Of.

Comingfroma race of day-dreamers, Ayrault had inherited the faculty of dreaming also by night.—Higginson.

Fromharmony,fromheavenly harmonyThis universal frame began.—Dryden.

(3)Time.

A distrustful, if not a desperate man, did he becomefromthe night of that fearful dream—Hawthorne.

(4)Motive,cause, orreason.

It wasfromno fault of Nolan's.—Hale.The young cavaliers,froma desire of seeming valiant, ceased to be merciful.—Bancroft.

It wasfromno fault of Nolan's.—Hale.

The young cavaliers,froma desire of seeming valiant, ceased to be merciful.—Bancroft.

Exercise.—Find sentences with three meanings offrom.

323.The original meaning ofofwas separation or source, likefrom. The various uses are shown in the following examples:—

(1)Origin or source.

The king holds his authorityofthe people.—Milton.Thomas à Becket was bornofreputable parents in the city of London.—Hume.

The king holds his authorityofthe people.—Milton.

Thomas à Becket was bornofreputable parents in the city of London.—Hume.

(2)Separation: (a) After certain verbs, such asease,demand,rob,divest,free,clear,purge,disarm,deprive,relieve,cure,rid,beg,ask, etc.

Two old Indians cleared the spotofbrambles, weeds, and grass.—Parkman.Asked no oddsof, acquitted themof,etc.—Aldrich.

Two old Indians cleared the spotofbrambles, weeds, and grass.—Parkman.

Asked no oddsof, acquitted themof,etc.—Aldrich.

(b) After some adjectives,—clear of,free of,wide of,bare of, etc.; especially adjectives and adverbs of direction, asnorth of,south of, etc.

The hills were bareoftrees.—Bayard Taylor.Backofthat tree, he had raised a little Gothic chapel.—Gavarre.

The hills were bareoftrees.—Bayard Taylor.

Backofthat tree, he had raised a little Gothic chapel.—Gavarre.

A singular wantofall human relation.—Higginson.

(d)With words expressing distance.

Until he had come within a staff's lengthofthe old dame.—HawthorneWithin a few yardsofthe young man's hiding place.—Id.

Until he had come within a staff's lengthofthe old dame.—Hawthorne

Within a few yardsofthe young man's hiding place.—Id.

(3)With expressions of material, especiallyout of.

White shirt with diamond studs, or breastpinofnative gold.—Bancroft.Sandals, bound with thongsofboar's hide.—ScottWho formed,out ofthe most unpromising materials, the finest army that Europe had yet seen.—Macaulay

White shirt with diamond studs, or breastpinofnative gold.—Bancroft.

Sandals, bound with thongsofboar's hide.—Scott

Who formed,out ofthe most unpromising materials, the finest army that Europe had yet seen.—Macaulay

(4)Expressing cause, reason, motive.

The author diedofa fit of apoplexy.—Boswell.More than one altar was richerofhis vows.—Lew Wallace."Good for him!" cried Nolan. "I am gladofthat."—E. E. Hale.

The author diedofa fit of apoplexy.—Boswell.

More than one altar was richerofhis vows.—Lew Wallace.

"Good for him!" cried Nolan. "I am gladofthat."—E. E. Hale.

(5)Expressing agency.

You cannot make a boy know,ofhis own knowledge, that Cromwell once ruled England.—Huxley.He is awayofhis own free will.—Dickens

You cannot make a boy know,ofhis own knowledge, that Cromwell once ruled England.—Huxley.

He is awayofhis own free will.—Dickens

II. Other Relations expressed byOf.

(6)Partitive, expressing a part of a number or quantity.

Ofthe Forty, there were only twenty-one members present.—Parton.He washed out someofthe dirt, separating thereby as much of the dust as a ten-cent piece would hold.—Bancroft.

Ofthe Forty, there were only twenty-one members present.—Parton.

He washed out someofthe dirt, separating thereby as much of the dust as a ten-cent piece would hold.—Bancroft.

See also Sec. 309.

(7)Possessive, standing, with its object, for the possessive, or being used with the possessive case to form the double possessive.

Not even woman's love, and the dignityofa queen, could give shelter from his contumely.—W. E. Channing.And the mighty secretofthe Sierra stood revealed.—Bancroft.

Not even woman's love, and the dignityofa queen, could give shelter from his contumely.—W. E. Channing.

And the mighty secretofthe Sierra stood revealed.—Bancroft.

(8)Appositional, which may be in the case of—

(a) Nouns.

Such a book as thatofJob.—Froude.The fair cityofMexico.—Prescott.The nationofLilliput.—Swift.

Such a book as thatofJob.—Froude.

The fair cityofMexico.—Prescott.

The nationofLilliput.—Swift.

(b) Noun and gerund, being equivalent to an infinitive.

In the vain hopeofappeasing the savages.—Cooper.Few people take the troubleoffinding out what democracy really is.—Lowell.

In the vain hopeofappeasing the savages.—Cooper.

Few people take the troubleoffinding out what democracy really is.—Lowell.

This crampfishofa Socrates has so bewitched him.—EmersonA sorry antediluvian makeshiftofa building you may think it.—Lamb.An inexhaustible bottleofa shop.—Aldrich.

This crampfishofa Socrates has so bewitched him.—Emerson

A sorry antediluvian makeshiftofa building you may think it.—Lamb.

An inexhaustible bottleofa shop.—Aldrich.

(9)Of time.Besides the phrasesof old,of late,of a sudden, etc.,ofis used in the sense ofduring.

I used often to lingerofa morning by the high gate.—AldrichI delighted to loll over the quarter railingofa calm day.—Irving.

I used often to lingerofa morning by the high gate.—Aldrich

I delighted to loll over the quarter railingofa calm day.—Irving.

(10)Of reference, equal toabout,concerning,with regard to.

The Turk lay dreamingofthe hour.—Halleck.Boastedofhis prowess as a scalp hunter and duelist.—Bancroft.Sank into reverieofhome and boyhood scenes.—Id.

The Turk lay dreamingofthe hour.—Halleck.

Boastedofhis prowess as a scalp hunter and duelist.—Bancroft.

Sank into reverieofhome and boyhood scenes.—Id.

Idiomatic use with verbs.

Ofis also used as an appendage of certain verbs, such asadmit,accept,allow,approve,disapprove,permit, without adding to their meaning. It also accompanies the verbstire,complain,repent,consist,avail(one's self), and others.

Exercise.—Find sentences with six uses ofof.

324.The general meaning ofonis position or direction.Onanduponare interchangeable in almost all of their applications, as shown by the sentences below:—

(1)Place: (a) Where.

Cannon were heard closeonthe left.—Parkman.

The Earl of Huntley ranged his hostUpontheir native strand.—Mrs. Sigourney.

(b) With motion.

It was the battery at Samos firingonthe boats.—Parkman.Thou didst look downuponthe naked earth.—Bryant.

It was the battery at Samos firingonthe boats.—Parkman.

Thou didst look downuponthe naked earth.—Bryant.

(2)Time.

The demonstration of joy or sorrowonreading their letters.—Bancroft.OnMonday evening he sent forward the Indians.—Parkman.

The demonstration of joy or sorrowonreading their letters.—Bancroft.

OnMonday evening he sent forward the Indians.—Parkman.

Uponis seldom used to express time.

(3)Reference, equal toabout,concerning, etc.

I think that one abstains from writingonthe immortality of the soul.—Emerson.He pronounced a very flattering opinionuponmy brother's promise of excellence.—De Quincey.

I think that one abstains from writingonthe immortality of the soul.—Emerson.

He pronounced a very flattering opinionuponmy brother's promise of excellence.—De Quincey.

(4)In adjurations.

Onmy life, you are eighteen, and not a day more.—Aldrich.Uponmy reputation and credit.—Shakespeare

Onmy life, you are eighteen, and not a day more.—Aldrich.

Uponmy reputation and credit.—Shakespeare

(5)Idiomatic phrases:on fire,on board,on high,on the wing,on the alert,on a sudden,on view,on trial, etc.

Exercise.—Find sentences with three uses ofonorupon.

325.Some uses of to are the following:—

(1)Expressing motion: (a) To a place.

Cometothe bridal chamber, Death!—Halleck.Rip had scrambledtoone of the highest peaks.—Irving.

Cometothe bridal chamber, Death!—Halleck.

Rip had scrambledtoone of the highest peaks.—Irving.

(b) Referring to time.

Full of schemes and speculationstothe last.—Parton.Revolutions, whose influence is felttothis hour.—Parkman.

Full of schemes and speculationstothe last.—Parton.

Revolutions, whose influence is felttothis hour.—Parkman.

(2)Expressing result.

He usually gave his draft to an aid...to be written over,—oftentothe loss of vigor.—BentonToour great delight, Ben Lomond was unshrouded.—B. Taylor

He usually gave his draft to an aid...to be written over,—oftentothe loss of vigor.—Benton

Toour great delight, Ben Lomond was unshrouded.—B. Taylor

(3)Expressing comparison.

But when, unmasked, gay Comedy appears,'Tis tentoone you find the girl in tears.—Aldrich

They are arrant rogues: Cacus was nothingtothem.—Bulwer.Bolingbroke and the wicked Lord Littleton were saintstohim.—Webster

They are arrant rogues: Cacus was nothingtothem.—Bulwer.

Bolingbroke and the wicked Lord Littleton were saintstohim.—Webster

(4)Expressing concern, interest.

Tothe few, it may be genuine poetry.—Bryant.His brother had died, had ceased to be,tohim.—Hale.Little matteredtothem occasional privations—Bancroft.

Tothe few, it may be genuine poetry.—Bryant.

His brother had died, had ceased to be,tohim.—Hale.

Little matteredtothem occasional privations—Bancroft.

(5)Equivalent toaccording to.

Nor,tomy taste, does the mere music...of your style fall far below the highest efforts of poetry.—Lang.We cook the dishtoour own appetite.—Goldsmith.

Nor,tomy taste, does the mere music...of your style fall far below the highest efforts of poetry.—Lang.

We cook the dishtoour own appetite.—Goldsmith.

(6)With the infinitive(see Sec. 268).

Exercise.—Find sentences containing three uses ofto.

326.Withexpresses the idea of accompaniment, and hardly any of its applications vary from this general signification.

In Old English,midmeantin company with, whilewiðmeantagainst: both meanings are included in the modernwith.

The following meanings are expressed bywith:—

(1)Personal accompaniment.

The advance,withHeyward at its head, had already reached the defile.—Cooper.For many weeks I had walkedwiththis poor friendless girl.—De Quincey.

The advance,withHeyward at its head, had already reached the defile.—Cooper.

For many weeks I had walkedwiththis poor friendless girl.—De Quincey.

(2)Instrumentality.

Withmy crossbow I shot the albatross.—Coleridge.Eitherwiththe swingle-bar, orwiththe haunch of our near leader, we had struck the off-wheel of the little gig.—De Quincey.

Withmy crossbow I shot the albatross.—Coleridge.

Eitherwiththe swingle-bar, orwiththe haunch of our near leader, we had struck the off-wheel of the little gig.—De Quincey.

(3)Cause, reason, motive.

He was wildwithdelight about Texas.—Hale.She seemed pleasedwiththe accident.—Howells.

He was wildwithdelight about Texas.—Hale.

She seemed pleasedwiththe accident.—Howells.

(4)Estimation, opinion.

How can a writer's verses be numerous ifwithhim, aswithyou, "poetry is not a pursuit, but a pleasure"?—Lang.It seemed a supreme momentwithhim.—Howells.

How can a writer's verses be numerous ifwithhim, aswithyou, "poetry is not a pursuit, but a pleasure"?—Lang.

It seemed a supreme momentwithhim.—Howells.

(5)Opposition.

After battlingwithterrific hurricanes and typhoons on every known sea.—Aldrich.The quarrel of the sentimentalists is notwithlife, butwithyou.—Lang.

After battlingwithterrific hurricanes and typhoons on every known sea.—Aldrich.

The quarrel of the sentimentalists is notwithlife, butwithyou.—Lang.

(6)The equivalent ofnotwithstanding, in spite of.

Withall his sensibility, he gave millions to the sword.—Channing.Messala,withall his boldness, felt it unsafe to trifle further.—Wallace

Withall his sensibility, he gave millions to the sword.—Channing.

Messala,withall his boldness, felt it unsafe to trifle further.—Wallace

(7)Time.

He expiredwiththese words.—Scott.Witheach new mind a new secret of nature transpires.—Emerson.

He expiredwiththese words.—Scott.

Witheach new mind a new secret of nature transpires.—Emerson.

Exercise.—Find sentences with four uses ofwith.

327.Since a preposition introduces a phrase and shows the relation between two things, it is necessary, first of all, to find the object of the preposition, and then to find what word the prepositional phrase limits. Take this sentence:—

The rule adopted on board the ships on which I have met "the man without a country" was, I think, transmitted from the beginning.—E. E. Hale.

The phrases are (1)on board the ships, (2)on which, (3)without a country, (4)from the beginning. The object ofon boardisships; ofon,which; ofwithout,country; offrom,beginning.

In (1), the phrase answers the questionwhere, and has the office of an adverb in tellingwherethe rule is adopted; hence we say,on boardshows the relation betweenshipsand the participleadopted.

In (2),on whichmodifies the verbhave metby telling where: henceonshows the relation betweenwhich(standing forships) and the verbhave met.

In (3),without a countrymodifiesman, telling what man, or the verbwasunderstood: hencewithoutshows the relation betweencountryandman, orwas. And so on.

Theparsingof prepositions means merely telling between what words or word groups they show relation.

(a) Parse the prepositions in these paragraphs:—

1. I remember, before the dwarf left the queen, he followed us one day into those gardens. I must needs show my wit by a silly illusion between him and the trees, which happens to hold in their language as it does in ours. Whereupon, the malicious rogue, watching his opportunity when I was walking under one of them, shook it directly over my head, by which a dozen apples, each of them near as large as a Bristol barrel, came tumbling about my ears; one of them hit me on the back as I chanced to stoop, and knocked me down flat on my face; but I received no other hurt, and the dwarf was pardoned at my desire, because I had given the provocation.—Swift2. Be that as it will, I found myself suddenly awakened with a violent pull upon the ring, which was fastened at the top of my box for the conveniency of carriage. I felt my box raised very high in the air, and then borne forward with prodigious speed. The first jolt had like to have shaken me out of my hammock. I called out several times, but all to no purpose. I looked towards my windows, and could see nothing but the clouds and the sky. I heard a noise just over my head, like the clapping of wings, and then began to perceive the woeful condition Iwas in; that some eagle had got the ring of my box in his beak, with an intent to let it fall on a rock: for the sagacity and smell of this bird enabled him to discover his quarry at a great distance, though better concealed than I could be within a two-inch board.—Id.

2. Be that as it will, I found myself suddenly awakened with a violent pull upon the ring, which was fastened at the top of my box for the conveniency of carriage. I felt my box raised very high in the air, and then borne forward with prodigious speed. The first jolt had like to have shaken me out of my hammock. I called out several times, but all to no purpose. I looked towards my windows, and could see nothing but the clouds and the sky. I heard a noise just over my head, like the clapping of wings, and then began to perceive the woeful condition Iwas in; that some eagle had got the ring of my box in his beak, with an intent to let it fall on a rock: for the sagacity and smell of this bird enabled him to discover his quarry at a great distance, though better concealed than I could be within a two-inch board.—Id.

(b) Give the exact meaning of each italicized preposition in the following sentences:—

1. The guns were clearedoftheir lumber.2. They then leftfora cruise up the Indian Ocean.3. I speak these thingsfroma love of justice.4.Toour general surprise, we met the defaulter here.5. There was no one except a little sunbeamofa sister.6. The great gathering in the main street wasonSundays, when, after a restful morning, though unbrokenbythe peal of church bells, the miners gatheredfromhills and ravinesformiles aroundformarketing.7. The troops waited in their boatsbythe edge of a strand.8. His breeches wereofblack silk, and his hat was garnishedwithwhite and sable plumes.9. A suppressed but still distinct murmur of approbation ran through the crowdatthis generous proposition.10. They were shriveled and colorlesswiththe cold.11. On every solemn occasion he was the striking figure, eventothe eclipsing of the involuntary object of the ceremony.12.Onall subjects known to man, he favored the world with his opinions.13. Our horses ranona sandy margin of the road.14. The hero of the poem isofa strange land and a strange parentage.15. He locked his doorfrommere force of habit.16. The lady was remarkableforenergy and talent.17. Roland was acknowledgedforthe successor and heir.18.Formy part, I like to see the passing, in town.19. A half-dollar was the smallest coin that could be tenderedforany service.20. The mother sank and fell, graspingatthe child.21. The savage army was in war-paint, plumedforbattle.22. He had lived in Parisforthe last fifty years.23. The hill stretchedforan immeasurable distance.24.The baron of Smaylho'me rosewithday,He spurred his courser on,Without stop or stay, down the rocky wayThat leadstoBrotherstone.25.Withall his learning, Carteret was far from being a pedant.26. An immense mountain covered with a shining green turf is nothing, in this respect,toone dark and gloomy.27. Wilt thou dieforvery weakness?28. The name of Free Joe strikes humorouslyuponthe ear of memory.29. The shout I heard wasuponthe arrival of this engine.30. He will raise the price, not merelybythe amount of the tax.

1. The guns were clearedoftheir lumber.

2. They then leftfora cruise up the Indian Ocean.

3. I speak these thingsfroma love of justice.

4.Toour general surprise, we met the defaulter here.

5. There was no one except a little sunbeamofa sister.

6. The great gathering in the main street wasonSundays, when, after a restful morning, though unbrokenbythe peal of church bells, the miners gatheredfromhills and ravinesformiles aroundformarketing.

7. The troops waited in their boatsbythe edge of a strand.

8. His breeches wereofblack silk, and his hat was garnishedwithwhite and sable plumes.

9. A suppressed but still distinct murmur of approbation ran through the crowdatthis generous proposition.

10. They were shriveled and colorlesswiththe cold.

11. On every solemn occasion he was the striking figure, eventothe eclipsing of the involuntary object of the ceremony.

12.Onall subjects known to man, he favored the world with his opinions.

13. Our horses ranona sandy margin of the road.

14. The hero of the poem isofa strange land and a strange parentage.

15. He locked his doorfrommere force of habit.

16. The lady was remarkableforenergy and talent.

17. Roland was acknowledgedforthe successor and heir.

18.Formy part, I like to see the passing, in town.

19. A half-dollar was the smallest coin that could be tenderedforany service.

20. The mother sank and fell, graspingatthe child.

21. The savage army was in war-paint, plumedforbattle.

22. He had lived in Parisforthe last fifty years.

23. The hill stretchedforan immeasurable distance.

24.

The baron of Smaylho'me rosewithday,He spurred his courser on,Without stop or stay, down the rocky wayThat leadstoBrotherstone.

25.Withall his learning, Carteret was far from being a pedant.

26. An immense mountain covered with a shining green turf is nothing, in this respect,toone dark and gloomy.

27. Wilt thou dieforvery weakness?

28. The name of Free Joe strikes humorouslyuponthe ear of memory.

29. The shout I heard wasuponthe arrival of this engine.

30. He will raise the price, not merelybythe amount of the tax.

328.If the student has now learned fully that words must be studied in grammar according to their function or use, and not according to form, he will be able to handle some words that are used as several parts of speech. A few are discussed below,—a summary of their treatment in various places as studied heretofore.

THAT.

329.Thatmay be used as follows:

(1)As a demonstrative adjective.

Thatnight was a memorable one.—Stockton.

(2)As an adjective pronoun.

Thatwas a dreadful mistake.—Webster.

(3)As a relative pronoun.

And now it is like an angel's song,Thatmakes the heavens be mute.—Coleridge.

(4)As an adverb of degree.

Thatfar I hold that the Scriptures teach.—Beecher.

(5)As a conjunction: (a) Of purpose.

Has bounteously lengthened out your lives,thatyou might behold this joyous day.—Webster.

(b) Of result.

Gates of iron so massythatno man could without the help of engines open or shut them.—Johnson.

We wishthatlabor may look up here, and be proud in the midst of its toil.—Webster.

330.(1)Relative pronoun.

That iswhatI understand by scientific education.—Huxley.

(a) Indefinite relative.

Those shadowy recollections,Which be theywhatthey may,Are yet the fountain light of all our day.—Wordsworth.

(2)Interrogative pronoun: (a) Direct question.

Whatwould be an English merchant's character after a few such transactions?—Thackeray.

(b) Indirect question.

I have not allowed myself to look beyond the Union, to seewhatmight be hidden.—Webster.

(3)Indefinite pronoun:The saying, "I'll tell youwhat."

(4)Relative adjective.

But woe towhatthing or person stood in the way.—Emerson.

(a) Indefinite relative adjective.

To saywhatgood of fashion we can, it rests on reality.—Id.

(5)Interrogative adjective: (a) Direct question.

Whatright have you to infer that this condition was caused by the action of heat?—Agassiz.

(b) Indirect question.

Atwhatrate these materials would be distributed,...it is impossible to determine.—Id.

(6)Exclamatory adjective.

Saint Mary!whata scene is here!—Scott.

(7)Adverb of degree.

If he has [been in America], he knowswhatgood people are to be found there.—Thackeray.

(8)Conjunction, nearly equivalent topartly...partly, ornot only...but.

Whatwith the Maltese goats, who go tinkling by to their pasturage;whatwith the vocal seller of bread in the early morning;...these sounds are only to be heard...in Pera.—S.S. Cox.

(9)As an exclamation.

What, silent still, and silent all!—Byron.What, Adam Woodcock at court!—Scott.

What, silent still, and silent all!—Byron.

What, Adam Woodcock at court!—Scott.

331.(1)Coördinate conjunction: (a) Adversative.

His very attack was never the inspiration of courage,butthe result of calculation.—Emerson.

(b) Copulative, afternot only.

Then arose not only tears,butpiercing cries, on all sides.—Carlyle.

(2)Subordinate conjunction: (a) Result, equivalent tothat...not.

Nor is Nature so hardbutshe gives me this joy several times.—Emerson.

(b) Substantive, meaningotherwise...than.

Who knowsbut, like the dog, it will at length be no longer traceable to its wild original—Thoreau.

(3)Preposition, meaningexcept.

Now there was nothing to be seenbutfires in every direction.—Lamb.

(4)Relative pronoun, after a negative, stands forthat...not, orwho...not.

There is not a man in thembutis impelled withal, at all moments, towards order.—Carlyle.

(5)Adverb, meaningonly.

The whole twenty years had been to himbutas one night.—Irving.To leadbutone measure.—Scott.

The whole twenty years had been to himbutas one night.—Irving.

To leadbutone measure.—Scott.

332.(1)Subordinate conjunction: (a) Of time.

Rip beheld a precise counterpart of himselfashe went up the mountain.—Irving.

(b) Of manner.

Asorphans yearn on to their mothers,He yearned to our patriot bands.—Mrs Browning.

His wan eyesGaze on the empty sceneasvacantlyAsocean's moon looks on the moon in heaven.—Shelley.

(d) Of reason.

I shall see but little of it,asI could neither bear walking nor riding in a carriage.—Franklin.

(e) Introducing an appositive word.

Reverencedasone of the patriarchs of the village.—Irving.Doing dutyasa guard.—Hawthorne.

Reverencedasone of the patriarchs of the village.—Irving.

Doing dutyasa guard.—Hawthorne.

(2)Relative pronoun, aftersuch, sometimessame.

And was there such a resemblanceasthe crowd had testified?—Hawthorne.

Modifier of a noun or pronoun.

333.(1)An adjective.

The aforesaid general had been exceedinglylikethe majestic image.—Hawthorne.They look, indeed,likera lion's mane than a Christian man's locks.-SCOTT.No Emperor, this,likehim awhile ago.—Aldrich.There is no statuelikethis living man.—Emerson.That face,likesummer ocean's.—Halleck.

The aforesaid general had been exceedinglylikethe majestic image.—Hawthorne.

They look, indeed,likera lion's mane than a Christian man's locks.-SCOTT.

No Emperor, this,likehim awhile ago.—Aldrich.

There is no statuelikethis living man.—Emerson.

That face,likesummer ocean's.—Halleck.

In each case,likeclearly modifies a noun or pronoun, and is followed by a dative-objective.

Introduces a clause, but its verb is omitted.

(2)A subordinate conjunctionof manner. This follows a verb or a verbal, but the verb of the clause introduced bylikeisregularly omitted. Note the difference between these two uses. In Old Englishgelic(like) was followed by the dative, and was clearly an adjective. In this second use,likeintroduces a shortened clause modifying a verb or a verbal, as shown in the following sentences:—

Goodman Brown came into the street of Salem village, staringlikea bewildered man.—Hawthorne.Give Ruskin space enough, and he grows frantic and beats the airlikeCarlyle.—Higginson.

Goodman Brown came into the street of Salem village, staringlikea bewildered man.—Hawthorne.

Give Ruskin space enough, and he grows frantic and beats the airlikeCarlyle.—Higginson.

They conducted themselves muchlikethe crew of a man-of-war.—Parkman.[The sound] rang in his earslikethe iron hoofs of the steeds of Time.—Longfellow.Stirring it vigorously,likea cook beating eggs.—Aldrich.

They conducted themselves muchlikethe crew of a man-of-war.—Parkman.

[The sound] rang in his earslikethe iron hoofs of the steeds of Time.—Longfellow.

Stirring it vigorously,likea cook beating eggs.—Aldrich.

If the verb is expressed,likedrops out, andasoras iftakes its place.

The sturdy English moralist may talk of a Scotch supperashe pleases.—Cass.Mankind for the first seventy thousand ages ate their meat raw, justasthey do in Abyssinia to this day.—Lamb.I do with my friendsasI do with my books.—Emerson.

The sturdy English moralist may talk of a Scotch supperashe pleases.—Cass.

Mankind for the first seventy thousand ages ate their meat raw, justasthey do in Abyssinia to this day.—Lamb.

I do with my friendsasI do with my books.—Emerson.

NOTE.—Very rarelylikeis found with a verb following, but this is not considered good usage: for example,—

A timid, nervous child,likeMartinwas.—Mayhew.Through which they put their heads,likethe Gauchosdothrough their cloaks.—Darwin.

A timid, nervous child,likeMartinwas.—Mayhew.

Through which they put their heads,likethe Gauchosdothrough their cloaks.—Darwin.

Likean arrow shotFrom a well-experienced archerhitsthe mark.—Shakespeare.

Definition.

334.Interjectionsare exclamations used to express emotion, and are not parts of speech in the same sense as the words we have discussed; that is, entering into the structure of a sentence.

Some of these are imitative sounds; as, tut! buzz! etc.

Humph! attempts to express a contemptuous nasal utterance that no letters of our language can really spell.

Not all exclamatory words are interjections.

Other interjections areoh!ah!alas!pshaw!hurrah! etc. But it is to be remembered that almost any word may be used as an exclamation,but it still retains its identity as noun, pronoun, verb, etc.: for example, "Books! lighthouses built on the sea of time [noun];" "Halt! the dust-brown ranks stood fast [verb]," "Up! for shame! [adverb]," "Impossible! it cannot be [adjective]."

What analysis is..

335.All discourse is made up of sentences: consequently the sentence is the unit with which we must begin. And in order to get a clear and practical idea of the structure of sentences, it is necessary to become expert inanalysis; that is, in separating them into their component parts.

A general idea of analysis was needed in our study of the parts of speech,—in determining case, subject and predicate, clauses introduced by conjunctions, etc.

Value of analysis.

A more thorough and accurate acquaintance with the subject is necessary for two reasons,—not only for a correct understanding of the principles of syntax, but for the study of punctuation and other topics treated in rhetoric.

Definition.

336.Asentenceis the expression of a thought in words.

Kinds of sentences as to form.

337.According to the way in which a thought is put before a listener or reader, sentences may be of three kinds:—

(1)Declarative, which puts the thought in the form of a declaration or assertion. This is the most common one.

(2)Interrogative, which puts the thought in a question.

(3)Imperative, which expresses command, entreaty, or request.

Any one of these may be put in the form of an exclamation, but the sentence would still be declarative, interrogative, or imperative; hence,according to form, there are only the three kinds of sentences already named.

Examples of these three kinds are, declarative, "Old year, you must not die!" interrogative, "Hath he not always treasures, always friends?" imperative, "Come to the bridal chamber, Death!"

Division according to number of statements.

338.But the division of sentences most necessary to analysis is the division, not according to the form in which a thought is put, but according to how many statements there are.

The one we shall consider first is thesimple sentence.

Definition.

339.Asimple sentenceis one which contains a single statement, question, or command: for example, "The quality of mercy is not strained;" "What wouldst thou do, old man?" "Be thou familiar, but by no means vulgar."

340.Every sentence must contain two parts,—asubjectand apredicate.

Definition: Predicate.

Thepredicateof a sentence is a verb or verb phrase which says something about the subject.

In order to get a correct definition of the subject, let us examine two specimen sentences:—

1. But now all is to be changed.2. A rare old plant is the ivy green.

1. But now all is to be changed.

2. A rare old plant is the ivy green.

In the first sentence we find the subject by placing the wordwhatbefore the predicate,—Whatis to be changed? Answer,all. Consequently, we sayallis the subject of the sentence.

But if we try this with the second sentence, we have some trouble,—Whatis the ivy green? Answer,a rare old plant. But we cannot help seeing that an assertion is made, not ofa rare old plant, but aboutthe ivy green; and the real subject is the latter. Sentences are frequently in this inverted order, especially in poetry; and our definition must be the following, to suit all cases:—

Subject.

Thesubjectis that which answers the questionwhoorwhatplaced before the predicate, and which at the same time names that of which the predicate says something.

The subject in interrogative and imperative simple sentences.

341.In the interrogative sentence, the subject is frequently after the verb. Either the verb is the first word of the sentence, or an interrogative pronoun, adjective, or adverb that asks about the subject. In analyzing such sentences,always reduce them to the order of a statement. Thus,—

(1) "When should this scientific education be commenced?"

(2) "This scientific education should be commenced when?"

(3) "What wouldst thou have a good great man obtain?"

(4) "Thou wouldst have a good great man obtain what?"

In the imperative sentence, the subject (you,thou, orye) is in most cases omitted, and is to be supplied; as, "[You] behold her single in the field."

Name the subject and the predicate in each of the following sentences:—

1.The shadow of the dome of pleasureFloated midway on the waves.2. Hence originated their contempt for terrestrial distinctions.3. Nowhere else on the Mount of Olives is there a view like this.4. In the sands of Africa and Arabia the camel is a sacred and precious gift.5. The last of all the Bards was he.6. Slavery they can have anywhere.7. Listen, on the other hand, to an ignorant man.8. What must have been the emotions of the Spaniards!9. Such was not the effect produced on the sanguine spirit of the general.10. What a contrast did these children of southern Europe present to the Anglo-Saxon races!

The shadow of the dome of pleasureFloated midway on the waves.

2. Hence originated their contempt for terrestrial distinctions.

3. Nowhere else on the Mount of Olives is there a view like this.

4. In the sands of Africa and Arabia the camel is a sacred and precious gift.

5. The last of all the Bards was he.

6. Slavery they can have anywhere.

7. Listen, on the other hand, to an ignorant man.

8. What must have been the emotions of the Spaniards!

9. Such was not the effect produced on the sanguine spirit of the general.

10. What a contrast did these children of southern Europe present to the Anglo-Saxon races!

342.All theelementsof the simple sentence are as follows:—

(1) The subject.

(2) The predicate.

(3) The object.

(4) The complements.

(5) Modifiers.

(6) Independent elements.

The subject and predicate have been discussed.

343.The object may be of two kinds:—

Definitions. Direct Object.

(1) The DIRECT OBJECT is that word or expression which answers the questionwhoorwhatplaced after the verb; or the direct object names that toward which the action of the predicate is directed.

It must be remembered that any verbal may have an object; but for the present we speak of the object of the verb, and byobjectwe mean thedirectobject.

Indirect object.

(2) The INDIRECT OBJECT is a noun or its equivalent used as the modifier of a verb or verbal to name the person or thing for whose benefit an action is performed.

Examples of direct and indirect objects are, direct, "She seldom saw hercourseat a glance;" indirect, "I givetheethis to wear at the collar."

Complement:

344.Acomplementis a word added to a verb of incomplete predication to complete its meaning.

Notice that a verb of incomplete predication may be of two kinds,—transitive and intransitive.

Of a transitive verb.

Thetransitive verboften requires, in addition to the object, a word to define fully the action that is exerted upon the object; for example, "Ye call me chief." Here the verbcallhas an objectme(if we leave outchief), and means summoned; butchiefbelongs to the verb, andmehere is not the object simply ofcall, but ofcall chief, just as if to say, "Yehonor me." This word completing a transitive verb is sometimes called afactitive object, orsecond object, but it is a true complement.

The fact that this is a complement can be moreclearly seen when the verb is in the passive. See sentence 19, in exercise following Sec. 364.

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