MOOD.

Meaning of active voice.

208.As has been seen, transitive verbs are the only kind that can express action so as to go over to an object. This implies three things,—the agent, or person or thing acting; the verb representing the action; the person or object receiving the act.

In the sentence, "We reached the village of Sorgues by dusk, and accepted the invitation of an old dame to lodge at her inn," these three things are found: the actor, or agent, is expressed bywe; the action is asserted byreachedandaccepted; the things acted upon arevillageandinvitation. Here the subject is represented as doing something. The same word is the subject and the agent. This use of a transitive verb is called theactive voice.

Definition.

209.Theactive voiceis that form of a verb which represents the subject as acting; or

The active voice is that form of a transitive verb which makes thesubjectand theagentthe same word.

A question.

210.Intransitive verbs arealways active voice. Let the student explain why.

Meaning of passive voice.

211.In the assertion of an action, it would be natural to suppose, that, instead of always representing the subject as acting upon some person or thing, it must often happen that the subject is spoken of asacted upon; and the person or thing acting may or may not be expressed in the sentence: for example,—

All infractions of love and equity in our social relations are speedily punished. They are punished by fear.—Emerson.

Here the subjectinfractionsdoes nothing: it represents the object toward which the action ofare punishedis directed, yet it is the subject of the same verb. In the first sentence the agent is not expressed; in the second,fearis the agent of the same action.

So that in this case, instead of having the agent and subject the same word, we have theobjectandsubjectthe same word, and the agent may be omitted from the statement of the action.

Passiveis from the Latin wordpatior, meaningto endureorsuffer; but in ordinary grammatical usepassivemeansreceiving an action.

Definition.

212.The passive voice is that form of the verb which represents the subject as being acted upon; or—

The passive voice is that form of the verb which represents thesubjectand theobjectby the same word.

Exercises.

(a) Pick out the verbs in the active and the passive voice:—

1. In the large room some forty or fifty students were walking about while the parties were preparing.2. This was done by taking off the coat and vest and binding a great thick leather garment on, which reached to the knees.3. They then put on a leather glove reaching nearly to the shoulder, tied a thick cravat around the throat, and drew on a cap with a large visor.4. This done, they were walked about the room a short time; their faces all this time betrayed considerable anxiety.5. We joined the crowd, and used our lungs as well as any.6. The lakes were soon covered with merry skaters, and every afternoon the banks were crowded with spectators.7. People were setting up torches and lengthening the rafts which had been already formed.8. The water was first brought in barrels drawn by horses, till some officer came and opened the fire plug.9. The exclusive in fashionable life does not see that he excludes himself from enjoyment, in the attempt to appropriate it.

1. In the large room some forty or fifty students were walking about while the parties were preparing.

2. This was done by taking off the coat and vest and binding a great thick leather garment on, which reached to the knees.

3. They then put on a leather glove reaching nearly to the shoulder, tied a thick cravat around the throat, and drew on a cap with a large visor.

4. This done, they were walked about the room a short time; their faces all this time betrayed considerable anxiety.

5. We joined the crowd, and used our lungs as well as any.

6. The lakes were soon covered with merry skaters, and every afternoon the banks were crowded with spectators.

7. People were setting up torches and lengthening the rafts which had been already formed.

8. The water was first brought in barrels drawn by horses, till some officer came and opened the fire plug.

9. The exclusive in fashionable life does not see that he excludes himself from enjoyment, in the attempt to appropriate it.

(b) Find sentences with five verbs in the active and five in the passive voice.

Definition.

213.The wordmoodis from the Latinmodus, meaningmanner,way,method. Hence, when applied to verbs,—

Moodmeans the manner of conceiving and expressing action or being of some subject.

The three ways.

214.There are three chief ways of expressing action or being:—

(1) As a fact; this may be a question, statement, or assumption.

(2) As doubtful, or merely conceived of in the mind.

(3) As urged or commanded.

Deals with facts.

215.The termindicativeis from the Latinindicare(to declare, or assert). The indicative represents something as a fact,—

Affirms or denies.

(1)By declaring a thing to be true or not to be true; thus,—

Distinctionisthe consequence, never the object, of a great mind.—Allston.Ido not rememberwhen or by whom Iwas taughtto read; because Icannotand nevercould recollecta time when Icould not readmy Bible.—D. Webster.

Distinctionisthe consequence, never the object, of a great mind.—Allston.

Ido not rememberwhen or by whom Iwas taughtto read; because Icannotand nevercould recollecta time when Icould not readmy Bible.—D. Webster.

Assumed as a fact.

Caution.

(2)By assuming a thing to be truewithout declaring it to be so. This kind of indicative clause is usually introduced byif(meaningadmitting that, granting that, etc.),though, although, etc. Notice that the action is not merely conceived as possible; it is assumed to be a fact: for example,—

If the penalties of rebellion hung over an unsuccessful contest; if America was yet in the cradle of her political existence; if her population little exceeded two millions; if she was without government, without fleets or armies, arsenals or magazines, without military knowledge,—still her citizens had a just and elevated sense of her rights.—A. Hamilton.

(3)By asking a question to find out some fact; as,—

Is private credit the friend and patron of industry?—Hamilton.With respect to novels what shall I say?—N. Webster.

Is private credit the friend and patron of industry?—Hamilton.

With respect to novels what shall I say?—N. Webster.

Definition.

216.Theindicative moodis that form of a verb which represents a thing as a fact, or inquires about some fact.

Meaning of the word.

217.Subjunctivemeanssubjoined, or joined as dependent or subordinate to something else.

This meaning is misleading.

If its original meaning be closely adhered to, we must expect every dependent clause to have its verb in the subjunctive mood, and every clausenotdependent to have its verb in some other mood.

But this is not the case. In the quotation from Hamilton (Sec. 215, 2) several subjoined clauses introduced byifhave the indicative mood, and also independent clauses are often found having the verb in the subjunctive mood.

Cautions.

Three cautions will be laid down which must be observed by a student who wishes to understand and use the English subjunctive:—

(1) You cannot tell it always by the form of the word. The main difference is, that the subjunctive has no-sas the ending of the present tense, third person singular; as, "If hecome."

(2) The fact that its clause is dependent or is introduced by certain words will not be a safe rule to guide you.

(3) Themeaningof the verb itself must be keenly studied.

Definition.

218.The subjunctive mood is that form or use of the verb which expresses action or being, not as a fact, but as merely conceived of in the mind.

219.The following are examples of this use:—

Heavenresther soul!—Moore.Godgrantyou find one face there You loved when all was young.—Kingsley.Nowtrembledimples on your cheek, Sweetbeyour lips to taste and speak.—Beddoes.Longdiethy happy days before thy death.—Shakespeare.

Heavenresther soul!—Moore.

Godgrantyou find one face there You loved when all was young.—Kingsley.

Nowtrembledimples on your cheek, Sweetbeyour lips to taste and speak.—Beddoes.

Longdiethy happy days before thy death.—Shakespeare.

220.This really amounts to the conclusion, or principal clause, in a sentence, of which the condition is omitted.

Our chosen specimen of the hero as literary man [if we were to choose one]would bethis Goethe.—Carlyle.

Icould liedown like a tired child,Andweepaway the life of careWhich I have borne and yet must bear.—Shelley.

Most excellent stranger, as you come to the lakes simply to see their loveliness,mightit notbeas well to ask after the most beautiful road, rather than the shortest?—De Quincey.

221.The most common way of representing the action or being as merely thought of, is byputting it into the form of asuppositionorcondition; as,—

Now, if the fire of electricity and that of lightningbethe same, this pasteboard and these scales may represent electrified clouds.—Franklin.

Here no assertion is made that the two thingsarethe same; but, if the reader merelyconceivesthem for the moment to be the same, the writer can make the statement following. Again,—

If itbeSunday [supposing it to be Sunday], the peasants sit on the church steps and con their psalm books.—Longfellow.

222.There are three kinds of conditional sentences:—

Real or true.

(1) Those in which an assumed or admitted fact is placed before the mind in the form of a condition (see Sec. 215, 2); for example,—

If theywereunacquainted with the works of philosophers and poets, they were deeply read in the oracles of God. If their nameswere not foundin the registers of heralds, they were recorded in the Book of Life.—Macaulay.

Ideal,—may or may not be true.

(2) Those in which the condition depends on something uncertain, andmay or may not be regarded true, or be fulfilled; as,—

If, in our case, the representative system ultimatelyfail, popular government must be pronounced impossible.—D. Webster.If thisbethe glory of Julius, the first great founder of the Empire, so it is also the glory of Charlemagne, the second founder.—Bryce.If any manconsiderthe present aspects of what is called by distinction society, he will see the need of these ethics.—Emerson.

If, in our case, the representative system ultimatelyfail, popular government must be pronounced impossible.—D. Webster.

If thisbethe glory of Julius, the first great founder of the Empire, so it is also the glory of Charlemagne, the second founder.—Bryce.

If any manconsiderthe present aspects of what is called by distinction society, he will see the need of these ethics.—Emerson.

Unreal—cannot be true.

(3) Suppositionscontrary to fact, which cannot be true, or conditions that cannot be fulfilled, but are presented only in order to suggest whatmight beormight have beentrue; thus,—

If these thingsweretrue, society could not hold together.—Lowell.Did notmy writingsproduceme some solid pudding, the great deficiency of praise would have quite discouraged me.—Franklin.Hadhe for oncecastall such feelings aside, andstrivenenergetically to save Ney, itwould have castsuch an enhancing light over all his glories, that we cannot but regret its absence.—Bayne.NOTE.—Conditional sentences are usually introduced byif,though,except,unless, etc.; but when the verb precedes the subject, the conjunction is often omitted: for example, "Were I biddento say how the highest genius could be most advantageously employed," etc.

If these thingsweretrue, society could not hold together.—Lowell.

Did notmy writingsproduceme some solid pudding, the great deficiency of praise would have quite discouraged me.—Franklin.

Hadhe for oncecastall such feelings aside, andstrivenenergetically to save Ney, itwould have castsuch an enhancing light over all his glories, that we cannot but regret its absence.—Bayne.

NOTE.—Conditional sentences are usually introduced byif,though,except,unless, etc.; but when the verb precedes the subject, the conjunction is often omitted: for example, "Were I biddento say how the highest genius could be most advantageously employed," etc.

In the following conditional clauses, tell whether each verb is indicative or subjunctive, and what kind of condition:—

1. The voice, if he speak to you, is of similar physiognomy, clear, melodious, and sonorous.—Carlyle.2. Were you so distinguished from your neighbors, would you, do you think, be any the happier?—Thackeray.3. Epaminondas, if he was the man I take him for, would have sat still with joy and peace, if his lot had been mine.—Emerson.4. If a damsel had the least smattering of literature, she was regarded as a prodigy.—Macaulay.5. I told him, although it were the custom of our learned in Europe to steal inventions from each other,... yet I would take such caution that he should have the honor entire.—Swift.6. If he had reason to dislike him, he had better not have written, since he [Byron] was dead.—N. P. Willis.7. If it were prostrated to the ground by a profane hand, what native of the city would not mourn over its fall?—Gayarre.8. But in no case could it be justified, except it be for a failure of the association or union to effect the object for which it was created.—Calhoun.

1. The voice, if he speak to you, is of similar physiognomy, clear, melodious, and sonorous.—Carlyle.

2. Were you so distinguished from your neighbors, would you, do you think, be any the happier?—Thackeray.

3. Epaminondas, if he was the man I take him for, would have sat still with joy and peace, if his lot had been mine.—Emerson.

4. If a damsel had the least smattering of literature, she was regarded as a prodigy.—Macaulay.

5. I told him, although it were the custom of our learned in Europe to steal inventions from each other,... yet I would take such caution that he should have the honor entire.—Swift.

6. If he had reason to dislike him, he had better not have written, since he [Byron] was dead.—N. P. Willis.

7. If it were prostrated to the ground by a profane hand, what native of the city would not mourn over its fall?—Gayarre.

8. But in no case could it be justified, except it be for a failure of the association or union to effect the object for which it was created.—Calhoun.

223.The subjunctive, especiallybe,may,might, andshould, is used to express purpose, the clause being introduced bythatorlest; as,—

It was necessary, he supposed, to drink strong beer, that hemight bestrong to labor.—Franklin.I have been the more particular...that youmay comparesuch unlikely beginnings with the figure I have since made there.—Id.He [Roderick] with sudden impulse that way rode, To tell of what had passed, lest in the strife Theyshould engagewith Julian's men.—Southey.

It was necessary, he supposed, to drink strong beer, that hemight bestrong to labor.—Franklin.

I have been the more particular...that youmay comparesuch unlikely beginnings with the figure I have since made there.—Id.

He [Roderick] with sudden impulse that way rode, To tell of what had passed, lest in the strife Theyshould engagewith Julian's men.—Southey.

224.The subjunctive may represent the result toward which an action tends:—

So many thoughts move to and fro,That vain itwereher eyes to close.—Coleridge.So live, that when thy summons comes to joinThe innumerable caravan...Thougonot, like the quarry-slave at night.—Bryant.

So many thoughts move to and fro,That vain itwereher eyes to close.—Coleridge.

So live, that when thy summons comes to joinThe innumerable caravan...Thougonot, like the quarry-slave at night.—Bryant.

225.The English subjunctive, like the Latin, is sometimes used in a clause to express the time when an action is to take place.

Let it rise, till itmeetthe sun in his coming.—D. Webster.Rise up, before itbetoo late!—Hawthorne.

Let it rise, till itmeetthe sun in his coming.—D. Webster.

Rise up, before itbetoo late!—Hawthorne.

But it will not be longEre thisbe thrownaside.—Wordsworth.

226.The subjunctive is often found in indirect questions, the answer being regarded as doubtful.

Ask the great man if therebenone greater.—EmersonWhat the best arrangementwere, none of us could say.—Carlyle.Whether itweremorning or whether itwereafternoon, in her confusion she had not distinctly known.—De Quincey.

Ask the great man if therebenone greater.—Emerson

What the best arrangementwere, none of us could say.—Carlyle.

Whether itweremorning or whether itwereafternoon, in her confusion she had not distinctly known.—De Quincey.

227.After a verb of wishing, the subjunctive is regularly used in the dependent clause.

The transmigiation of souls is no fable. I would itwere!—Emerson.Bright star! Would Iweresteadfast as thou art!—Keats.

The transmigiation of souls is no fable. I would itwere!—Emerson.

Bright star! Would Iweresteadfast as thou art!—Keats.

I've wished that little islehadwings,And we, within its fairy bowers,Were waftedoff to seas unknown.—Moore.

Subject.

228.The noun clause, in its various uses as subject, object, in apposition, etc., often contains a subjunctive.

The essence of originality is not that itbenew.—Carlyle

Apposition or logical subject.

To appreciate the wild and sharp flavors of those October fruits, it is necessary that yoube breathingthe sharp October or November air.—Thoreau.

Complement.

The first merit, that which admits neither substitute nor equivalent, is, that everythingbein its place.—Coleridge.

Object.

As sure as Heaven shall rescue me, I have no thought what men theybe.—Coleridge.Some might lament that Iwerecold.—Shelley.

As sure as Heaven shall rescue me, I have no thought what men theybe.—Coleridge.

Some might lament that Iwerecold.—Shelley.

After verbs of commanding.

This subjunctive is very frequent after verbs ofcommanding.

See that therebeno traitors in your camp.—Tennyson.

Come, tell me all that thou hast seen,And look thoutellme true.—Scott.

See that thy scepterbeheavy on his head.—De Quincey.

229.The concession may be expressed—

(1) In the nature of the verb; for example,—

Bethe matter how it may, Gabriel Grub was afflicted with rheumatism to the end of his days.—Dickens.Bethe appealmadeto the understanding or the heart, the sentence is the same—that rejects it.—Brougham

Bethe matter how it may, Gabriel Grub was afflicted with rheumatism to the end of his days.—Dickens.

Bethe appealmadeto the understanding or the heart, the sentence is the same—that rejects it.—Brougham

(2) By an indefinite relative word, which may be

(a)Pronoun.

Whateverbetide, we'll turn aside,And see the Braes of Yarrow.—Wordsworth.

(b)Adjective.

That hunger of applause, of cash, or whatsoever victual itmay be, is the ultimate fact of man's life.—Carlyle.

(c)Adverb.

Wherever hedreamunder mountain or stream,The spirit he loves remains.—Shelley.

230.As shown by the wide range of literature from which these examples are selected, the subjunctive is very much used in literary English, especially by those who are artistic and exact in the expression of their thought.

At the present day, however, the subjunctive is becoming less and less used. Very many of the sentences illustrating the use of the subjunctive mood could be replaced by numerous others using the indicative to express the same thoughts.

The three uses of the subjunctive now most frequent are, to express a wish, a concession, and condition contrary to fact.

In spoken English, the subjunctivewereis much used in a wish or a condition contrary to fact, but hardly any other subjunctive forms are.

It must be remembered, though, that many of the verbs in the subjunctive have the same form as the indicative. Especially is this true of unreal conditions in past time; for example,—

Were we of open sense as the Greeks were, wehad found[should have found] a poem here.—Carlyle.

Definition.

231.Theimperative moodis the form of the verb used in direct commands, entreaties, or requests.

Usually second person.

232.The imperative is naturally used mostly with thesecond person, since commands are directed to a person addressed.

(1)Command.

Call upthe shades of Demosthenes and Cicero to vouch for your words;pointto their immortal works.—J. Q. Adams.Honorall men;loveall men;fearnone.—Channing.

Call upthe shades of Demosthenes and Cicero to vouch for your words;pointto their immortal works.—J. Q. Adams.

Honorall men;loveall men;fearnone.—Channing.

(2)Entreaty.

Oh, from these sterner aspects of thy faceSpareme and mine, norletus need the wrathOf the mad unchained elements.—Bryant.

(3)Request.

"Hush! mother," whispered Kit. "Comealong with me."—DickensTellme, how was it you thought of coming here?—Id.

"Hush! mother," whispered Kit. "Comealong with me."—Dickens

Tellme, how was it you thought of coming here?—Id.

Sometimes withfirst personin the plural.

But the imperative may be used with the plural of the first person. Since the first person plural person is not really I + I, but I + you, or I + they, etc., we may use the imperative withwein a command, request, etc., toyouimplied in it. This is scarcely ever found outside of poetry.

Part wein friendship from your land,And, noble earl, receive my hand.—Scott.Thenseek wenot their camp—for thereThe silence dwells of my despair.—Campbell.Break weour watch up.—Shakespeare.

Part wein friendship from your land,And, noble earl, receive my hand.—Scott.

Thenseek wenot their camp—for thereThe silence dwells of my despair.—Campbell.

Break weour watch up.—Shakespeare.

Usually this is expressed byletwith the objective: "Letus go." And the same with the third person: "Lethim be accursed."

(a) Tell the mood of each verb in these sentences, and what special use it is of that mood:—

1. Wherever the standard of freedom and independence has been or shall be unfurled, there will her heart and her prayers be.2.Mark thou this difference, child of earth!While each performs his part,Not all the lip can speak is worthThe silence of the heart.3. Oh, that I might be admitted to thy presence! that mine were the supreme delight of knowing thy will!4.'Twere worth ten years of peaceful life,One glance at their array!5. Whatever inconvenience ensue, nothing is to be preferred before justice.6.The vigorous sun would catch it up at eveAnd use it for an anvil till he had filledThe shelves of heaven with burning thunderbolts.7.Meet is it changes should controlOur being, lest we rust in ease.8.Quoth she, "The Devil take the goose,And God forget the stranger!"9. Think not that I speak for your sakes.10. "Now tread we a measure!" said young Lochinvar.11. Were that a just return? Were that Roman magnanimity?12. Well; how he may do his work, whether he do it right or wrong, or do it at all, is a point which no man in the world has taken the pains to think of.13. He is, let him live where else he like, in what pomps and prosperities he like, no literary man.14. Could we one day complete the immense figure which these flagrant points compose!15. "Oh, then, my dear madam," cried he, "tell me where I may find my poor, ruined, but repentant child."16.That sheaf of darts, will it not fall unbound,Except, disrobed of thy vain earthly vaunt,Thou bring it to be blessed where saints and angels haunt?17.Forget thyself to marble, tillWith a sad leaden downward castThou fix them on the earth as fast.18.He, as though an instrument,Blew mimic hootings to the silent owls,That they might answer him.19.From the moss violets and jonquils peep,And dart their arrowy odor through the brain,Till you might faint with that delicious pain.20. That a man parade his doubt, and get to imagine that debating and logic is the triumph and true work of what intellect he has; alas! this is as if you should overturn the tree.21.The fat earth feed thy branchy rootThat under deeply strikes!The northern morning o'er thee shoot,High up in silver spikes!22. Though abyss open under abyss, and opinion displace opinion,all are at last contained in the Eternal cause.23. God send Rome one such other sight!24. "Mr. Marshall," continued Old Morgan, "see that no one mentions the United States to the prisoner."25. If there is only one woman in the nation who claims the right to vote, she ought to have it.26. Though he were dumb, it would speak.27. Meantime, whatever she did,—whether it were in display of her own matchless talents, or whether it were as one member of a general party,—nothing could exceed the amiable, kind, and unassuming deportment of Mrs. Siddons.28. It makes a great difference to the force of any sentence whether there be a man behind it or no.

1. Wherever the standard of freedom and independence has been or shall be unfurled, there will her heart and her prayers be.

Mark thou this difference, child of earth!While each performs his part,Not all the lip can speak is worthThe silence of the heart.

3. Oh, that I might be admitted to thy presence! that mine were the supreme delight of knowing thy will!

'Twere worth ten years of peaceful life,One glance at their array!

5. Whatever inconvenience ensue, nothing is to be preferred before justice.

The vigorous sun would catch it up at eveAnd use it for an anvil till he had filledThe shelves of heaven with burning thunderbolts.

Meet is it changes should controlOur being, lest we rust in ease.

Quoth she, "The Devil take the goose,And God forget the stranger!"

9. Think not that I speak for your sakes.

10. "Now tread we a measure!" said young Lochinvar.

11. Were that a just return? Were that Roman magnanimity?

12. Well; how he may do his work, whether he do it right or wrong, or do it at all, is a point which no man in the world has taken the pains to think of.

13. He is, let him live where else he like, in what pomps and prosperities he like, no literary man.

14. Could we one day complete the immense figure which these flagrant points compose!

15. "Oh, then, my dear madam," cried he, "tell me where I may find my poor, ruined, but repentant child."

16.

That sheaf of darts, will it not fall unbound,Except, disrobed of thy vain earthly vaunt,Thou bring it to be blessed where saints and angels haunt?

17.

Forget thyself to marble, tillWith a sad leaden downward castThou fix them on the earth as fast.

18.

He, as though an instrument,Blew mimic hootings to the silent owls,That they might answer him.

19.

From the moss violets and jonquils peep,And dart their arrowy odor through the brain,Till you might faint with that delicious pain.

20. That a man parade his doubt, and get to imagine that debating and logic is the triumph and true work of what intellect he has; alas! this is as if you should overturn the tree.

21.

The fat earth feed thy branchy rootThat under deeply strikes!The northern morning o'er thee shoot,High up in silver spikes!

22. Though abyss open under abyss, and opinion displace opinion,all are at last contained in the Eternal cause.

23. God send Rome one such other sight!

24. "Mr. Marshall," continued Old Morgan, "see that no one mentions the United States to the prisoner."

25. If there is only one woman in the nation who claims the right to vote, she ought to have it.

26. Though he were dumb, it would speak.

27. Meantime, whatever she did,—whether it were in display of her own matchless talents, or whether it were as one member of a general party,—nothing could exceed the amiable, kind, and unassuming deportment of Mrs. Siddons.

28. It makes a great difference to the force of any sentence whether there be a man behind it or no.

(b) Find sentences with five verbs in the indicative mood, five in the subjunctive, five in the imperative.

Definition.

233.Tensemeanstime. Thetenseof a verb is the form or use indicating the time of an action or being.

Tenses in English.

Old English had only two tenses,—the present tense, which represented present and future time; and the past tense. We still use the present for the future in such expressions as, "Igoaway to-morrow;" "If hecomes, tell him to wait."

But English of the present day not only has a tense for each of the natural time divisions,—present, past, and future,—but has other tenses to correspond with those of highly inflected languages, such as Latin and Greek.

The distinct inflections are found only in the present and past tenses, however: the others arecompounds of verbal forms with various helping verbs, calledauxiliaries; such asbe,have,shall,will.

The tenses in detail.

234.Action or being may be represented as occurring in present, past, or future time, by means of thepresent, thepast, and thefuture tense. It may also be represented asfinishedin present or past or future time by means of the present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect tenses.

Not only is this so: there are what are calleddefinite formsof these tenses, showing more exactly the time of the action or being. These make the English speech even more exact than other languages, as will be shown later on, in the conjugations.

235.The English verb has never had full inflections for number and person, as the classical languages have.

When the older pronounthouwas in use, there was a form of the verb to correspond to it, or agree with it, as, "Thou walkest," present; "Thou walkedst," past; also, in the third person singular, a form ending in -eth, as, "It is not in man that walketh, to direct his steps."

But in ordinary English of the present day there is practically only one ending for person and number. This is the third person, singular number; as, "He walks;" and this only in the present tense indicative. This is important in questions of agreement when we come to syntax.

Definition.

236.Conjugationis the regular arrangement of the forms of the verb in the various voices, moods, tenses, persons, and numbers.

In classical languages,conjugationmeansjoining togetherthe numerous endings to the stem of the verb; but in English, inflections are so few that conjugation means merely the exhibition of the forms and the different verb phrases that express the relations of voice, mood, tense, etc.

Few forms.

237.Verbs in modern English have only four or five forms; for example,walkhaswalk,walks,walked,walking, sometimes adding the old formswalkest,walkedst,walketh. Such verbs aschoosehave five,—choose,chooses,chose,choosing,chosen(old,choosest,chooseth,chosest).

The verbbehas more forms, since it is composed of several different roots,—am,are,is,were,been, etc.

238.INFLECTIONS OF THE VERBBE.

Remarks on the verbbe.

239.This conjugation is pieced out with three different roots: (1)am,is; (2)was,were; (3)be.

Instead of the pluralare, Old English hadbeothandsindorsindon, same as the Germansind.Areis supposed to have come from the Norse language.

The old indicative third person pluralbeis sometimes found in literature, though it is usually a dialect form; for example,—

Wherebethe sentries who used to salute as the Royal chariots drove in and out?—ThackerayWherebethe gloomy shades, and desolate mountains?—Whittier

Wherebethe sentries who used to salute as the Royal chariots drove in and out?—Thackeray

Wherebethe gloomy shades, and desolate mountains?—Whittier

Uses ofbe.

240.The forms of the verbbehave several uses:—

(1)As principal verbs.

The light that neverwason sea and land.—Wordsworth.

(2)As auxiliary verbs, in four ways,—

(a) With verbal forms in-ing(imperfect participle) to form the definite tenses.

Broadswordsare maddeningin the rear,—Each broadsword brightwas brandishinglike beam of light.—Scott.

(b) With the past participle in-ed,-en, etc., to form the passive voice.

By solemn vision and bright silver dream,His infancywas nurtured.—Shelley.

(c) With past participle of intransitive verbs, being equivalent to the present perfect and past perfect tenses active; as,

When weare goneFrom every object dear to mortal sight.—Wordsworth

We drank tea, whichwasnowbecomean occasional banquet.—Goldsmith.

(d) With the infinitive, to express intention, obligation, condition, etc.; thus,

Itwas to have been calledthe Order of Minerva.—Thackeray.Ingenuity and clevernessare to be rewardedby State prizes.—Id.If Iwere to explainthe motion of a body falling to the ground.—Burke

Itwas to have been calledthe Order of Minerva.—Thackeray.

Ingenuity and clevernessare to be rewardedby State prizes.—Id.

If Iwere to explainthe motion of a body falling to the ground.—Burke

241.INFLECTIONS OF THE VERBCHOOSE.

Machinery of a verb in the voices, tenses, etc.

242.In addition to the aboveinflectedforms, there are many periphrastic orcompoundforms, made up of auxiliaries with the infinitives andparticiples. Some of these have been indicated in Sec. 240, (2).

The ordinary tenses yet to be spoken of are made up as follows:—

(1)Future tense, by usingshallandwillwith the simple or root form of the verb; as, "Ishall be," "Hewill choose."

(2)Present perfect,past perfect,future perfect, tenses, by placinghave,had, andshall(orwill)havebefore the past participle of any verb; as, "Ihave gone" (present perfect), "Ihad gone" (past perfect), "Ishall have gone" (future perfect).

(3) Thedefinite formof each tense, by using auxiliaries with the imperfect participle active; as, "Iam running," "Theyhad been running."

(4) Thepassive forms, by using the forms of the verbbebefore the past participle of verbs; as, "Iwas chosen," "Youare chosen."

243.The following scheme will show how rich our language is in verb phrases to express every variety of meaning. Only the third person, singular number, of each tense, will be given.

NOTE.—Since participles and infinitives are not really verbs, but verbals, they will be discussed later (Sec. 262).

Also, inaffirmative sentences, the indicative present and past tenses have emphatic forms made up ofdoanddidwith the infinitive or simple form; as, "Hedoes strike," "Hedid strike."

[Note to Teacher.—This table is not to be learned now; if learned at all, it should be as practice work on strong and weak verb forms. Exercises should be given, however, to bring up sentences containing such of these conjugation forms as the pupil will find readily in literature.]

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