If a body at A be impelled by two forces at the same time, the one in the direction A B, carrying it from A to B in a certain space of time, and the other in the direction A D, pushing it from A to D in the same time; complete the parallelogram ABCD, and draw the diagonal A C: then the body at A, (which let us suppose a ship agitated by the wind and current; A B, being the line along which she advances as impressed by the wind, and A D the line upon which she is driven by the current) will move along the diagonal A C, and will be in the point C, at the end of the time in which it would have moved along A D or AB, as impelled by either of those forces (the wind or current) separately.
CUTTER,bateau, a small vessel commonly navigated in the channel of England; it is furnished with one mast, and rigged as asloop.
Many of these vessels are used on an illicit trade, and others employed by the government to seize them; the latter of which are either under the direction of the Admiralty or Custom-house. See a representation of a cutter of this sort in the plate referred to from the articleVessel.
Cutteris also a small boat used by ships of war. SeeBoat.
CUTTING-DOWNLine, a curved line used by shipwrights in the delineation of ships: it determines the thickness of all the floor timbers, and likewise the height of thedead-wood,aforeandabaft. It is limited in the middle of the ship by the thickness of the floor-timber, and abaft by the breadth of thekelson; and must be carried up so high upon the stem, as to leave sufficient substance for the breeches of the rising timbers.Murray’s Ship-building.
CUT-WATER, the foremost part of a ship’s prow, formed of an assemblage of several pieces of timber, to render it broad at the upper-part, where it projects forward from the stem to open the column of water as the ship sails along, and also to make her keep to windward better, when she is close-hauled. It is otherwise called the knee of the head. See the articleStem; as also the several parts of it represented in plateI.Piecesof theHull.
Davit,minot, a long beam of timber, represented by a, a, plateII. fig. 28, and used as a crane, whereby to hoist the flukes of the anchor to the top of thebow, without injuring the planks of the ship’s side as it ascends; an operation which by mariners is called fishing the anchor. The anchors being situated on both the bows, the davit may be occasionally shifted so as to project over either side of the ship, according to the position of that anchor on which it is to be employed. The inner-end of the davit is secured by being thrust into a square ring of iron b, which is bolted to the deck, and fore-locked under the beams. This ring, which is called the span-shackle, exhibited at large by fig. 34, is fixed exactly in the middle of the deck, and close behind the fore-mast. Upon the outer-end of the davit is hung a large block c, through which a strong rope traverses, called the fish-pendant d, to whose foremost end is fitted a large iron hook e, and to its after end a tackle or complication of pullies f, the former of which is called the fish-hook, and the latter the fish-tackle.
The davit therefore, according to the sea-phrase, is employed tofish the anchor, which being previouslycatted, the fish-hook is fastened upon its flukes; and the effort of the tackle, being transmitted to the hook by means of the fish-pendant, draws up that part of the anchor sufficiently high upon the bow to fasten it, which is done by theShank-painter. See that article.
There is also a davit of a smaller kind, occasionally fixed in the longboat, and employed to weigh the anchor therein.
DAY’S-WORK,cinglage, the reckoning or account of the ship’s course, during twenty-four hours, or between noon and noon, according to the rules of trigonometry. SeeDead-Reckoning.
DEAD-EYE,cap de mouton, a sort of round, flattish, wooden block, see fig. 30, plateII. It is usually encircled with the end of a rope, or with an iron band, fig. 31,b, and pierced with three holes through the flat, in order to receive the rope called alaniard c, which corresponding with three holes in another dead-eyea, creates a purchase employed for various uses, but chiefly to extend theshroudsandstays, otherwise called the standing-rigging.
In order to form this purchase, one of the dead-eyes is fastened in the lower-end of each shroud, and the opposite one in the upper-link of eachchainon the ship’s side, which is made round to receive and encompass the hollowed outer-edge of the dead-eye. After this the laniard is passed alternately through the holes in the upper and lower dead-eyes till it becomes six-fold; and is then drawn tight by the application of mechanical powers. The general disposition of the dead eyes in their channels is represented in the Elevation, plateI. In merchant-ships they are generally fitted with iron plates in the room of chains. These last are exhibited in fig. 16, plateII.
The dead-eyes used for the stays,moques, have only one hole, which, however, is large enough to receive ten or twelve turns of the laniard: these are generally termedhearts, and are expressed by fig. 32.
There are also dead-eyes of another form, employed for thecrow-feet,moques de trelingage. These are long cylindrical blocks, fig. 33, with a number of small holes in them, to receive the legs or lines of which the crow-foot, fig. 28, is composed.
DEAD-LIGHTS, certain wooden ports which are made to fasten into the cabin-windows, to prevent the waves from gushing into the ship in a high sea. As they are made exactly to fit the windows, and are strong enough to resist the waves, they are always fixed in, on the approach of a storm, and the glass frames taken out, which might other wise be shattered to pieces by the surges, and suffer great quantities of water to enter the vessel.
DEAD-RECKONING, in navigation,estime, the judgment or estimation which is made of the place where a ship is situated, without any observation of the heavenly bodies. It is discovered by keeping an account of the distance she has run by thelog, and of her course steered by thecompass; and by rectifying these data by the usual allowances fordrift,lee-way, &c. according to the ship’s known trim. This reckoning, however, is always to be corrected, as often as any good observation of the sun can be obtained.
DEAD-RISING, or RISING-LINEof the floor,fleurs, those parts of a ship’s floor, or bottom, throughout her whole length, where the floor-timber is terminated upon the lower futtock. See the articleNaval Architecture.
DEAD-WATER,remouxthe eddy of water which appears like little whirl-pools, closing in with the ship’s stern as she sails through it.
DEAD-WOOD,contre-quille, a name given by shipwrights to certain blocks of timber laid upon the keel, particularly at the extremities afore and abaft, where these pieces are placed one upon another to a considerable height, because the ship is there so narrow as not to admit of the two half timbers, which are therefore scored into this dead wood, where the angle of the floor-timbers gradually diminishes, as approaching the stem and stern-post. See the articleNaval Architecture.
In the fore-part of the ship, the dead-wood generally extends from the stemson, upon which it is scarfed to the loof-frame; and in the after-end from the stern-post, where it is confined by the knee, to the after-ballance-frame. It is connected to the keel by strong spike-nails. Those pieces are represented by e e,Piecesof theHull, plateI.
The dead-wood afore and abaft is equal in depth to two-thirds of the depth of the keel, and as broad as can be procured, so as not to exceed the breadth of the keel.
DEAD-WORK, all that part of a ship which is above water when she is laden. See the articleUpper-Work.
DECKS,ponts, (decken, Dan. to cover) the planked floors of a ship, which connect the sides together, and serve as different platforms to support the artillery, and lodge the men, as also to preserve the cargo from the sea in merchant-vessels.
As all ships are broader at the lower-deck than on the next above it, and as the cannon thereof are always heaviest, it is necessary that the frame of it should be much stronger than that of the others; and, for the same reason, the second or middle deck ought to be stronger than the upper deck, or forecastle.
Ships of the first and second rates are furnished with three whole decks, reaching from the stem to the stern, besides a forecastle and a quarterdeck, which extends from the stern to the main-mast, between which and the fore-castle, a vacancy is left in the middle, opening to the upper-deck, and forming what is called thewaist. There is yet another deck above the hinder or aftmost part of the quarter-deck, called the poop, which also serves as a roof for the captain’s cabin or couch.
The inferior ships of the line of battle are equipped with two decks and a half, and frigates, sloops, &c. with one gun-deck and a half, with a spar deck below to lodge the crew.
The decks are formed and sustained by the beams, the clamps, the water-ways, the carlings, the ledges, the knees, and two rows of small pillars, called stanchions, &c. See those articles.
That the figure of a deck, together with its corresponding parts, may be more clearly understood, we have exhibited a plan of the lower-deck of a 74 gun-ship in plateIII. And as both sides of the deck are exactly similar, the pieces by which it is supported appear on one side, and on the other side the planks or floor of which it is composed, as laid up on those pieces.
A, the principal, or main hatch-way.
B, the stern-post.
C, the stem.
D, the beams, composed of three pieces, as exhibited by D, in one of which the dotted lines shew the arrangement of one of the beams under the other side of the deck.
E, part of the vertical or hanging knees. See alsoe, fig. 16, in the same plate.
Plate iii.To FaceDeck.
Plate iii.To FaceDeck.
Plate iii.To FaceDeck.
F, the horizontal or lodging knees, which fasten the beams to the sides.
G, the carlings, ranging fore and aft, from one beam to another.
H, the gun-ports.
I, the pump-dales, being large wooden tubes which return the water from the pumps into the sea.
K, the spurs of the beams; being curved pieces of timber serving as half-beams to support the decks, where a whole beam cannot be placed on account of the hatch-ways.
L, the deck-transom, which is bolted by the middle to the stern-post, and whose ends rest upon the fashion-pieces.
M, the bulk-head or partition, which encloses the manger, and prevents the water which enters at the hause-holes from running aft between decks.
N N, the fore hatch-way.
O O, the after hatch-way.
P, the drum-head of the gear cap-stern.
P p, the drum-head of the main capstern.
Q, one of the lower transom-knees.
R, one of the breast-hooks under the gun-deck.
S, the breast-hook of the gun-deck.
T T, the station of the chain-pumps.
V, the breadth and thickness of the timbers at the height of the gun-deck.
U U, scuttles leading to the gunner’s store-room, and bread-room.
W, the station of the fore-mast.
X, the station of the main-mast.
Y, the station of the mizen-mast.
Z, the ring-bolts of the decks, used to retain the cannon whilst charging.
a, a, the ring-bolts of the sides, whereon the tackles are hooked that secure the cannon at sea.
c a a d, the water-ways, through which the scupper-holes are pierced, to carry the water off from the deck into the sea.
b, b, plan of the foremost and aftmost cable-bits, with their crosspieces g, g, and their standards e, e.
Thus we have represented on one side, all the pieces which sustain the deck with its cannon; and on the other side, the deck itself, with a tier of 32 pounders planted in battery thereon. In order also to shew the use of the breeching and train-tackle, one of the guns is drawn in as ready for charging. See the articlesBreechingandCannon.
The number of beams, by which the decks of ships are supported, is often very different, according to the practice of different countries; the strength of the timber of which the beams are framed; and the services for which the ship is calculated.
As the deck which contains the train of a fire-ship is furnished with an equipage peculiar to itself, the whole apparatus is particularly described in the articleFire-ship.
Flush-Deck, orDeck-Flush fore and aft, implies a continued floor laid from stem to stern, upon one line, without any steps or intervals.
Half-Deck,corps de garde, a space under the quarter-deck of a ship of war, contained between the foremost bulk-head of thesteerage, and the fore-part of the quarter-deck.
In the colliers of Northumberland the steerage itself is called the half-deck, and is usually the habitation of the ship’s crew.
DECOY, a stratagem employed by a small ship of war to betray a vessel of inferior force into an incautious pursuit, till she has drawn her within the range of her cannon, or what is called within gun-shot.
It is usually performed by painting the stern and sides in such a manner as to disguise the ship, and represent her either much smaller, and of inferior force, or as a friend to the hostile vessel, which she endeavours to ensnare, by assuming the emblems and ornaments of the nation to which the stranger is supposed to belong. When she has thus provoked the adversary to chase, in hope of acquiring a prize, she continues the decoy by spreading a great sail, as endeavouring to escape, at the same time that her course is considerably retarded by an artful alteration, of hertrimtill the enemy approaches.
Decoying is also performed to elude the chace of a ship of superior force in a dark night, by throwing out a lighted cask of pitch into the sea, which will burn for a considerable time, and misguide the enemy. Immediately after the cask is thrown out, the ship changes her course, and may easily escape if at any tolerable distance from the foe.
DEEP-WAISTED,encastillé, the distinguishing fabric of a ship’s decks, when the quarter-deck and fore-castle are elevated from four to six feet above the level of the upper-deck, so as to leave a vacant space, called the waiste, on the middle of the upper-deck. See the articleWaiste.
DEMURRAGE, an allowance given to the commander of a trading ship by the merchants, for having detained him longer in port than the time previously appointed for his departure.
DEPARTURE, in navigation, the distance between any two places lying on the same parallel, counted in miles of the equator; or the distance of one place from the meridian of another, counted on the parallel passing over that place. SeeNavigation.
DEPTHof a sail,chute, the extent of any square or oblong sail from the head-rope to the foot-rope; or the length of the after-leech of any boom-sail or stay-sail. See the articleSail.
DETACHMENTof a fleet or squadron, a certain number of ships chosen by an admiral or commodore from the rest of the fleet, charged to execute some particular service.
DIFFERENCEof latitude, in navigation, the difference between any two places lying on the same meridian; or the distance between the parallels of latitude of any two places, expressed in miles of the equator.
DINNAGE, see the articleDunnage.
DISABLED,desemparé, the state of a ship when, by the loss of her masts, sails, yards, or rigging; by springing a leak, or receiving some fracture in her hull, or other disaster; she is rendered incapable of prosecuting her voyage without great difficulty and danger.
ToDISCHARGE, (decharger, Fr.) when applied to a ship, signifies to unlade her, or take out her stores, ammunition, artillery, &c. When expressed of the officers or crew, it implies to disband them from immediate service.
DISMASTED,dematé, the state of a ship which has lost her masts by boisterous weather, engagement, or other misfortune.
DIVISION, a select number of ships in a fleet or squadron of men of war, distinguished by a particular flag or pendant, and usually commanded by a general officer. A squadron is commonly ranged into three divisions, the commanding officer of which is always stationed in the center.
When a fleet consists of sixty sail of theline, that is, of ships having at least sixty cannon, the admiral divides it into three squadrons, each of which has its divisions and commanding officers. Each squadron has its proper colours, according to the rank of the admiral who commands it, and every division its proper mast. Thus, the white flag denotes the first squadron of France; the white and blue the second, and the third is characterised by the blue. In England, the first admiral, or the admiral of the fleet, displays the union flag at the main-top-mast-head; next follows the white flag with St. George’s cross; and afterwards the blue. The private ships carry pendants of the same colour with their respective squadron, at the masts of their particular divisions; so that the last ship in the division of the blue squadron carries a blue pendant at her mizen-top-mast-head.
DOCK,forme, (imagined ofδοχεῖον) a sort of broad and deep trench, formed on the side of a harbour, or on the banks of a river; and commodiously fitted either to build ships, or receive them to be repaired andbreamedtherein. These sorts of docks have generally strong flood-gates, to prevent the flux of the tide from entering the dock while the ship is under repair.
There are likewise docks of another kind, called wet-docks, where a ship can only be cleaned during the recess of the tide, or in the interval between the time when the tide left her dry a-ground, and the period when it again reaches her by the return of the flood. Docks of the latter kind are not furnished with the usual flood-gates.
DOCKINGa ship, the act of drawing her into the dock, in order to give her a proper repair, and cleanse the bottom, and cover it anew with a preparation of stuff, as explained in the articleBreaming.
DOCK-YARDS,arcenaux, certain magazines containing all sorts of naval stores, and timber for ship-building. In England, the royal dock-yards are at Chatham, Portsmouth, Plymouth, Deptford, Woolwich, and Sheerness. His majesty’s ships and vessels of war are generally moored at these ports, during the time of peace; and such as want repairing are taken into the docks, examined, and refitted for service. See the articleRepair.
The principal dock-yards are governed by a commissioner, resident at the port, who superintends all the musters of the officers, artificers, and labourers, employed in the dock-yard, and ordinary. He also controls their payment therein; examines the accounts; contracts, and draws bills on the Navy-office to supply the deficiency of stores; and, finally, regulates whatever belongs to the dock-yard, maintaining due order in the respective offices.
These yards are generally supplied from the northern crowns with hemp, pitch, tar, rosin, canvas, oak plank, and several other species. With regard to the masts, particularly those of the largest size, they are usually imported from New-England.
DOG, a sort of iron hook, or bar, with a sharp fang at one end, so formed as to be easily driven into a plank: it is used to drag along the planks of oak when they are let into a hole under the stern of a ship, to be stowed in thehold. For this purpose there is a rope fastened to the end of the dog, upon which several men pull, to draw the plank towards the place where it is to be stowed. It is also used for the same purpose in unlading the ship.
DOGGER,dogre-bot, a Dutch fishing-vessel navigated in the German ocean. It is generally employed in the herring fishery, being equipped with two masts, viz. a main-mast and a mizen-mast, and somewhat resemblinga ketch.
DOLPHINof the masta peculiar kind of wreath, formed of platted cordage, to be fastened occasionally round the masts, as a support to thepuddening, whose use is to sustain the weight of the fore and main-yards, in case the rigging, or chains, by which those yards are suspended, should be shot away in the time of battle; a circumstance which might render their sails useless at a season when their assistance is extremely necessary. See the articlePuddening.
DOUBLING, in navigation, (doubler, Fr.) the act of sailing round, or passing beyond a cape or promontory, so as that the cape or point of land separates the ship from her former situation, or lies between her and any distant observer.
DOUBLING-NAILS, amongst shipwrights, the nails commonly used to fasten the lining of the gun-ports, &c.
DOUBLING-UPON, in a naval engagement, the act of enclosing any part of a hostile fleet between two fires, or of cannonading it on both sides.
It is usually performed by the van or rear of that fleet which is superior in number, taking the advantage of the wind, or of its situation and circumstances, and tacking or veering round the van or rear of the enemy, who will thereby be exposed to great danger, and can scarcely avoid being thrown into a general confusion.
ToDOUSE,molir, to lower suddenly or slacken: expressed of a sail in a squall of wind, an extended hawser, &c.
DOWN-HAWL,calebas, a rope passing up along a stay through the rings of the stay-sail, and tied to the upper-corner of the sail, to pull it down, when they areshorteningsail.
Down-haul-Tackle, a complication of pullies, employed to pull down the main or fore-yard in a tempest, in order to reef the sail. It is used at this time, because the violence of the wind prevents the weight of the yard from having its natural effect, of descending, when the ropes by which it is suspended are slackened.
DRABLER, an additional part of a sail, sometimes laced to the bottom of thebonnetof asquare-sail, in sloops and schooners.
DRAG, a machine consisting of a sharp square iron ring encircled with a net, and commonly used to rake the mud off from the platform or bottom of the docks. See plateII. fig. 35.
DRAGGINGthe anchor, the act of trailing it along the bottom, after it is loosened from the ground, by the effort of the wind or current upon the ship, communicated to the cable. See the articleAnchor.
DRAUGHT, the depth of a body of water necessary to float a ship; hence a ship is said to draw so many feet of water, when she is borne up by a column of water of that particular depth. Thus, if it requires a body of water whose depth is equal to twelve feet, to float or buoy up a ship on its surface, she is said to draw twelve feet water; and that this draught may be more readily known, the feet are marked on the stem and stern-post, regularly from the keel upwards.
DRESSING, (faire la parade), the act of ornamenting a ship with a variety of colours; as ensigns, flags, pendants, &c. displayed from different parts of her masts and rigging on a day of festivity.
DRIFT, in navigation,derive(fromdrive), the angle which the line of a ship’s motion makes with the nearest meridian, when she drives with her side to the wind and waves, and is not governed by the power of the helm: it also implies the distance which the ship drives on that line.
A ship’s way is only called drift in a storm; and then, when it blows so vehemently, as to prevent her from carrying any sail, or at least restrains her to such a portion of sail as may be necessary to keep her sufficiently inclined to one side, that she may not be dismasted by her violent labouring produced by the turbulence of the sea.
DRIVER, an oblong sail, occasionally hoisted to the mizen-peak, when the wind is very fair. The lower corners of it are extended by aboomor pole, which is thrust out across the ship, and projects over the lee-quarter.
DRIVING,abattre(drifan, Sax.) the state of being carried at random along the surface of the water, as impelled by a storm, or impetuous current: it is generally expressed of a ship when, accidentally, broke loose from her anchors or moorings.
DROP,etarcure, a name sometimes given to the depth of the principal sails; as, her main-top-saildropsseventeen yards.
DUCKING, a sort of marine punishment inflicted by the French on those who have been convicted of desertion, blasphemy, or exciting sedition. It is performed as follows: the criminal is placed astride of a short thick batten, fastened to the end of a rope, which passes thro’ a block hanging at one of the yard-arms. Thus fixed, he is hoisted suddenly up to the yard, and the rope being slackened at once, he is plunged into the sea. This chastisement is repeated several times, conformable to the purport of the sentence pronounced against the culprit, who has at that time several cannon-shot fastened to his feet during the punishment, which is rendered public by the firing of a gun, to advertise the other ships of the fleet thereof, that their crews may become spectators.Aubin.
Ducking, is also a penalty which veteran sailors pretend to inflict on those, who, for the first time, pass the tropic of Cancer, the Equator, or the streights of Gibraltar, in consequence of their refusal or incapacity to pay the usual fine levied on this occasion, which would redeem them from the said penalty.
DUNNAGE,fardage, a quantity of faggots, boughs of trees, or other loose wood, laid in the bottom of a ship, either to raise the heavy goods which might make her too stiff, or to keep the cargo sufficiently above the bottom, that it may sustain no damage from the water, if the ship should prove leaky.
EARINGS,rabans, certain small cords employed to fasten the upper corners of a sail to its respective yard; for which purpose one end of the earing is spliced to thecringle, fixed in that part of thesail; and the other end of it is passed six or seven times round the yard-arm and through the cringle, thereby fastening the latter to the former. Two of the turns are intended to stretch the upper-edge of the sail tight along the yard; and the rest to draw it close up to it. The former are therefore calledouter, and the latterinnerturns, as being passed without, or within the rigging, on the yard-arms.
EASEthe ship! the command given by the pilot to the steersman, to put the helm close to the lee-side, or, in the sea-phrase,hard-a-lee, when the ship is expected topitchor plunge her fore-part deep in the water, while close-hauled. The reason usually given for this practice is, that the sudden movement of the helm prevents the ship’s head from falling with so much weight and rapidity into the hollow of the sea, as it would do otherwise: which is presuming that the flow, and uncertain effect of the helm is sufficient to retard the certain and violent action of gravity: a position that necessarily infers a very singular theory of mechanics. We shall not endeavour to advance any argument in favour of this practice; only to remark, that it is most religiously observed, both in merchant-ships and his majesty’s navy.
ToEaseoff, orEaseaway,molir,filer, to slacken gradually any single rope, or complication of ropes, formed into a tackle.
EBB,jussant, the reflux of the tide, or the return of it into the sea after the highest of the flood, usually termed full-sea, or high-water.
EDDY,remoux, (ed, backward, again, andea, water, Sax.) the water that, by some interruption in its course, runs contrary to the direction of any river, or current, and appears like the motion of a whirlpool.
ToEDGEaway, in navigation,abattre, to decline gradually from the shore, or from the line of the course which the ship formerly steered: it is particularly applied when a ship changes her course, by sailing nearer the direction of the wind; or, in the lea-language, by sailinglarger, or moreaforethe wind, than she had done before that operation.
ELBOWin the hause, a particular twist in the cables by which a ship rides at anchor. In this situation each of the cables, after crossing the other before the stem, is directed outwards on the samebowfrom which it issued: that is to say, the starboard cablegrowsout on the starboard bow, and the larboard cable on the larboard bow, as exhibited in fig. 36, plateII. where a expresses the fore-castle, b the stem, c c the larboard cable, and d d the starboard one. See the articleHawse.
EMBARGO, in commerce,arret(embargar, Span.), an arrest laid on ships or merchandise by public authority, or a prohibition of state, commonly issued on foreign ships, to prevent their putting to sea in time of war; and sometimes to prevent their coming in, and otherwise both to prevent their entrance and departure.
EMBAYED,encapé, (frombay,) the situation of a ship when she is inclosed between two capes or promontories. It is particularly applied when the wind, by blowing strongly into any bay or gulf, makes it extremely difficult, and perhaps impracticable, for the vessel thus enclosed, toclawoff from the shore, so as to weather the capes and arrive into the offing.
ENGAGEMENT, in a naval sense, implies a particular or general battle at sea; or an action of hostility between single ships, ordetachments, orsquadronsof men of war.
In order to have a clearer idea of this article, it will, therefore, be necessary that the reader who is little acquainted with the subject, should previously refer to the explanation of those terms, as also to the articlesCannon,Division,Exercise,Fleet, andLineofBattle.
The sea-fights of the ancients were usually carried on in two different manners. Advanced by the force of their oars, the gallies ran violentlyaboardof each other, and by the mutual encounter of their beaks and prows, and sometimes of their sterns, endeavoured to dash in pieces, or sink their enemies.
The prow, for this purpose, was commonly armed with a brazen point or trident, nearly as low as the surface of the sea, in order to pierce the enemy’s ships under the water. Some of the gallies were furnished with large turrets, and other accessions of building, either for attack or defence. The soldiers also annoyed their enemies with darts and slings, and, on their nearer approach, with swords and javelins; and, in order that their missive weapons might be directed with greater force and certainty, the ships were equipped with several platforms, or elevations above the level of the deck[9]. The sides of the ship were fortified with a thick fence of hides, which served to repel the darts of their adversaries, and to cover their own soldiers, who thereby annoyed the enemy with greater security.
As the invention of gun-powder has rendered useless many of the machines employed in the naval wars of the ancients, the great distance of time has also consigned many of them to oblivion: some few are, nevertheless, recorded in ancient authors, of which we shall endeavour to present a short description. And first,
TheΔελφινwas a large and massy piece of lead or iron, cast in the form of a dolphin. This machine being suspended by blocks at their mast-heads or yard-arms, ready for a proper occasion, was let down violently from thence into the adverse ships, and either penetrated through their bottom, and opened a passage for the entering waters, or by its weight immediately sunk the vessel.
TheΔρήπανανan engine of iron crooked like a sickle, and fixed on the top of a long pole. It was employed to cut asunder theslingsof the sail-yards, and, thereby letting the sails fall down, to disable the vessel from escaping, and incommode her greatly during the action. Similar to this was another instrument, armed at the head with a broad two-edged blade of iron, wherewith they usually cut away the ropes that fastened the rudder to the vessel[10].
Δόρατα ναύμαχα, a sort of spears or maces of an extraordinary length, sometimes exceeding twenty cubits, as appears by the 15th Iliad of Homer[11], by whom they are also calledμακρὰ.
Κιραῖαιwere certain machines used to throw large stones into the enemies ships.
Vegetius mentions another engine, which was suspended to the main-mast, and resembled a battering-ram: for it consisted of a long beam, and an head of iron, and was, with great violence, pushed against the sides of the enemies gallies.
They had also a grappling-iron, which was usually thrown into the adverse ship by means of an engine: this instrument facilitated the entrance of the soldiers appointed toboard, which was done by means of wooden bridges, that were generally kept ready for this purpose in the fore-part of the vessel[12].
The arms used by the ancients rendered the disposition of their fleets very different, according to the time, place and circumstances. They generally considered it an advantage to be to windward, and to have the sun shining directly on the front of their enemy. The order of battle chiefly depended on their power of managing the ships, or of drawing them readily into form; and on the schemes which their officers had concerted. The fleet being composed of rowing-vessels, they lowered their sails previous to the action: they presented their prows to the enemy, and advanced against each other by the force of their oars[13]. Before they joined battle, the admirals went from ship to ship, and exhorted their soldiers to behave gallantly. All things being in readiness, the signal was displayed by hanging out of the admiral’s galley a gilded shield, or a red garment or banner. During the elevation of this the action continued, and by its depression, or inclination towards the right or left, the rest of the ships were directed how to attack, or retreat from their enemies. To this was added the sound of trumpets, which began in the admiral’s galley, and continued round the whole navy. The light was also begun by the admiral’s galley, by grappling, boarding, and endeavouring to overset, sink, or destroy, the adversary, as we have above described[14]. Sometimes, for want of grappling irons, they fixed their oars in such a manner as to hinder the enemy from retreating.[15]If they could not manage their oars as dexterously as their antagonists, or fall along-side so as to board him, they penetrated his vessel with the brazen prow. The vessels approached each other as well as their circumstances would permit, and the soldiers were obliged to fight hand to hand, till the battle was decided: nor indeed could they fight otherwise with any certainty, since the shortest distance rendered their slings and arrows, and almost all their offensive weapons, ineffectual, if not useless. The squadrons were sometimes ranged in two or three right lines, parallel to each other; being seldom drawn up in one line, unless when formed into an half moon. This order indeed appears to be the most convenient for rowing vessels that engage by advancing with their prows towards the enemy. At the battle of Ecnomus, between the Romans and the Carthaginians, the fleet of the former was ranged into a triangle, or a sort of wedge in front, and towards the middle of its depth, of two right parallel lines. That of the latter was formed into a rectangle, or two sides of a square, of which one branch extended behind, and, as the opening of the other prosecuted the attack, was ready to fall upon the flank of such of the Roman gallies as should attempt to break their line. Ancient history has preserved many of these orders, of which some have been followed in later times. Thus, in a battle in A. D. 1340, the English fleet was formed in two lines, the first of which contained the larger ships, the second consisted of all the smaller vessels, used as a reserve to support the former whenever necessary. In 1545 the French fleet under the command of the Mareschal d’Annebault, in an engagement with the English in the Channel, was arranged in the form of a crescent. The whole of it was divided into three bodies, the center being composed of thirty-six ships, and each of the wings of thirty. He had also many gallies; but these fell not into the line, being designed to attack the enemy occasionally. This last disposition was continued down to the reigns of James I. and Louis XIII[16].
Meanwhile the invention of gun-powder, in 1330, gradually introduced the use of fire-arms into naval war, without finally superseding the ancient method of engagement. The Spaniards were armed with cannon in a sea-fight against the English and the people of Poitou abreast of Rochelle in 1372; and this battle is the first wherein mention is made of artillery in our navies. Many years elapsed before the marine armaments were sufficiently provided with fire-arms[17]. So great a revolution in the manner of fighting, and which necessarily introduced a total change in the construction of ships, could not be suddenly effected. In short, the squadrons of men of war are no longer formed of rowing-vessels, or composed of gallies and ships of the line, but entirely of the latter, which engage under sail, and discharge the whole force of their artillery from their sides. Accordingly they are now disposed in no other form than that of a right line parallel to the enemy; every ship keepingclose-hauledupon a wind on the same tack. Indeed the difference between the force and manner of fighting of ships and gallies rendered their service in the same line incompatible. When we consider therefore the change introduced, both in the construction and working of ships, occasioned by the use of cannon, it necessarily follows, that squadrons of men of war must appear in the order that is now generally adopted. Finally, the ships ought to present their broad-sides to the enemy; and to sail close upon a wind in the wake of each other; as well to retain their own uniformity, as to preserve or acquire the advantage which the weather-gage gives them over their adversary[18].
The machines which owe their rise to the invention of gun powder have now totally supplanted the others; so that there is scarce any but the sword remaining, of all the weapons used by the ancients. Our naval battles are therefore almost always decided by fire-arms, of which there are several kinds, known by the general name of artillery.
In a ship of war fire-arms are distinguished into cannon mounted on carriages, swivel-cannon, grenadoes, and musquetry. The first has been already described at large in its proper place. The second is a small piece of artillery, carrying a shot of half a pound, and fixed in a socket on the top of the ships side, stern or bow, and also in her tops. The trunnions of this piece are contained in a sort of iron crotch, whose lower-end terminates in a cylindrical pivot resting in the socket, so as to support the weight of the cannon. The socket is bored in a strong piece of oak, reinforced with iron hoops, in order to enable it to sustain the recoil. By means of this frame, which is called the swivel, and an iron handle on its cascabel, the gun may be directed by hand to any object. It is therefore very necessary in the tops, particularly when loaded with musket-balls, to fire down on the upper-decks of the adversary in action.——The grenado is a kind of little bomb of the same diameter as a four pound bullet; it weighs about two pounds, being charged with four or five ounces of powder.——Grenadoes are thrown from the tops by the hands of the seamen. They have a touch-hole in the same manner as a bomb, and a fuse of the same composition. SeeMortar. The sailor fires the fuse with a match, and throws the grenado as he is directed: the powder being inflamed, the shell instantly bursts into splinters, that kill or maim whomsoever they reach on the decks of the enemy. As this machine cannot be thrown by hand above fifteen or sixteen fathoms, the ship must be pretty near, to render it useful in battle.——The musket or firelock is so well known, that it appears unnecessary to describe it in this place.—Besides these machines, there are several others used in merchant-ships and privateers, as coehorns, carabines, fire-arrows, organs, powder-flasks, stink-pots, &c[19].
Since a general engagement of fleets or squadrons of men of war is nothing else than a variety of particular actions of single ships with each other, in a line of battle; it appears necessary, according to the plan of this work, to begin by describing the latter, and then proceed to represent the usual manner of conducting the former.
The whole oeconomy of a naval engagement may be arranged under the following heads, viz. the preparation; the action; and the repair, or refitting, for the purposes of navigation.
The preparation is began by issuing the order to clear the ship for action, which is repeated by the boatswain and his mates at all the
hatchwaysor stair-cases, leading to the different batteries. As the management of the artillery in a vessel of war requires a considerable number of men, it is evident that the officers and sailors must be restrained to a narrow space in their usual habitations, in order to preserve the internal regularity of the ship. Hence thehammocs, or hanging-beds, of the latter are crowded together as close as possible between the decks, each of them being limited to the breadth of fourteen inches. They are hung parallel to each other, in rows stretching from one side of the ship to the other, nearly throughout her whole length, so as to admit of no passage but by stooping under them. As the cannon therefore cannot be worked while the hammocs are suspended in this situation, it becomes necessary to remove them as quick as possible. By this circumstance a double advantage is obtained: the batteries of cannon are immediately cleared of an incumbrance, and the hammocs are converted into a sort of parapet, to prevent the execution of small-shot on thequarter-deck,tops, andfore-castle. At the summons of the boatswain,Up all hammocs!every sailor repairs to his own, and, having stowed his bedding properly, he cords it up firmly with alashing, or line provided for that purpose. He then carries it to the quarter-deck, poop, or forecastle, or wherever it may be necessary. As each side of the quarter-deck and poop is furnished with a double net-work, supported by iron cranes fixed immediately above thegunnelor top of the ship’s-side; the hammocs thus corded are firmly stowed by the quarter-master between the two parts of the netting, so as to form an excellent barrier. The tops, waiste, and fore-castle, are then fenced in the same manner.
Whilst these offices are performed below, the boatswain and his mates are employed in securing the sail-yards, to prevent them from tumbling down when the ship is cannonaded, as she might thereby be disabled, and rendered incapable of attack, retreat, or pursuit. The yards are now likewise secured by strong chains, or ropes, additional to those by which they are usually suspended. The boatswain also provides the necessary materials to repair the rigging, wherever it may be damaged by the shot of the enemy; and to supply whatever parts of it may be entirely destroyed. The carpenter and his crew in the meanwhile prepare his shot-plugs and mauls, to close up any dangerous breaches that may be made near the surface of the water; and provide the iron-work necessary to refit the chain-pumps, in case their machinery should be wounded in the engagement. The gunner with his mates and quarter-gunners is busied in examining the cannon of the different batteries, to see that their charges are thoroughly dry and fit for execution: to have every thing ready for furnishing the great guns and small arms with powder, as soon as the action begins: and to keep a sufficient number of cartridges continually filled, to supply the place of those expended in battle. The master and his mates are attentive to have the sails properly trimmed, according to the situation of the ship; and to reduce or multiply them, as occasion requires, with all possible expedition. The lieutenants visit the different decks, to see that they are effectually cleared of all incumbrance, so that nothing may retard the execution of the artillery: and to enjoin the other officers to diligence and alertness, in making the necessary dispositions for the expected engagement, so that every thing may be in readiness at a moment’s warning.
When the hostile ships have approached each other to a competent distance, the drums beat to arms. The boatswain and his mates pipe,all hands to quarters!at every hatchway. All the persons appointed to manage the great guns, immediately repair to their respective stations. The crows, handspikes, rammers, spunges, powder-horns, matches, and train tackles, are placed in order by the side of every cannon. The hatches are immediately laid, to prevent any one from deserting his post by escaping into the lower apartments. The marines are drawn up in rank and file, on the quarter-deck, poop, and fore-castle. The lashings of the great guns are cast loose, and the tompions withdrawn. The whole artillery, above and below, is run out at the ports, and levelled to the point-blank range ready for firing.
The necessary preparations being completed, and the officers and crew ready at their respective stations, to obey the order, the commencement of the action is determined by the mutual distance and situation of the adverse ships, or by the signal from the commander in chief of the fleet or squadron. The cannon being levelled in parallel rows, projecting from the ship’s side, the most natural order of battle is evidently to range the ships abreast of each other, especially if the engagement is general. The most convenient distance is probably within the point-blank range of a musket, so that all the artillery may do effectual execution.
The combat usually begins by a vigorous cannonade, accompanied with the whole efforts of the swivel-guns and the small arms. The method of firing in platoons, or vollies of cannon at once, appears inconvenient in the sea-service, and perhaps should never be attempted, unless in the battering of a fortification. The sides and decks of the ship, although sufficiently strong for all the purposes of war, would be too much shaken by so violent an explosion and recoil. The general rule observed on this occasion throughout the ship, is to load, fire, and spunge, the guns with all possible expedition, yet without confusion or precipitation. The captain of each gun is particularly enjoined to fire only when the piece is properly directed to its object, that the shot may not be fruitlessly expended. The lieutenants who command the different batteries, traverse the deck to see that the battle is prosecuted with vivacity; and to exhort and animate the men to their duty. The midshipmen second these injunctions, and give the necessary assistance wherever it may be required, at the guns committed to their charge.
The gunner should be particularly attentive that all the artillery is sufficiently supplied with powder, and that the cartridges are carefully conveyed along the decks in covered boxes. The havoc produced by a continuation of this mutual assault may be readily conjectured by the reader’s imagination: battering, penetrating, and splintering the sides and decks; shattering or dismounting the cannon; mangling and destroying the rigging; cutting asunder, or carrying away the masts and yards; piercing and tearing the sails so as to render them useless; and wounding, disabling, or killing the ship’s company! The comparative vigour and resolution of the assailants to effect these pernicious consequences in each other, generally determine their success or defeat: I say generally, because the fate of the combat may sometimes be decided by an unforeseen incident, equally fortunate for the one and fatal to the other. The defeated ship having acknowledged the victory, by striking her colours, is immediately taken possession of by the conqueror, who secures her officers and crew as prisoners in his own ship; and invests his principal officer with the command of the prize until a captain is appointed by the commander in chief.
The engagement being concluded, they begin the repair: the cannon are secured by their breechings and tackles, with all convenient expedition. Whatever sails have been rendered unserviceable are unbent; and the wounded masts and yards struck upon the deck, andfished, or replaced by others. The standing rigging isknotted, and the running rigging spliced wherever necessary. Proper sails are bent in the room of those which have been displaced as useless. The carpenter and his crew are employed in repairing the breaches made in the ship’s hull, by shot-plugs, pieces of plank, and sheet-lead. The gunner and his assistants are busied in replenishing the allotted number of charged cartridges, to supply the place of those which have been expended, and in refitting whatever furniture of the cannon may have been damaged by the late action.
Such is the usual process and consequences of an engagement between two ships of war, which may be considered as an epitome of a general battle between fleets or squadrons, The latter, however, involves a greater variety of incidents, and necessarily requires more comprehensive skill and judgment in the commanding officer.
When the admiral, or commander in chief, of a naval armament has discovered an enemy’s fleet, his principal concern is usually to approach it, and endeavour to come to action as soon as possible. Every inferior consideration must be sacrificed to this important object; and every rule of action should tend to hasten and prepare for so material an event. The state of the wind, and the situation of his adversary, will, in some measure, dictate the conduct necessary to be pursued with regard to the disposition of his ships on this occasion. To facilitate the execution of the admiral’s orders, the whole fleet is ranged into three squadrons, each of which is classed into three divisions, under the command of different officers. Before the action begins, the adverse fleets are commonly drawn up in two lines parallel to each other, and close-hauled. We have endeavoured to explain the propriety and necessity of this disposition in the articleLine. As soon as the admiral displays the signal for the line of battle, the several divisions separate from the columns, in which they were disposed in the usual order of sailing, and every ship crouds into its station in thewake, of the next a-head: and a proper distance from each other, which is generally about fifty fathom, is regularly observed from the van to the rear. The admiral, however, will, occasionally, contract or extend his line, so as to conform to the length of that of his adversary, whose neglect, or inferior skill, on this occasion, he will naturally convert to his own advantage; as well as to prevent his own line from beingdoubled, a circumstance which might throw his van and rear into confusion.
When the adverse fleets approach each other, thecoursesare commonly hauled up in the brails, and the top-gallant sails and stay sails furled. The movement of each ship is chiefly regulated by the main and fore-top sails, and the jib; the mizen-top sail being reserved to hasten or retard the course of the ship, and, in fine, byfillingorbacking,hoistingorloweringit, to determine her velocity.
The frigates, tenders, and fire-ships, being also hauled upon a wind, lie at some distance, ready to execute the admiral’s orders, or those of his seconds, leaving the line of battle between them and the enemy. If there are any transports and store-ships attendant on the fleet, these are disposed still further distant from the action. If the fleet is superior in number to that of the enemy, the admiral usually selects a body of reserve from the different squadrons, which will always be of use to cover the fire-ships, bomb-vessels, &c. and may fall into the line in any case of necessity: these also are stationed at a convenient distance from the line, and should evidently be opposite to the weakest parts thereof.
And here it may not be improper to observe, with an ingenious French author[20], that order and discipline give additional strength and activity to a fleet. If thus a double advantage is acquired by every fleet, it is certainly more favourable to the inferior, which may thereby change its disposition with greater facility and dispatch than one more numerous, yet without being separated. When courage is equal to both, good order is then the only resource of the smaller number. Hence we may infer that a smaller squadron of men of war, whose officers are perfectly disciplined in working their ships, may, by its superior dexterity, vanquish a more powerful one, even at the commencement of the fight; because the latter being less expert in the order of battle, will, by its separation, suffer many of the ships to remain useless, or not sufficiently near, to protect each other[21].
The signal for a general engagement is usually displayed when the opposite fleets are sufficiently within therangeof point-blank shot, so that they may level the artillery with certainty of execution, which is near enough for a line of battle. The action is begun and carried on throughout the fleet, in the manner we have already described between single ships, at which time the admiral carries little sail, observing, however, to regulate his own motions by those of the enemy. The ships of the line mean while keep close in their stations, none of which should hesitate to advance in their order, although interrupted by the situation of some ship a-head, which has negligently fallen astern of her station.
Such is now the practice of naval war, that the necessary order of battle, and the fabric of our ships, very seldom permit the assault ofboarding, unless in single actions. No captain ought therefore to abandon his station in the line, under any pretence whatsoever, unless his ship is too much disabled to continue the combat. The small quantity of sail carried on this occasion will permit the bulk of the fleet, altho’ somewhat impaired, to continue their cannonade a long time without quitting the line.
An ambition to distinguish himself should never seduce any captain to break the line, in order to atchieve any distant enterprize, however the prospect may flatter him with success. He ought to wait the signal of the admiral or his commanding officer; because it is more essential to preserve the regularity of a close line, which constitutes the principal force of the fleet, than to prosecute a particular action, which, although brilliant in itself, has seldom any material consequences, unless its object is to seize a flag-ship, and even this can only be justified by success[22].
The various exigencies of the combat call forth the skill and resources of the admiral, to keep his line as complete as possible, when it has been unequally attacked; by ordering ships from those in reserve, to supply the place of others which have suffered greatly by the action; by directing his fire-ships at a convenient time to fall aboard the enemy; by detaching ships from one part of the line or wing which is stronger, to another which is greatly pressed by superior force, and requires assistance. His vigilance is ever necessary to review the situation of the enemy from van to rear, every motion of whom he should, if possible, anticipate and frustrate. He should seize the favourable moments of occasion, which are rapid in their progress, and never return. Far from being disconcerted by any unforeseen incident, he should endeavour, if possible, to make it subservient to his design. His experience and reflection will naturally furnish him with every method of intelligence to discover the state of his different squadrons and divisions. Signals of enquiry and answers; of request and assent; of command and obedience; will be displayed and repeated on this occasion. Tenders and boats will also continually be detached between the admiral and the commanders of the several squadrons or divisions.
As the danger presses on him, he ought to be fortified by resolution and presence of mind, because the whole fleet is committed to his charge, and the conduct of his officers may, in a great degree, be influenced by his intrepidity and perseverance. In short, his renown or infamy may depend on the fate of the day.
If he conquers in battle, he ought to prosecute his victory as much as possible, by seizing, burning, or destroying the enemies ships. If he is defeated, he should endeavour by every resource his experience can suggest, to have as many of his fleet as possible; by employing his tenders, &c. to take out the wounded and put fresh men in their places; by towing the disabled ships to a competent distance, and by preventing the execution of the enemies fire-ships. In order to retreat with more security, he may judge it expedient to range his fleet into the form of an half-moon, placing himself in the center. By this disposition the enemy’s ships which attempt to fall upon his rear, will at once expose themselves to the fire of the admiral, and his seconds, in a disadvantageous situation; a circumstance which will serve to facilitate the escape of his own ships, and retard the pursuit of those of his adversary.
If his fleet is too much extended by this arrangement, the wings or quarters are easily closed, and the half-moon rendered more complete; in the midst of which may be placed his store-ships, tenders, &c. In flying, or retreating, the uncertainty of the weather is to be considered: it may become calm, or the wind may shift in his favour. His schemes may be assisted by the approach of night, or the proximity of the land; since he ought rather to run the ships ashore, if practicable, than suffer them to be taken afloat, and thereby transfer additional strength to the enemy. In short, nothing should be neglected that may contribute to the preservation of his fleet, or prevent any part of it from falling into the hands of the conqueror.
By what we have observed, the real force, or superiority, of a fleet consists less in the number of vessels, and the vivacity of the action, than in good order, dexterity in working the ships, presence of mind, and skilful conduct in the captains.
ENSIGN,pavillon de pouppe, (enseigne, Fr.) a large standard, or banner, hoisted on a long pole erected over the poop, and called the ensign-staff.
The ensign is used to distinguish the ships of different nations from each other, as also to characterise the different squadrons of the navy.
The British ensign in ships of war is known by a double cross, viz. that of St. George and St. Andrew, formed into an union, upon a field which is either red, white, or blue.
ENTERINGRopes,tire-veilles, two ropes hanging from the upper-part of a ship’s-side, on the right and left of the accommodation-ladder, or steps of the gangway. SeeGangway.
ENTRANCE, a name frequently given to the foremost part of a ship under the surface of the sea.
ToEQUIP, a term borrowed from the French marine, and frequently applied to the business of fitting a ship for sea, or arming her for war. See the articleFitting.
ESCUTCHEON, (ecusson, Fr.) a name sometimes given to the compartment for the name, or arms, of the owner, or of the person whose title the vessel assumes: it is usually fixed on the middle of the ship’s stern, and is more peculiar to the French and other foreigners, than to English built vessels. See fig. 3, plate 10.
EXERCISE is the preparatory practice of managing the artillery and small-arms, in order to make the ship’s crew perfectly skilled therein, so as to direct its execution successfully in the time of battle.
The exercise of the great guns has, till the late war, been very complicated, and abounding with superfluities, in our navy, as well as all others. The following method was then successfully introduced by an officer of distinguished abilities.
“Upon beat to arms[23](every body having immediately repaired to their quarters) the midshipman commanding a number of guns, is to see that they are not without every necessary article, as (at every gun) a spunge, powder-horn, with its priming wires, and a sufficient quantity of powder, crow, hand-spike, bed, quoin, train-tackle, &c. sending, without delay, for a supply of any thing that may be missing; and, for the greater certainty of not overlooking any deficiency, he is to give strict orders to each captain under him, to make the like examination at his respective gun, and to take care that every requisite is in a serviceable condition, which he is to report accordingly. And (besides the other advantages of this regulation) for the still more certain and speedy account being taken upon these occasions, the midshipman is to give each man his charge at quarters (as expressed in the form of the monthly report) who is to search for his particular implements, and, not finding it, is immediately to acquaint his captain, that, upon his report to the midshipman, it may be replaced.
“The man who takes care of the powder is to place himself on the opposite side of the deck from that where we engage, except when fighting both sides at once, when he is to be amidships. He is not to suffer any other man to take a cartridge from him, but he who is appointed to serve the gun with that article, either in time of a real engagement, or at exercise.
“Lanthorns are not to be brought to quarters in the night, until the midshipman gives his orders for so doing to the person he charges with that article. Every thing being in its place, and not the least lumber in the way of the guns, the exercise begins with,
“At this word every one is to observe a silent attention to the officers.
“The muzzle lashing is to be taken off from the guns, and (being coiled up in a small compass) is to be made fast to the eye-bolt above the port. The lashing-tackles at the same time to be cast loose, and the middle of the breeching seized to the thimble of the pomillion. The spunge to be taken down, and, with the crow, hand-spike, &c. laid upon the deck by the gun.
“N. B. When prepared for engaging an enemy, the seizing within the clinch of the breeching is to be cut, that the gun may come sufficiently within-board for loading, and that the force of the recoil may be more spent before it acts upon the breeching.
“The breech of your metal is to be raised so as to admit the foot of the bed’s being placed upon the axle-tree of the carriage, with the quoin upon the bed, both their ends being even one with the other.
“N. B. When levelled for firing, the bed is to be lashed to the bolt which supports the inner end of it, that it may not be thrown out of its place by the violence of the gun’s motion, when hot with frequent discharges. See fig. 17, plateVII.
“The tompion is to be taken out of the gun’s mouth, and left hanging by its laniard.