mr Colebrooke’s position be maintained? He is also probably wrong in supposing that the central Himaliya ridge bends to the north. There is rather reason to think that it passes straight west, after it is penetrated by the Indus, andreaches to the Hindoo Coosh of the Honourable Mr Elphinston; while it is the western extremity of the northern ridge, first mentioned, that turns to the north, and separates Samarkhand and Bokhara from Kashgar. These rivers, which penetrate the central Himaliya ridge, do not appear to me to arise from any remarkable ridge of mountains, but spring from detached eminences on the elevated country of Thibet, and pass through interruptions or chasms in the central ridge of Emodus. It is very possible, that Colonel Kirkpatrick saw this ridge from Lama Dangra; but I am very doubtful, whether any part of it is visible from the plains of Hindustan; or, at least, that any of the more distinguished peaks visible from thence belong to it. All the peaks measured by Colonel Crawford were, no doubt, to the southward of the central ridge, and I suspect that all the snow-clad mountains visible from the plains, like those seen by Colonel Crawford, are either detached peaks, or belong to the southern ridge.
There is also reason to think, that the peak measured by Lieutenant Web, and which was one appearing conspicuous from the plains of Rohilkhand,[92a]is that laid down by Mr Arrowsmith, about 40 miles south from Litighat, that is, from the central chain, and must therefore be near the southern edge of the alpine region. Contrary, therefore, to the opinion of Mr Colebrooke,[92b]I think it very much to be doubted, whether the snowy mountains, visible from Rohilkhand, are the highest ground between the level plains of India, and the elevated regions of southern Tartary, by which I presume he means Thibet.
The third or southern ridge forms the southern boundary ofthe alpine region above described. In many parts, the whole space between this and the central ridge is thickly covered with immense peaks, so as to leave no separation between the ridges; but in other parts, there exists an intermediate, more level, and habitable portion, interposed between the central ridge and the southern peaks, which in these parts form a very distinct ridge. This is particularly the case in the Chamba country, towards Kasmir, in the Taklakhar country on the Karnali, and in the Kirata country on the Arun, as will be afterwards described.
Of the productions of this part I shall now proceed to treat, confining myself to those of the southern face, where there are but a very few of the cattle, (Bos grunniens,) whose tails form the Chaungri of India, and the badges by which the Turkish Bashaws are distinguished; nor are there any of the goats which produce the fine wool from whence the shawls are made; nor are there mines of gold, nor, one excepted, of salt, nor of borax. All these, so far as I can learn, are almost entirely the produce of the country beyond the alps.
An account of the Chandra or shawl-wool goat has been given by Colonel Kirkpatrick,[93]who suspects it to be rather scarce, even in Thibet, since it is not without the greatest difficulty that a perfect male of this species can be procured, owing to the jealous vigilance employed by the Thibetians to prevent their being conveyed into foreign countries. The editor, in a note, thinks this opinion unfounded, because Captain Turner brought several of these animals from Thibet to Bengal, from whence he sent a few to England. I do not see that the reasoning of either Colonel Kirkpatrick, or his editor, is here conclusive. If the people of Thibet are jealous, thedifficulty of procuring a perfect male for exportation can be no proof of the species being scarce. Neither can Captain Turner’s having been allowed to bring several of these animals to Bengal be considered as a proof of the want of jealousy. A great many wethers of this breed are annually brought to market at Kathmandu, and may be readily procured, nor does it appear that those brought by Captain Turner were entire males. Those remaining in the Governor General’s park in 1803 were all wethers. That both entire males and females may be procured, we know from the exertions of Mr Moorcroft; but that the people of Thibet are very jealous in preserving the monopoly, I have been assured by that gentleman, as well as by the people of Nepal.
I have already mentioned, that I believe sulphur, and perhaps talc, are found in these alpine regions, and there can be no doubt that they abound with Mica (Abrak) in large plates, and in rock crystal (Belor) of a large size. It is probably in reference to this mineral, that some parts of this great alpine chain, towards the north-west, has been named Belor Tag, although Mr Elphinston gives another derivation, and changes the finalrinto at, in order to accommodate the word to his meaning, which may, however, be quite correct. Besides these mineral productions, the alpine region has several metallic veins, especially lead and zinc, or tutenague.
The most valuable production of the southern face of these mountains is the animal which produces musk, of which vast numbers are annually killed. The only other large animal found there is a kind of wild sheep of great size. The accounts which I have received concerning it are very imperfect, and I have only seen one skin, which was in a very bad state of preservation. It may possibly be the same animal that our zoologists have described by the name ofArgali.
These frigid regions are the constant abode of two of the finest birds that are known, the Manal[95a]and Damphiya.[95b]To me both seem evidently to have the closest affinity with each other, in size, manners, and form, and the females of the two species are not easily distinguishable; yet the former, (Meleagris satyra, L.) by the best ornithologists, has been most unaccountably classed with the turkey, and the latter (Phasianus Impeyanus) with the pheasant, to which the resemblance is very trifling.
Along with these two fine birds, according to Colonel Kirkpatrick,[95c]is found theChakor, orChiukoar, according to his orthography. He states, that this bird “is well known to the Europeans in India by the name of fire-eater. It is a species of partridge, (Perdix rufa,) and derives its English name from its reputed power of swallowing fire. The fact, according to the people of Nepal, is that in the season of love, this bird is remarkably fond of red orchean(Cayenne) pepper, after eating two or three capsules of which, it will eat a red coal if offered to it.” This account of the Nepalese deserves no credit; for, in its native frozen mountains, where is the Chakor to procure Capsicum or Cayenne pepper? and I know that the birds will pick at sparks of fire, where no capsicum has been given to them.
The vegetable productions of these mountains are, however, the greatest object of curiosity, and it is with infinite regret that I not only have not had it in my power to visit them, but that the disturbances existing between the two governments, when I was on the frontier, have prevented me from procuring complete specimens and seeds of many of the most interesting objects, for which arrangements had been made,when the disputes put a stop to communication. While at Nathpur, I had indeed previously procured young plants of most of the kinds, but although kept in a very cool house, not one of them resisted the summer heats. I shall now mention some of the most remarkable.
TheDhupiis a species of juniper. Its wood has a beautiful grain, a fine mahogany colour, and a remarkably pleasant scent, a good deal resembling that of the pencil cedar, but stronger, and I think more agreeable. Planks of this are sent to Thibet, from whence they are probably carried to China. A man, whom I sent from Nathpur to Thibet, in order to procure plants, says, that the Dhupi grows to be a very large tree, in which case it would be a valuable acquisition in Europe, in the northern parts of which it will no doubt thrive.
TheThumuriya Dhupiis another species of juniper, which is a low bush, like the kind common in the north of Europe. Its branches and leaves have an agreeable smell, and are used in fumigations.
TheHingwalka Chhota saral, or small alpine fir, so strongly resembles the common fir of the south of Europe, (Pinus picca, W.) that I can perceive no difference in the foliage; but I have not seen the cones. There is, however, probably some difference, for it is said never to grow to a considerable size, and the leaves, if I can trust to memory, have a much more agreeable smell than those of the common fir.
TheHingwalka bara Saral, or large alpine fir, is in fact the yew tree; and although I have seen it in all its stages, I can perceive no very essential difference between it and the tree of Europe. Its leaves, however, are rather larger, and bent, (falcata.) Like the yew in the north of Europe, it grows to a great size.
TheBhuryapatraorBhurjapatrais a species of birch, the bark of which resembles that of the tree common in Europe, in being separable into fine smooth layers; but these are of a fine chesnut colour. This bark is imported into the low country in considerable quantity, and is used both in the religious ceremonies of the Hindus, and for constructing the flexible tubes with which the natives smoke tobacco.
TheSanpatiis a small Rhododendron, which has a considerable affinity with the kinds described in the Encyclopédie by the names of R. linearifolium and ferrugineum. It is a shrub much like our sweet gale in Europe, and its leaves are very odorous, and, even when dried, retain their fragrance. It is used in fumigations, and sent to the low country.
TheBhairopati, although I have not seen the flower, is, I have no doubt, another similar species of the Rhododendron, which has a great resemblance to the kind called Chamæcistus. Its qualities are similar to those of the former, but it is less fragrant. The man whom I sent to Thibet brought, as theBhairopati, a totally different plant, of which the specimens so strongly resemble branches of the Cypressus sempervirens meta convoluta, that I should have no doubt of its being this plant, were it not that the man describes it as a shrub, and that its dried leaves have a disagreeable sulphurous smell. It is, however, the Rhododendron which is always sold in the shops of Hindustan as theBhairopati.
There seems to be some difficulty in fixing the nomenclature of theJatamangsi, a plant celebrated among the natives as a perfume, and of which large quantities are sent from these Alps to the plains of India. What I procured at the shops in Nathpur, and recently imported from the Alps, was the species of Valerian described by Dr Roxburgh in the Asiatick Researches, and supposed by Sir William Jones to be thespikenard of the ancients. As there can be no disputing about taste, I cannot take upon myself to say how far the encomiums bestowed on the fragrance of the spikenard are applicable to this valerian; and the native women, no doubt, consider the smell very agreeable, because most of such as can afford it use oil impregnated with this root for perfuming their hair. All I can say is, that, if this root was the spikenard of the Roman ladies, their lovers must have had a very different taste from the youth of modern Europe. A still greater difficulty attends the nomenclature of theJatamangsi. A person whom I employed to bring me the growing plant from the mountains, produced a root totally different from the former. It strongly resembled the root of the Anthamantha meum; but when fresh had an uncommonly fragrant smell. From the appearance of the leaves, I have no doubt that it is an umbelliferous plant.
I have already mentioned the doubts that exist about the plant calledBhutkesar, which is imported from the mountains, and used as a medicine. What was brought to me from the snowy mountains was a thick woody root, on the top of which were many stiff bristles, and from among these the young leaves were shooting. These were three times divided into three, and resembled these of a Thalictrum, of which I know there are several species in the lower mountains of Nepal.
The termBishorBikh, according to the pronunciation of the same letters on the plains, and in the mountains, is applied to four different plants with tuberous roots, all in great request. I have already mentioned theSinggiya Bish, as found on the lower mountains and hills, and supposed it to be a species of Smilax. The others have not the smallest resemblance to it, but are so strongly marked by a resemblance to each other, that I have no doubt of their all belonging to the samegenus, although I have only seen the flower and fruit of one. This is calledBishmaorBikhma, and seems to me to differ little in botanical characters from theCalthaof Europe. TheBishmaorBikhmais also, I believe, calledMitha, although I am not certain but that this name may be also given to the following species, which deserves the most serious attention, as theBikhmais used in medicine, is a strong bitter, very powerful in the cure of fevers, while the plant that will be next mentioned is one of the most virulent poisons.
This dreadful root, of which large quantities are annually imported, is equally fatal when taken into the stomach, and applied to wounds, and is in universal use throughout India for poisoning arrows; and there is too much reason to suspect, for the worst of purposes. Its importation would indeed seem to require the attention of the magistrate. The Gorkhalese pretend, that it is one of their principal securities against invasion from the low countries; and that they could so infect all the waters on the route by which an enemy was advancing, as to occasion his certain destruction. In case of such an attempt, the invaders ought, no doubt, to be on their guard; but the country abounds so in springs, that might be soon cleared, as to render such a means of defence totally ineffectual, were the enemy aware of the circumstance. This poisonous species is calledBish,Bikh, andHodoya BishorBikh, nor am I certain whether theMithaought to be referred to it, or to the foregoing kind.
TheNirbishiorNirbikhiis another plant of the same genus, and, like the first kind, has no deleterious qualities, but is used in medicine. The President of the Asiatick Society, in a note annexed to Dr Roxburgh’s account of the Zedoary, gives theNirbishaorNirbishias a Sangskrita or Hindwi name of that plant, which has not the smallest resemblance to theNirbishiof the Indian Alps. In fact, the nomenclature of themateria medicaamong the Hindus, so far as I can learn, is miserably defective, and can scarcely fail to be productive of most dangerous mistakes in the practice of medicine. For instance, the man whom I sent to Thibet for plants brought, as the species which produces the poison, that which was first brought to me as theNirbishi, or kind used in medicine.
ThePadam chhalis a plant with a thick cylindrical root, that is used in medicine, and brought to the low country for that purpose. The specimen that I procured had one large heart-shaped rough leaf, and had somewhat the appearance of an Anemone.
TheKutkiis another officinal plant with a woody root, and a stem containing many alternate leaves, toothed on the edges, and shaped like a spathula. It has much the appearance of a saxifrage. The roots are brought for sale.
TheBrimappears to be one of the orchides, and has a root used in medicine.
Parts east from the Kali.—Courts and Forms of Proceeding.—Punishments.—Provincial Government.—Revenue and Endowments.—Officers of State.—Military Establishment.—Differences in the parts west from the River Kali.—Revenue and Civil Establishment.—Military Establishment.
Having thus described, in a general manner, the inhabitants and country of the territory subject to the chief of Gorkha, I shall now give a similar view of the form of government which existed under the petty chiefs, to whom it was formerly subject, and of the changes which have been introduced since its union under one head.
I shall only premise a very just observation of Colonel Kirkpatrick, who says,[101]“that the government, taking its colour, for the most part, from the character and temporary views of the ruling individual, must necessarily be of too fugitive a nature to admit of any delineation equally applicable to all periods and circumstances.” This may serve to explain many differences between his account and mine, without supposing the information received by either to be erroneous.
The management of affairs in all the petty states was inmany points the same, and differed chiefly in the names applied to similar officers, and in the nature of the military establishment in the two countries to the east and west of the river Kali. I have already mentioned, that in the former the Hindu rules of purity and law had been established with much less rigour than in the latter; but, in other points, such as the names of officers, and the form of government, the eastern parts followed more nearly the ancient Hindu system, while the western more fully imitated the Muhammedans.
In the parts east of the Kali, for each small territory or manor called a Gang, or, where these were small, for every two or three, there was an officer called an Umra Mokudum or Mahato, and over from ten to twenty gangs there was a higher officer named Desali or Chaudhuri, assisted by a Mujumdar or accountant. In cases of disputes or petty offences, one or other of these officers, called a kind of jury, (Pangchayit,) and endeavoured to settle the affair, so as to avoid farther trouble; but, if one or other of the parties was dissatisfied, he might go to the Raja’s court. There an officer, called Bichari in the east, and Darogah in the west, received an account of the affair from the parties, or from the inferior officers, and endeavoured to settle it. If, however, the cause was important, or required severe punishment, or if either of the parties insisted on it, the matter was referred by the Bichari to the minister of the Raja, called Karyi in the east, and Vazir in the west, either verbally or by petition, according to its importance. The minister communicated the affair to the Raja, who ordered the Bichari to try it by a Pangchayit. This kind of jury made a report, saying, that the parties were guilty of such or such a crime. The Raja then ordered whatever punishment he thought fit, but, in doing so, usually consulted an officer called Dharm’adhikar, or owner of justice, who pointed out the law.
The criminal in the east might appeal from even the Raja’s decision, to the court called Bharadar, consisting of all the chief officers of government; but in the west, no such court, I believe, existed. Oaths were seldom administered. If the parties, however, insisted on this form, the Haribangsa, a part of the Mahabharat, was put into the witness’s hand. Ordeals were seldom used, until the Gorkha family seized the government, since which they have become very frequent.
There were five severe punishments: 1st, confiscation of the whole estate; 2dly, banishment of the whole family; 3dly, degradation of the whole family by delivering the members to the lowest tribes; 4thly, maiming the limbs; 5thly, death by cutting the throat.
The people of Gorkha have introduced other capital punishments, hanging and flaying alive. Women, as in all Hindu governments, are never put to death; but the punishments inflicted on them are abundantly severe. The most common is the cutting off their noses. Even those of considerable rank are tortured, by being smoked in a small chamber with the suffocating fumes of burning capsicum, and by having their private parts stuffed with this acrid substance.
There were two kinds of fines; Prayaschitta for the neglect of ceremonies, and those inflicted as punishments for crimes. The latter went to the Raja, and do so still. The former went to the Dharm’adhikar, or chancellor; but having been enormously multiplied since the Gorkha government, their amount is divided into eight shares, of which the Raja takes one, the collector (Gomashtash) one, the Dharm’adhikar one, and one goes to each of five families of Brahmans, named Pangre, Pantha, Arjal, Khanal, and Agnidanda. These families divide their shares equally among their members, who have multiplied exceedingly. Besides the fine, alldelinquents in matters of ceremony are compelled to entertain a certain number of these five families; the two first fattening on the wicked of the country west from the Narayani; and the other three on those east from that river. The number to be fed is restricted by the sentence, and the criminal may select those to whom he gives the entertainment, in any manner he pleases, confining himself strictly to the families entitled to participate.
Colonel Kirkpatrick, when he visited the country, thought[104]that the government, on the whole, afforded considerable protection to foreign merchants, rendering them in all cases as strict and prompt justice, as the imperfect nature of its general polity will admit. This, perhaps, is not saying much, as in the subsequent page he mentions, that the trade between Nepal and Thibet, the principal one in the country, is subject to very enormous, and at all times arbitrary exactions. In fact, all other branches of commerce, so far as I could judge, were in a state of decay, owing partly to these exactions, and partly to the recovery of debts being now very much neglected in the courts of justice, which seems to be one of the causes of the increase of trials by ordeal. A poor creditor, in general, has no resource against a powerful debtor, except sitting Dherna on him; and unless the creditor be a Brahman, he may sit long enough before he attract any notice.
Since the government of Gorkha, there has been usually established a Subah in place of each Raja, and the affairs are generally conducted by these officers as formerly; so far at least as relates to form; but they are not allowed to inflict any of the five severe punishments, without special orders from theRaja or court, to whom a report of the case is made. There are, however, great complaints of injustice, the Subahs having power to check all complaints. In the petty states the Raja durst not neglect justice, having no resource except in his subjects’ affection. Personal acts of extreme violence, in contests for power, were overlooked in the families of the chief; and no attention was paid to punish assassination, when committed on pretence of revenging injured honour.
The Subahs having no power of inflicting severe punishment, few of these officers have with them a Dharm’adhikar; but, where a person of this kind is allowed, he is appointed by the Dharm’adhikar of Kathmandu. At that city there are now four Bicharis, and these appoint an officer of the same kind for each Subah. Over the Bicharis of Kathmandu is a chief called Ditha, who does not try causes, but watches over the conduct of the court.
The Subah is an officer of revenue, justice, and police, and, in fact, always farms the whole royal revenue of his district. He sometimes collects the different branches of revenue, on his own account, by means of subordinate officers named Fouzdars, and sometimes farms them to Izaradars. The land revenue, under the Fouzdars, is collected by Chaudhuris or Desalis, and other petty officers above mentioned. None of these offices are in any degree hereditary, nor does there seem to be any regular system for their payment. Sometimes the allowances are made in land, sometimes by aper centageon the rent, and sometimes by monthly wages. The whole seems to be in a great measure left to the discretion of the Subah, but, under the name of Khurchah, both he, and every man in authority under him, takes from his inferiors as much as he can.
The Subah has under his authority some armed men, andthese are called Seapoys; but they are irregulars, like the Burkandaj, which are employed by the civil authority in Bengal.
The amount paid by the Subah forms by no means the whole of the royal revenue. On a great variety of occasions, besides the presents that every one must make on approaching the court, there is levied a Rajangka, which is a kind of income tax that extends to all ranks, and even to such of the sacred order as possess free lands. A Rajangka is levied at no fixed period, but according to the exigencies of the state; and many districts pay more on this account than the regular revenue, which has been often almost entirely alienated, by giving the lands as religious endowments, to various civil officers, and in military tenure for the support of the army. The Subah does not collect the Rajangka; an officer for that purpose is especially sent from the court.
When Colonel Kirkpatrick visited the country, he learned, on what he considered tolerably good authority, that the revenue which reached the treasury at Kathmandu never exceeded 3,000,000 of rupees, and fluctuated between that and 2,500,000. The subsequent addition of territory, although it has increased the means of supporting a large army, has probably sent little money to the capital.
The ordinary public revenue, consisting of land-rents, customs, fines, and mines, in the east, was divided among the chief, and the principal persons and officers of his family, the chief for his own expense receiving about two-thirds of the whole; but, if there was in the family any estate on the plain, the chief reserved the whole of this for himself, although he sometimes bestowed part free of revenue for services. About a third of the revenue that remained, after grants to the civil and military establishments, was divided as follows: theChautariya, or chief councillor, always the Raja’s brother in the Indian sense, that is, a near kinsman in the male line, received one fifth. The Karyi, or man of business, who was always a near relation of the chief, had an equal share. The Raja’s eldest son, when married, had as much. The chief’s virgin spouse, when she had children, was allowed as much. The Serdar, or principal officer, who was not of the chief’s family, received one-tenth. The Jethabura, a councillor, had one-twentieth. Finally, the Kaliya, or secretary, obtained as much. All other officers, soldiers, and even most domestics, were paid in lands, held as long as they performed the duty, and called Jaygirs, a Persian term. The occupants either cultivated the lands themselves, or let them as they pleased. There were, besides, lands appropriated to the support of some temples, and two kinds of free estates granted in perpetuity to individuals. The owners of one kind, called Brittiyas, had no jurisdiction over those living on their estates, which was also the case with those holding Jaygirs; the others, called Bitalpas, administered justice to their vassals. They were all Brahmans, and never were numerous; but by far the greater part of the lands of both Bitalpas and Brittiyas have been resumed by the chiefs of Gorkha, in order to increase the military establishment. In other respects they have not much altered the constitution.
In consequence of their extended dominions, the princes of Gorkha have increased the number of the chief officers of state, and have four Chautariyas, four Karyis, and four Serdars.
When Colonel Kirkpatrick visited the country the twelve chief officers, according to his orthography,[107]were reckoned,one Choutra, four Kajies, four Sirdars, two Khurdars or secretaries, one Kuppardar or storekeeper, and one Khuzanchee or treasurer.
These chief officers now form the Bharadar, or great council of the Raja, which attends him in the Durbar, Rajdani, or palace to transact business, and which frequently acts without his presence. It ought to consist of these twelve members; but some of the places are often vacant, and, at other times, the persons who hold them have so little influence, that they neglect or avoid giving their attendance. At other times, again, on business of the utmost emergency, a kind of assembly of notables is held, in which men who have neither office, nor any considerable influence in the government, are allowed to speak very freely, which seems to be done merely to allow the discontents of the nation to evaporate, as there is not a vestige of liberty in the country, nor does the court seem ever to be controlled by the opinions advanced in these assemblies.
The first rank of councillors is the only one now confined to the prince’s family, and is often given to illegitimate kinsmen. The Chautariya, who is the nearest relation to the reigning prince, is always considered as the prime minister, although he may have little real authority. During our stay in Nepal, the first Chautariya was a boy, brother to the Raja, and never appeared except on occasions of ceremony, where he was exhibited like a puppet, in the same manner as his sovereign.
The office of Karyi should be held by persons only of a few very distinguished families; but many exceptions have been made of late, and especially in the instance of Bhim Sen, the present ruler of the country, who holds no higher office than this, to which even his birth does not entitle him.
The Serdars are chosen from whatever families the chief thinks proper; but, in public opinion, the giving the office tolow men, especially if these are entrusted with much power, is exceedingly offensive.
Every person who has held the office of Chautariya, Karyi, and Serdar, continues to enjoy the title for life; and, whenever a man is appointed to one of these dignities, all his brothers assume the title.
Military officers, named Serdars, frequently are appointed to command over different portions of the country, and, wherever they are, have a jurisdiction in all matters over the Subahs. In particular, their criminal jurisdiction is much more extensive, as they can condemn to capital punishment, without any reference to the court, while the Subah requires an order from thence before he can punish any criminal. Still more are the Subahs under the authority of the higher officers of state, the Chautariyas and Karyis, when any of these eight great officers of state are deputed in command to the provinces. The Serdars who visit the provinces do not always belong to the four great officers of this title, who with the four Chautariyas and four Karyis compose the great council of twelve, which assists the Raja to govern the nation. These great Serdars, like the other great officers of state, are occasionally deputed on high commands; but some Serdars, such as I have before mentioned, are, in general, stationary in different parts of the country, and have authority over all the Subahs and civil officers in their vicinity, although they are properly military men, for such are the only persons, Brahmans excepted, who are considered as entitled to any weight in the state. The Serdar in command at Vijaypur, I understand, receives 7000 rupees a-year, but out of this he pays his establishment. It is to these persons that communications from our provincial officers should be made, as the Subahs are considered as inferior characters.
There are thirty-six families of Gorkhalis, who should hold all the principal offices of government, and, in fact, have always held the greater part of them. A fuller detail of the condition and privileges of these families than I procured may be found in Colonel Kirkpatrick’s account.[110]They are divided into three gradations, and the highest, consisting of six houses, are considered as having an exclusive right to the office of Karyi. When I was at Kathmandu, in 1802, by far the most powerful of these six houses were the Pangres and Viswanaths.
Occasionally a few regulars are sent to act as a guard to the Subahs, but the Telanggas, or regular troops, are entirely exempt from the authority of these officers.
The military force among the petty chiefs was always large in proportion to their means, but consisted of a rabble totally undisciplined and ill armed, although of good bodily endowments. Much order has been introduced by the chiefs of Gorkha, although both in arms and discipline the soldiers are still very far behind Europeans. In Puraniya I was told, that, in that vicinity, that is, in the country of the Kiratas, the lands assigned for the support of the military were given to the officers commanding companies, who were held bound to give regular pay to their men; nor have I any reason to doubt that such a measure has been carried into effect in that vicinity; but I was assured at Gorakhpur, as also at Kathmandu, that each individual in the western parts receives his own lands.
Each Subahdar commanding a company now receives 400 or 500 rupees a-year, and 15 khets or fields, each of which is estimated to produce 100 muris or 234½ Winchester bushelsof grain, of which, if the land is let, he will obtain one-half, worth almost 72 (71⅞) rupees. For every Pati or squad of from 20 to 25 fuzileers there are one Jumahdar, one Havildar, and one Amildar. The first of these receives 7 fields of land, and 200 rupees in money. A major keeps the accounts of the company, and has Jumahdar’s allowances. Each company has five or six squads, besides officers and music. The privates have each three fields, and 25 rupees a-year. Such are the accounts that I received. Those given to Colonel Kirkpatrick[111]differ somewhat, making the allowance of the superior officers higher, and of the privates lower, than what I have stated.
Each company has a large band of music, amounting to ten men, where there are six Patis or squads. These have instruments of the most hideous noise. Each company has, besides, two flags, and a regular establishment of artificers, so that the army may be considered as perfectly well arranged; but the soldiers are little versed in tactics, and, considering the strong country that they possess, this would be of less importance, were they in habits of more prompt obedience, and more dexterous in the use of their arms; but they do not load with cartridge. They have all firelocks, but these are not in the best condition. They do not use the bayonet, but have all swords, which are, perhaps, better fitted for such a country, and I believe that the men are dexterous in their use. They also have in their belt a large knife or dagger, (Khukri,) which serves as many purposes as that of Hudibras. It is represented in the uppermost figure of the plate opposite to page 118, in the work of Colonel Kirkpatrick. When thatgentleman visited the country, the troops were irregularly clothed, some in the same company of guards wearing red, some green, and some blue. When I saw them, this irregularity had been remedied, and all were in red, each company having, besides, its peculiar facings; and, although their arms were not clean, they did not appear so bad as when Colonel Kirkpatrick saw them, as he states[112]that few of their muskets appeared fit for service.
In the vicinity of Kathmandu, Bhim Sen is said to have collected 25 companies, and there are probably 15 at Tamsen, under his father. It is also said, that at each of the capitals of former petty chiefs there are from one to five companies; and a large body, perhaps from 20 to 25 companies, is under old Amar Singha in advance beyond the Yamuna. In the western parts, the old irregulars, I believe, have been entirely discarded, or are only called out occasionally in times of actual hostility, when they are employed to plunder.
In the parts west from the river Kali, almost the whole revenue, whether on the mountains or plains, being reserved under the immediate management of the prince, a fuller establishment was necessary; and that which existed under the petty chiefs, entirely resembled what is described by the late Mr Grant, Sereshtahdar of Bengal, as the proper Mogul system. The actual cultivators, or farmers as they would be termed in England, only they all occupied very small farms, were called Zemindars, and were very moderately assessed. In Almora, (and the other estates did not materially differ,) the rent was fixed by the Visi, which, on an average, may be taken at 10 Calcutta bigas, or 3-1/5 English acres; but the Visisvaried a good deal in size, especially in such as were exempted from assessment, which were in general much larger than such as paid it. The extent of 10 bigas for the Visi is chiefly applicable to the latter. The rent was paid partly in kind, partly in money. Each Visi in October paid 28 sers of clean rice, (Calcutta weight,) 4 sers of the pulse called Urid, and 2 sers of Ghiu or oil: in May it paid 28 sers of wheat, 4 sers of Urid, and 2 of Ghiu: in August it paid one rupee in money. On each of the two holidays called Dasahara, there was besides a kid offered to the sovereign for every 10 Visis. The possessions of a convenient number of Zemindars formed a gram or gang, and one of them held the hereditary office of Pradhan, entirely analogous to the Umra of the eastern parts. The Pradhan was allowed a deduction of rent, and enjoyed some honourable distinctions, and, when the heir was in any manner incapacitated, a relation was appointed to act for him. The representations of the other Zemindars or farmers in the same gram, were usually considered as the most just criterion of this incapacity. Besides the judicial powers and the magistracy of his territory, the Pradhan kept an account of the other tenants, and of their payments and debts to government, and, receiving what was due, transmitted it to the collector. He was also an agent for the other Zemindars of his village, to represent losses which they had suffered, and to solicit indulgences on the occasion. Over from twenty to fifty Pradhans was another hereditary officer named Kamin, analogous to the Desali of the eastern states. He assisted the Pradhans in settling their accounts, and in obtaining indulgences on account of peculiar losses; and it was his duty, in an especial manner, to protect the Zemindars, and to induce new comers to occupy waste lands. The rents were never farmed out, but weredelivered by the Pradhans to the messengers of the collector, or Bandari, who received an account of what was due from the Kanungoe or register, and he made up his accounts from those forwarded to him by the Pradhans. Where the lordship was petty, no other officers were necessary; but where large, the country was divided into pergunahs or taluks, each managed by an officer removeable at will. In the most important of these districts, especially towards a weak frontier, were stationed military officers called Foujdars, who had authority to determine many small suits without appeal, but always with the assistance of a Pangchayit. In the less important stations, the officers managing taluks or pergunahs were on the hills named Negis, and on the plains Adhikars. These also decided causes by means of a Pangchayit; but there was an appeal to the chief’s court, in which he sat in person, assisted by his principal officers, the Darogah or judge, and the Dharm’adhikar or chancellor. These often decided the cause without a Pangchayit; but this was only when the parties were obstinate, and would not consent to the use of this kind of jury. The facts in criminal prosecutions were often investigated by the inferior officers and Pangchayit on the spot, and the chief and his chancellor judged from their report, what punishment was due. The Foujdars, Negis, and Adhikars, besides their duties as judges, magistrates, and military guardians of the boundary, which the Foujdars were, received from the Pradhans all the rents, and, having sold those paid in kind, remitted the proceeds to the (Bandari) collector, or rather store-keeper.