Geometricians have determined the most advantageous angle made by the helm with the line prolonged from the keel, and fixed it at 54° 44´ presuming that the ship is as narrow at her floating-line, or at the line described by the surface of the water round her bottom, as at the keel. But as this supposition is absolutely false, inasmuch as all vessels augment their breadth from the keel upward to the extreme breadth, where the floating-line or the highest water-line is terminated; it follows that this angle is too large by a certain number of degrees. For the rudder is impressed by the water, at the height of the floating-line, more directly than at the keel, because the fluid exactly follows the horizontal outlines of the bottom; so that a particular position of the helm might be supposed necessary for each different incidence which it encounters from the keel upwards. But as a middle position may be taken between all these points, it will be sufficient to consider the angle formed by the sides of the ship, and heraxis, or the middle-line of her length, at the surface of the water, in order to determine afterwards the mean point, and the mean angle of incidence.
It is evident that the angle 54° 44´ is too open, and very unfavourable to the ship’s head-way, because the water acts upon the rudder there with too great a sine of incidence, as being equal to that of the angle which it makes with the line prolonged from the keel below: but above, the shock of the water is almost perpendicular to the rudder, because of the breadth of the bottom, as we have already remarked. If then the rudder is only opposed to the fluid, by making an angle of 45° with the line prolonged from the keel, the impression, by becoming weaker, will be less opposed to the ship’s head-way, and the direction N P, fig. 1. plateV. of the absolute effort of the water upon the helm drawing nearer to the lateral perpendicular, will be placed more advantageously, for the reasons above mentioned[33]. On the other hand, experience daily testifies, that a ship steers well when the rudder makes the angle D B E equal to 35° only.
It has been already remarked, that the effect of moving the wheel to govern the helm increases in proportion to the length of the spokes; and so great is the power of the wheel, that if the helmsman employs a force upon its spokes equivalent to 30 pounds, it will produce an effect of 90 or 120 pounds upon the tiller. On the contrary, the action of the water is collected into the middle of the breadth of the rudder, which is very narrow in companion with the length of the tiller; so the effort of the water is very little removed from the fulcrum B upon which it turns; whereas the tiller forms the arm of a lever ten or fifteen times longer, which also increases the power of the helmsman in the same proportion that the tiller bears to the lever upon which the impulse of the water is directed. This force then is by consequence ten or fifteen times stronger, and the effort of 30 pounds, which at first gave the helmsman a power equal to 90 or 120 pounds, becomes accumulated to one of 900 or 1800 pounds upon the rudder. This advantage then arises from the shortness of the lever upon which the action of the water is impressed, and the great comparative length of the tiller, or lever, by which the rudder is governed; together with the additional power of the wheel that directs the movements of the tiller, and still farther accumulates the power of the helmsman over it. Such a demonstration ought to remove the surprize with which the prodigious effect of the helm is sometimes considered, from an inattention to its mechanism: for we need only to observe the pressure of the water, which acts at a great distance from the centre of gravity G, about which the ship is supposed to turn, and we shall easily perceive the difference there is between the effort of the water against the helmsman, and the effect of the same impulse against the vessel. With regard to the person who steers, the water acts only with the arm of a very short lever N B, of which B is the fulcrum: on the contrary, with regard to the ship, the force of the water is impressed in the direction N P, which passes to a great distance from G, and acts upon a very long lever E G, which renders the action of the rudder extremely powerful in turning the vessel; so that, in a large ship, the rudder receives a shock from the water of 2700 or 2800 pounds, which is frequently the case, when she sails at the rate of three or four leagues by the hour; and this force being applied in E, perhaps 100 or 110 feet distant from the centre of gravity G, will operate upon the ship, to turn her about, with 270000 or 308000 pounds; whilst, in the latter case, the helmsman acts with an effort which exceeds not 30 pounds upon the spokes of the wheel.
After what has been said of the helm, it is easy to judge, that the more a ship increases her velocity with regard to the sea, the more powerful will be the effect of the rudder, because it acts against the water with a force, which increases as the square of the swiftness of the fluid, whether the ship advances or retreats; or, in other words, whether she has head-way or stern-way; with this distinction, that in these two circumstances the effects will be contrary. For if the vessel retreats, or moves astern, the helm will be impressed from I to N, fig. 1. plateV. and, instead of being pushed, according to N P, it will receive the effort of the water from N towards R; so that the stern wall be transported according to the same movement, and the head turned in a contrary direction.
When the helm operates by itself, the centre of rotation of the ship, and her movement, are determined by estimating the force of this machine; that is to say, by multiplying the surface of the rudder by the square of the ship’s velocity[34]. See the articlesRudder,Sailing,Steering,Trim, andWorking.
HIGH AND DRY, a phrase which implies the situation of a ship, when she has run aground, so as to be seen dry upon the strand.
HIGH WATER,haute marée, the greatest height of the flood-tide, SeeFloodandTide.
HITCH,clef, a sort of knot or noose, by which one rope is fastened to another, or to some other object, as a post, ring, timber-head, mast, &c. Hence we say an half-hitch,demi-clef, a clove-hitch, a rolling-hitch, &c. SeeBendandKnot.
HOASE,manche pour l’eau, a long flexible tube, formed of leather or tarred canvas, but chiefly of the latter, and employed to conduct the fresh water, which is hoisted aboard a ship, into the casks that are ranged in the hold; and to pass the water, or other liquors, out of one cask into another. For the latter use, one of the ends or openings of the hoase is fixed in the empty cask, whilst the other is applied to the pump that extracts the water out of the full one. This exercise is, on some occasions, necessary to alter or preserve the trim of the vessel, without disturbing her stowage.
HOG,goret, a sort of flat scrubbing-broom, serving to scrape off the filth from a ship’s bottom, under water, particularly in the act ofboot-topping, which see.
This instrument is formed by inclosing a multitude of short twigs of birch, or such wood, between two pieces of plank, which are firmly attached to each other, after which the ends of the twigs or branches are cut off even, so as to form a sort of brush of considerable strength. To this machine is fitted a long staff, together with two ropes, the former of which is used to thrust the hog under the ship’s bottom, and the latter to guide, and pull it up again, close to the planks thereof, so as to rub off all the filth effectually. This exercise is usually performed in the ship’s boat, which is accordingly confined as close as possible to the vessel’s side during the operation, and shifted from one part of the side to another, till the whole is compleated.
HOIST,guindant, the perpendicular height of a flag or ensign, as opposed to thefly, which implies its breadth from the staff to the outer edge.
HOISTING,hisser, the operation of drawing up any body by the assistance of one or more tackles, according to the weight intended to be raised. See the articleTackle.
The act of pulling up any body, by the help of a single block only, is never expressed by the termhoisting, if we except the exercise of extending the sails, by drawing them upwards along the masts or stays, to which it is invariably applied. See alsoTracing-upandWhipping.
HOLD,cale, the whole interior cavity or belly of a ship, or all that part of her inside, which is comprehended between the floor and the lower-deck, throughout her whole length.
This capacious apartment usually contains the ballast, provisions, and stores of a ship of war, and the principal part of the cargo in a merchantman. The disposition of those articles, with regard to each other, &c. necessarily falls under our consideration in the articleStowage; it suffices in this place to say, that the places where the ballast, water, provisions, and liquors are stowed, are known by the general name of the hold. The several store-rooms are separated from each other bybulk-heads, and are denominated according to the articles which they contain, the sail-room, the bread-room, the fish-room, the spirit-room, &c.
To trim theHold. See the articleTrim.
After-Hold, a general name given to all that part of the hold which lies abaft the main-mast.
Fore-Hold, that part of the hold which is situated in the fore-part of the ship, or before the main hatch-way.
Hold, in navigation, is generally understood to signify a particular situation of a ship with regard to the shore, by which she is enabled to keep within a sufficient distance, to facilitate her course, or answer some other important object. Hence we say, Keep a good hold of the land! or, Keep the shore well aboard! which are synonimous phrases, implying to keep near, or in sight of the land.
Holding-on, the act of pulling back the hind part of any cable, or other rope, which is heaved round, by the capstern or windlass, or drawn in by the purchase of a tackle. SeeCapstern&c.
To have a clearer idea of this exercise, it is necessary to premise, that there are seldom or never more than three turns of any rope passed about the barrel of the capstern, when it is employed in heaving; because a great number of turns of a large rope would soon cover the whole barrel, and utterly destroy the effect of this motion, till those turns could be removed; a circumstance which might be attended with very bad consequences. On the contrary, when there are only a few turns, the capstern or windlass is always kept sufficiently clear for action for it is evident, that every revolution of either will heave-in a quantity of the rope, upon which it is employed, equal to the circumference of its barrel. Now as there are only a few turns upon the barrel at once, an equal quantity of the rope will necessarily come off from the capstern at the same time; and this is accordingly pulled back as strongly as possible, to prevent it fromsurgingor jerking round the barrel, by being held too loosely. This is calledholding-on, which therefore may be defined, the act of retaining any quantity of rope, acquired by the effort of a capstern, windlass, or tackle, as being employed in hoisting as well as heaving.
Holdingwater, the operation of stopping a boat in her course, by holding the oars in the water and bearing the blade, or flat part, strongly against the current madealong-side, by her passing swiftly through the water. SeeBack-astern,Oar, andRowing.
HOLLOA!commande!an exclamation of answer, to any person, who calls to another to ask some question, or to give a particular order. Thus, if the master intends to give any order to the people in the main-top, he previously calls, Main-top, hoay! To which they answer, Holloa! to shew that they hear him, and are ready. It is also the first answer in hailing a ship at a distance. SeeHailing.
HOME, in a naval sense, either implies the situation of some object, where it retains its full force of action; or where it is properly lodged for convenience or security. In the former sense it is applied to the sails; and in the latter, it usually refers to the stowage of the hold, or the anchors.
When it is expressed of the sails, it denotes that theirclues, or lower corners, are close to the blocks upon the yard-arm, immediately beneath them; it is therefore understood only of the loftier sails, as the top-sails, top-gallant-sails, and the studding-sails thereto belonging. Hence to haul-home the top-sail sheets, is to extend the bottom of the top-sail to the lower-yard, by means of the sheets. SeeClueandSheet.
In the stowage of the hold, &c. a cask, bale, or case, is said to behome, when it bears against, or lies close to some other object, without leaving any interval between; and indeed the security, or firmness of the stowage, greatly depends on this circumstance.
Home, when spoken of the anchor, seems to imply the station of the ship, with regard to her anchor; which is accordingly said to come home when it loosens from the ground, by the effort of the cable, and approaches the place where the ship floated, at the length of her moorings. See the articleAnchor.
HOMMOC,tertre, a name given by mariners to a hillock, or small eminence of land resembling the figure of a cone, and appearing on the sea-coast of any country.
HOOD,tremue, a sort of low wooden porch, resembling thecompanion, and placed over the stair-case or ladder, which leads into the steerage or apartments, where the crew generally reside in a merchant-ship. The use of the hood is to admit the air and light, and at the same time prevent the rain from falling into the steerage.
HOOK, a crooked piece of iron, of which there are several of different shapes and sizes, used at sea, as boat-hooks, can-hooks, cat-hooks, fish-hooks, foot-hooks, &c. See the articlesBoat-hook,Can-hook, &c.
HORSE,marche-pied, a rope reaching from the middle of a yard to its extremity, or what is called the yard-arm, and depending about two or three feet under the yard for the sailors to tread upon, whilst they are loosing, reefing or furling the sails, rigging out the studding-sail booms, &c. In order therefore to keep the horse more parallel to the yard, it is usually suspended thereto, at proper distances, by certain ropes calledstirrups, which hang about two feet under the yard, having an eye in their lower ends through which the horse passes. See the articleRigging.
Horseis also a thick rope, extended in a perpendicular direction near theforeorafter-side of a mast, for the purpose of hoisting or extending some sail thereon. When it is fixed before a mast, it is calculated for the use of a sail called thesquare-sail, whose yard being attached to the horse, by means of atraveller, orbull’s-eye, which slides up and down occasionally, is retained in a steddy position, either when the sail is set, or whilst it is hoisting or lowering. When the horse is placedabaftor behind a mast, it is intended for thetry-sailof a snow, and is accordingly very rarely fixed in this position, except in those sloops of war which occasionally assume the form of snows, in order to deceive the enemy.
HOUNDS, a name given to those parts of a mast-head, which gradually project on the right and left side, beyond the cylindrical or conical surface, which it preserves from thepartnersupwards. The hounds, whose upper parts are also calledcheeks, are used as shoulders to support the frame of the top, together with the top-mast and the rigging of the lower-mast. See the articleMast.
HOUSED,à la serre, the situation of the great guns of a ship, when they are secured at sea by their tackles and breechings. SeeCannon.
HOWKER, a vessel in the Dutch marine, commonly navigated with two masts, viz. a main-mast and a mizen-mast, and being from sixty to upwards of two hundred tons in burthen.
HOUSING, or HOUSE-LINE, a small line, formed of three fine strands, or twists of hemp, smaller than rope-yarn. It is chiefly used toseizeblocks into their strops, to bind the corners of the sails, or to fasten the bottom of a sail to its bolt-rope, &c. SeeBolt-rope.
HOY, a small vessel, chiefly used in coasting, or carrying goods to or from a ship, in a road or bay, where the ordinary lighters cannot be managed with safety or convenience.
It would be very difficult to describe, precisely, the marks of distinction between this vessel and some others of the same size, which are also rigged in the same manner; because what is called ahoyin one place, would assume the name of aslooporsmackin another: and even the people, who navigate these vessels, have, upon examination, very vague ideas of the marks by which they are distinguished from those above mentioned. In Holland, the hoy has two masts; in England it has but one, where the main-sail is sometimes extended by a boom, and sometimes without it. Upon the whole, it may be defined a small vessel, usually rigged as a sloop, and employed for carrying passengers and luggage from one place to another, particularly on the sea-coast.
HULK, an old ship of war, fitted with an apparatus, to fix or take out the masts of his majesty’s ships, as occasion requires.
The mast of this vessel,a a, fig. 2. plateV. is extremely high, and withal properly strengthened byshroudsandstays, in order to secure the sheers,machine à mater, which serve, as the arm of a crane, to hoist out or in the masts of any ship lying alongside. The sheers,b b, are composed of several long masts, whose heels rest upon the side of the hulk, and having their heads declining outward from the perpendicular, so as to hang over the vessel whose masts are to be fixed or displaced. The tackles,c c, which extend from the head of the mast to the sheer-heads, are intended to pull in the latter towards the mast-head, particularly when they are charged with the weight of a mast after it is raised out of any ship, which is performed by strong tackles depending from the sheer-heads. The effort of these tackles is produced by two capsterns, fixed on the deck for this purpose.
Hulkis also a name bestowed on any old vessel laid by, as unfit for further service: it is probably derived from theολκαδες, or vessels of burthen of the ancient Grecians.
HULL,corps d’un vaisseau, the frame, or body of a ship, exclusive of her masts, yards, sails, and rigging: it is usually expressed of a ship either before she is furnished with masts, &c. or after she is dismasted and stripped of the aforesaid machinery.
ToHulla ship, is to fire cannon-balls into her hull within the point-blank range.
Hull-to, the situation of a ship when she istrying a-hull, or with all her sails furled; as in trying. See the articleTrying.
HURRICANE,ouragan, (huracan, Span.) a violent and prodigious tempest, occasioned by the collection and opposition of several winds, that sometimes blow from one quarter and sometimes from another, producing a dangerous agitation in the sea, where the waves break, and dash against each other with astonishing fury. On the approach of a hurricane, the sea and air become perfectly calm and motionless, without a breath of wind stirring either. Soon after this the sky is darkened, the clouds accumulate, and the light of the day is replaced by terrible flashes of lightening. The hurricanes often last abundantly long, and are usually accompanied with many fatal accidents[35]. During the continuance of this general calamity, the vessels which were anchored in the roads frequently cut their cables and put to sea, where they drive at the mercy of the winds and waves, after having struck their yards and top-masts.
The hurricanes are more usual between the tropics, particularly in the Atlantic ocean, than to the northward or southward of the torrid zone.
JACK, a sort of flag or colours, displayed from a mast erected on the outer end of a ship’s bowsprit. In the British navy the jack is nothing more than a small union flag, composed of the intersection of the red and white crosses; but in merchant ships this union is bordered with a red field. See the articleUnion.
JAMMING, the act of inclosing any object between two bodies, so as to render it immoveable, whilst they continue in the same position. This expression is usually applied to the situation of some running-rope, when it happens to be squeezed by the compression of the standing-rigging, &c. and by consequence incapable of performing its office, by traversing in the blocks, till it is released from this confinement. In this sense jamming is opposed torendering, which see.
A cask, box, &c. is also said to be jammed, when it is in the same manner wedged in between weighty bodies, so as not to be dislodged without great difficulty.
JEARS, or GEERS,drisse, an assemblage of tackles, by which the lower yards of a ship are hoisted up along the mast to their usual station, or lowered from thence as occasion requires; the former of which operations is calledswaying, and the latter,striking. See those articles.
In a ship of war, the jears are usually composed of two strong tackles, each of which has two blocks, viz. one fastened to the lower-mast-head, and the other to the middle of the yard. The two blocks which arelashedto the middle, orslingsof the yard, are retained in this situation by means of two cleats, nailed on each side, whose arms enclose the ropes by which the blocks are fastened to the yard. The two ropes, which communicate with these tackles, lead down to the deck on the opposite side of the mast, according to the situation of the upper jear-blocks.
The jears, in merchant-ships, have usually two large single blocks on the opposite side of the mast-head, and another of the same size in the middle of the yard. The rope, which communicates with these, passes through one of the blocks hanging at the mast-head, then through the block on the yard, and afterwards through the other hanging-block upon the mast. To the two lower ends of this rope, on the opposite sides of the mast, are fixed two tackles, each of which is formed of two double blocks, the lower one being hooked to a ring-bolt in the deck, and the upper one spliced, or seized into the lower end of the great rope above, which is called the tye. By this contrivance the mechanical power of the tackle below is transmitted to the tye, which, communicating with blocks on the yard, readilysways up, or lowers it, either by the effort of both jears at once, on the opposite sides of the mast, or by each of them separately, one after the other.
JETTY-HEAD, a name usually given, in the royal dock-yards, to that part of a wharf which projects beyond the rest; but more particularly the front of a wharf, whose side forms one of the cheeks of a dry or wet dock.
JEWEL-BLOCKS, a name given to two small blocks, which are suspended at the extremity of the main and fore-top-sail-yards, by means of an eye-bolt, driven from without into the middle of the yard-arm, parallel to its axis. The use of these blocks is to retain the upper-part of the topmast studding-sails beyond the skirts of the top-sails, so that each of those sails may have its full force of action, which would be diminished by the incroachment of the other over its surface. Thehaliards, by which those studding-sails are hoisted, are accordingly passed through the jewel-blocks; whence, communicating with a block on the top-mast-head, they lead downwards to the top or decks, where they may be conveniently hoisted. See the articleSail.
JIB,foc, the foremost sail of a ship, being a large stay-sail extended from the outer end of the bowsprit, prolonged by the jib-boom, towards the fore-top-mast-head. SeeSail.
The jib is a sail of great command with any side-wind, but especially when the ship isclose-hauled, or has the wind upon her beam; and its effort incastingthe ship, or turning her head to leeward, is very powerful, and of great utility, particularly when the ship isworkingthrough a narrow channel. SeeSailing.
Jib-Boom, a boom run out from the extremity of the bowsprit, parallel to its length, and serving to extend the bottom of the jib, and the stay of the fore-top-gallant-mast. This boom, which is nothing more than a continuation of the bowsprit forward, to which it may be considered as a top-mast, is usually attached to the bowsprit by means of two large boom-irons, (see the articleIron-Work) or by one boom-iron, and acapon the outer-end of the bowsprit; or, finally, by the cap without, and a strong lashing within, instead of a boom-iron; which is generally the method of securing it in small merchant-ships. It may therefore be drawn in upon the bowsprit, as occasion requires, which is usually practised when the ship enters a harbour, where it might very soon be broke, or carried away, by the vessels which are moored therein, or passing by under sail.
JIBING. SeeGybing.
JIGGER, a machine, consisting of a piece of rope about five feet long, with a block at one end and a sheave at the other; and used tohold-onthe cable, when it is heaved into the ship by the revolution of thewindlass. SeeHolding-on.
The jigger is particularly useful when the cable is either slippery with mud or ooze, or when it is stiff and unwieldy; in both of which cases it is very difficult to stretch it back from the windlass by hand, which however is done with facility and expedition, by means of the jigger, as follows: the end of the rope, to which the sheave is fastened by a knot, is passed round the cable close to the windlass, and the hind part of the rope coming over the sheave, is stretched aft by means of another rope passing through the jigger-block. As soon as the last rope is extended, the turn of the former about the cable is firmly retained in its position, by the compression of its hind part under the sheave, acting upon what may be called the neck of the jigger. But as the cable continues to be heaved into the ship, it is evident that the jigger, which is fastened on a particular part thereof, stretching it back, will be removed further aft, by every turn of the windlass, and the effort of the jigger will be lessened in proportion to its distance from the windlass: this circumstance renders it necessary tofleetit, or replace in a proper state of action, as occasion requires. The man who performs this office accordingly calls out, fleet, jigger! one of the men, at the windlass, instantly fixes his handspec between the deck and the cable, so as tojamthe latter to the windlass, and prevent it from running out till the jigger is refixed.
Jigger-Tackle, a light small tackle, consisting of a double and single block, and used on sundry occasions by seamen. SeeTackle.
IN,dedans, the state of any of a ship’s sails, when they are furled or stowed. It is used in this sense also in opposition toout, which implies that they areset, or extended to assist the ship’s course.
INSURANCE,assurance, a certain contract, by which an individual, or company, agrees to indemnify whatever losses or damages may happen to a ship or cargo, during a voyage, provided they are not occasioned by default of the person insured. For this agreement the latter pays a certain sum in advance, called thepræmium, which accordingly falls to the insurer, in case the ship arrives in a safe harbour; but if the ship is lost, the insurer renders the stipulated sum to the merchant.
JOURNAL, in navigation, a sort of diary, or daily register of the ship’s course, winds, and weather; together with a general account of whatever is material to be remarked in the period of a sea-voyage.
In all sea-journals, the day, or what is called the 24 hours, terminates at noon, because the errors of the dead-reckoning are at that period generally corrected by a solar observation. The daily compact usually contains the state of the weather; the variation, increase, or diminution of the wind; and the suitable shifting, reducing, or enlarging the quantity of sail extended; as also the most material incidents of the voyage, and the condition of the ship and her crew; together with the discovery of other ships or fleets, land, shoals, breakers, soundings, &c.
The form of keeping journals is very different in merchant-ships; but one method appears to be invariably pursued in the navy, which nevertheless is certainly capable of improvement, because no form can be properly called perfect, that leaves as great a space for one day’s work, the matter of which may be contained in very few lines, as for another that abounds with important incidents, so as to occupy ten times the space. If therefore there be any such thing as propriety of method on this occasion, it seems to imply, that the space containing, should conform to the matter contained, which will necessarily be greater or less, according to circumstances.
IRON-WORK,ferrure, a general name for all the pieces of iron, of whatsoever figure or size, which are used in the construction of a ship: as bolts, boom-irons, nails, spikes, chains and chain-plates, block-strops, cranks, braces, pintles, and googings.
The most material of these articles are explained in their proper places; but as the articlebolt, of which the figures are represented in plateII. was accidentally omitted in the proper place, according to the plan of this work, it may not be improperly introduced here.
A bolt then is generally a cylindrical pin of iron, of which there are various sorts, used for sundry occasions in ship-building.
The bolts are principally employed either to unite several members of a ship’s frame into one solid piece, or to fasten any moveable body on a particular occasion. Those which are calculated for the former purpose have commonly small round heads, somewhat flatted, as in fig. 1 & 2. plateII. On the contrary, the bolts which are intended for the latter use, have either a large round head, as those of the chains, fig. 4. or an eye, with or without a ring in the same place, fig. 5, 6, and 39, as those which are designed to secure the great guns, thejearsof the main-sail and fore-sail, the stoppers of the cables, &c.
The bolts are short or long, according to the thickness of the timber wherein they are to be lodged: they penetrate either quite through the pieces into which they are driven, or to a certain determinate depth. The last of these, called a rag-bolt, is retained in its situation by means of several barbs, fig. 3. which, fastening into the timbers, prevent the bolt from loosening from its station by the working of the ship. The first, after being driven through the pieces it is intended to unite, is confined by a flat iron wedge, called the forelock, which is thrust through a narrow hole in the small end of the bolt, where it is hardened home by a hammer; and to prevent the forelock from cutting the wood-work in this position, a little iron ring is fixed over the end of the bolt, between the forelock and the timber.
Those bolts, which have the largest of the round-heads, are called fender-bolts, being driven into the wales, stem, or sides of some small vessels of burthen, as lighters, beancods, prames, &c. to defend their timber-work from the shock of any other vessels which may fall aboard by accident.
A boom-iron is composed of two iron rings, formed into one piece, so as nearly to resemble the figure of 8. It is employed to connect two cylindrical pieces of wood together, when the one is used as a continuation of the other; such is the jib-boom to the bowsprit; and such are thestudding-sailbooms to the respective yards from whose extremities they are prolonged. The rims, or circles of the boom-irons, are broad and flat; and one of them, which is firmly driven upon the main, or fore-yard-arm, is somewhat larger than the other, as exhibited in fig. 7. plateII. The studding-sail-boom usually rests in the small ring, through which it is occasionally thrust outwards from the yard-arm, when the studding-sail is to be set. Every boom of this kind has, or ought to have, two boom-irons, one of which is fixed on the extremity of the yard, and the other further inward. The former of these is frequently framed of one ring only, which projects from the end of the yard, where it is fastened by a strong iron bar, opening into a sort of fork or crotch that slides upon the yard lengthwise, where it is fastened by nails driven from above and below.
ISLAND of ICE, a name given by sailors to a great quantity of ice collected into one huge solid mass, and floating about upon the seas near or within the arctic circle.
Many of these fluctuating islands are met with on the coasts of Spitzbergen, to the great danger of the shipping employed in the Greenland fishery.
JUNK,bouts de cable, a name given to any remnants or pieces of old cable, which is usually cut into small portions for the purpose of making points, mats, gaskets, sennit, &c. SeePoints, &c.
JURY-MAST, a temporary or occasional mast, erected in a ship to supply the place of one which has been carried away by tempest, battle, or the labouring of a ship in a turbulent sea.
KAICLING, or KECKLING, a name given to any old ropes, which are wound about a cable, with a small interval between the turns, and used to preserve the surface of the cable from being fretted, when it rubs against the ship’s bow, orfore-foot. See alsoRoundingandService.
KEDGE,ancre de touei, a small anchor, used to keep a ship steddy whilst she rides in a harbour or river, particularly at the turn of the tide, when she might otherwise drive over her principal anchor, and entangle the stock or flukes with her slack cable, so as to loosen it from the ground. This is accordingly prevented by a kedge-rope, that restrains her from approaching it.
The kedges are also particularly useful intransportinga ship,i. e.removing her from one part of the harbour to another, by means of ropes, which are fastened to these anchors. They are generally furnished with an iron stock, which is easily displaced, for the convenience of stowing them. See the articlesAnchorandWarp.
KEEL, the principal piece of timber in a ship, which is usually first laid on the blocks in building.
If we compare the carcase of a ship to the skeleton of the human body, the keel may be considered as the back-bone, and the timbers as the ribs. It therefore supports and unites the whole fabric, since the stem and stern-post, which are elevated on its ends, are, in some measure, a continuation of the keel, and serve to connect and enclose the extremities of the sides by transoms; as the keel forms and unites the bottom by timbers.
The keel is generally composed of several thick pieces, (A, plateI.Piecesof theHull) placed lengthways, which, after being scarfed together, are bolted, and clinched upon the upper side. When these pieces cannot be procured large enough to afford a sufficient depth to the keel, there is a strong thick piece of timber bolted to the bottom thereof, called thefalse keel, which is also very useful in preserving the lower-side of the main keel. In our largest ships of war, the false keel is generally composed of two pieces, which are called the upper and the lower false keels. SeeMidship-Frame.
The lowest plank in a ship’s bottom, called thegarboard-streak, has its inner-edge let into a groove, or channel, cut longitudinally on the side of the keel: the depth of this channel is therefore regulated by the thickness of the garboard-streak.
Keelis also a name given to a low flat-bottomed vessel, used in the river Tyne to bring the coals down from Newcastle, and the adjacent parts, in order to load the colliers for transportation.
Upon an evenKeel, the position of a ship when her keel is parallel to the plane of the horizon, so that she is equally deep in the water at both ends.
Keel-hauling, a punishment inflicted for various offences in the Dutch navy. It is performed by plunging the delinquent repeatedly under the ship’s bottom on one side, and hoisting him up on the other, after having passed under the keel. The blocks, or pullies, by which he is suspended, are fastened to the opposite extremities of the main-yard, and a weight of lead or iron is hung upon his legs to sink him to a competent depth. By this apparatus he is drawn close up to the yard-arm, and thence let fall suddenly into the sea, where, passing under the ship’s bottom, he is hoisted up on the opposite side of the vessel. As this extraordinary sentence is executed with a serenity of temper peculiar to the Dutch, the culprit is allowed sufficient intervals to recover the sense of pain, of which indeed he is frequently deprived during the operation. In truth, a temporary insensibility to his sufferings ought by no means to be construed into a disrespect of his judges, when we consider that this punishment is supposed to have peculiar propriety in the depth of winter, whilst the flakes of ice are floating on the stream; and that it is continued till the culprit is almost suffocated for want of air, benumbed with the cold of the water, or stunned with the blows his head receives by striking the ship’s bottom.
ToKEEP, a term used on several occasions in navigation: as,
ToKeepthe land aboard, is to keep within sight of land as much as possible. See alsoHold.
ToKeepthe luff, to continue close to the wind,i. e.sailing with a course inclined to the direction of the wind, as much as possible, without deviating to leeward. This is also called,keeping the wind. SeeClose-hauled.
ToKeepoff,alargeer,tenir le largue, to sail off, or keep at a distance from the shore. See alsoOffing.
Boat-Keeper, one of the rowers, who remains as a centinel in his turn, to take care of any boat and her contents, either when she lies by the shore, or along-side of the ship; or when she is towed astern of her.
KELSON,contre quille, a piece of timber, which may be properly defined the interior, or counter-part of the keel, as it is laid upon the middle of the floor-timbers, immediately over the keel, and, like it, composed of several pieces, scarfed together, represented by X, plateI.Piecesof theHull. In order to fit with more security upon the floor-timbers and crotches, it is notched about an inch and a half deep, opposite to each of those pieces, and thereby firmly scored down upon them to that depth, where it is secured by spike-nails. The pieces of which it is formed are only half the breadth and thickness of those of the keel.
The kelson serves to bind and unite the floor-timbers to the keel. It is confined to the keel by long bolts, which, being driven from without through several of the timbers, are fore-locked or clinched upon rings on the upper side of the kelson.
KETCH, a vessel equipped with two masts, viz. the main-mast and mizen-mast, and usually from 100 to 250 tons burthen.
Ketchesare principally used as yachts, or as bomb-vessels, the former of which are employed to convey princes of the blood, ambassadors, or other great personages from one part to another; and the latter are used to bombard citadels, or towns, or other fortresses.
The bomb-ketches are therefore furnished with all the apparatus necessary for a vigorous bombardment. They are built remarkably strong, as being-fitted with a greater number ofridersthan any other vessel of war; and indeed this reinforcement is absolutely necessary to sustain the violent shock produced by the discharge of their mortars, which would otherwise, in a very short time, shatter them to pieces. SeeMortarandShell.
KEVELS,taquets, a frame composed of two pieces of timber, whose lower ends rest in a sort of step or foot, nailed to the ship’s side, from whence the upper ends branch outward into arms or horns, serving to belay the great ropes by which the bottoms of the main-sail and fore-sail are extended. These are represented by fig. 3. plateV.
KEY,quai, a long wharf, usually built of stone, by the side of a harbour or river, and having several store-houses for the convenience of lading and discharging merchant-ships. It is accordingly furnished with posts and rings, whereby they are secured; together with cranes, capsterns, and other engines, to lift the goods into, or out of, the vessels which lie along-side.
Keys,attalons, are also certain sunken rocks, lying near the surface of the water, particularly in the West-Indies.
KINK, a sort of twist or turn in any cable or other rope, occasioned by its being very stiff or close-laid; or by being drawn too hastily out of the roll or tier, when it lies coiled. See the articleCoiling.
KNEE,courbe, a crooked piece of timber, having two branches, or arms, and generally used to connect the beams of a ship with her sides or timbers.
The branches of the knees form an angle of greater or smaller extent, according to the mutual situation of the pieces which they are designed to unite. One branch is securely bolted to one of the deck-beams, whilst the other is in the same manner attached to a corresponding timber in the ship’s side, as represented by E in theMidship-Frame, plateVII.
Besides the great utility of knees in connecting the beams and timbers into one compact frame, they contribute greatly to the strength and solidity of the ship, in the different parts of her frame to which they are bolted, and thereby enable, her, with greater firmness, to resist the effects of a turbulent sea.
In fixing of these pieces, it is occasionally necessary to give an oblique direction to the vertical, or side-branch, in order to avoid the range of an adjacent gun-port, or, because the knee may be so shaped as to require this disposition; it being sometimes difficult to procure so great a variety of knees as may be necessary in the construction of a number of ships of war.
In France, the scarcity of these pieces has obliged their shipwrights frequently to form their knees of iron.
Kneesare either said to belodgingorhanging. The former are fixed horizontally in the ship’s frame, having one arm bolted to the beam, and the other across two or three timbers, as represented by F in theDeck, plateIII. The latter are fixed vertically, as we have described above. See alsoBuilding,Deck, andMidship-Frame.
Kneeof the head,poulaine, a large flat piece of timber, fixed edgways upon the fore-part of a ship’s stem, and supporting the ornamental figure or image, placed under the bowsprit. See the articleHead.
The knee of the head, which may properly be defined a continuation of the stem, as being prolonged from the stem forwards, is extremely broad at the upper-part, and accordingly composed of several pieces united into one, Y Y, plateI.Piecesof theHull. It is let into the head, and secured to the ship’sbowsby strong knees fixed horizontally upon both, and called thecheeks of the head, Z Z, plateIV. fig. 10. The heel of it is scarfed to the upper end of the fore-foot, and it is fastened to the stem above by a knee, called astandard, expressed by &, in plateI.Piecesof theHull.
Besides supporting the figure of the head, this piece is otherwise useful, as serving to secure the boom, orbumkin, by which the fore-tack is extended to windward; and, by its great breadth, preventing the ship from falling to leeward, whenclose-hauled, so much as she would otherwise do. It also affords a greater security to the bowsprit, by increasing the angle of the bob-stay, so as to make it act more perpendicularly on the bowsprit.
The knee of the head is a phrase peculiar to shipwrights; as this piece is always called thecut-waterby seamen, if we except a few, who affecting to be wiser than their brethren, have adopted this expression probably on the presumption that the other is a cant phrase, or vulgarism. It appears a material part of the province of this work to call the several articles contained therein by their proper names, and to reject those which are spurious, however sanctified by the authority of official dulness, or seconded by the adoption of dignified ignorance. Accordingly we cannot help observing, that when a term of art has been established from time immemorial, and besides being highly expressive, produces the testimony of foreign nations[36]to its propriety, nothing more certainly betrays a superficial understanding, than the attempt to change it, without being able to assign the shadow of a reason for this alteration. For althoughknee of the head, being invariably used by the artificers, is of course explained in this work as a term of naval architecture, wherein practice has indeed rendered it natural and intelligible; it is nevertheless very rarely used by seamen, especially in common discourse, unless when it is intended to impress the hearer with an idea of the speaker’s superior judgment.
KNIGHT-HEAD, orBollard-Timber. See the articleHead.
Knight-Heads, two strong pieces of timber, fixed on the opposite sides of the main-deck, a little behind the fore-mast, in a merchant-ship.
They are used to support and inclose the ends of the windlass, which accordingly is turned therein as upon an axis. As each of the knight-heads is formed of two pieces, they may be occasionally separated in order to take off the turns of the cable from the windlass, or replace them upon it. They are sometimes called thebits, and in this sense their upper-parts only are denominated knight-heads, which being formerly embellished with a figure designed to resemble a human head, gave rise to the name they have ever since retained. See the articleWindlass.
Knight-heads,sep de drisse, was also a name formerly given to the lower jear-blocks, which were then no other than bits, containing several sheaves, and nearly resembling our present top-sail-sheet bits.
KNITTLE,eguillette, (from knit) a small line, which is either plaited or twisted, and used for various purposes at sea; as to fasten the service on the cable, to reef the sails by the bottom, and to hang the hammocs between decks, &c.
KNOT, a large knob formed on the extremity of a rope, by untwisting the ends thereof, and interweaving them regularly amongst each other. There are several sorts of knots, which differ in their form and size, according to the uses for which they are designed: the principal of these are the diamond-knot, the rose-knot, the wall-knot or walnut, some of which are single, and others double.
The knots are generally used to fasten one rope to another, by means of a small cord attached to the neck of the knot, called thelaniard, which is firmly tied about both ropes. They are also designed to prevent the end of a rope from sliding through aneye, which the knot is intended to confine in a particular situation. SeeBeckets.
TOLABOUR,travailler, as a sea-term, implies to roll or pitch heavily in a turbulent sea; an effect, by which the masts and hull of the ship are greatly endangered, because by the rolling motion the masts strain upon their shrouds with an effort, which increases as the sine of their obliquity: and the continual agitation of the vessel gradually loosens her joints, and often makes her extremely leaky.
LADDER,echelle, a well-known convenience, of which there are a great number in a ship, formed of two pieces of plank joined together by crosspieces, which serve as steps, whereby to mount or descend from one deck to another.
The ladders derive their names from the several hatchways, or other parts of a ship, wherein they are situated. Besides these, there are, of a particular construction, the accommodation-ladder and the quarter-ladders.
Accommodation-Ladder, is a sort of light stair-case, occasionally fixed on the gangway of the admiral, or commander in chief, of a fleet. It is furnished with rails and entering-ropes, covered with red bays, and the lower-end of it is retained at a competent distance from the ship’s side by iron bars, or braces, to render the passage more convenient to those who enter or depart from the ship. See the articleGangway.
Quarter-Ladders, two ladders of rope, depending from the right and left side of a ship’s stern, whereby to descend into the boats which are moored astern, in order to bring them up along-side of the ship; or to use them for any other occasion.
LADEN,chargée, the state of a ship when she is charged with a weight or quantity of any sort of merchandizes, or other materials, equal to her tonnage or burthen. If the cargo with which she is laden is extremely heavy, her burthen is determined by the weight of the goods; and if it is light, she carries as much as she canstow, to be fit for the purposes of navigation. As a ton in measure is generally estimated at 2000 lb. in weight, a vessel of 200 tons ought accordingly to carry a weight equal to 400,000 lb. when the matter of which the cargo is composed is specifically heavier than the water in which she floats; or, in other words, when the cargo is so heavy that she cannot float high enough, with so great a quantity of it, as her hold will contain.
Ladenin bulk, the state of being freighted with a cargo which is neither in casks, boxes, bales, or cases, but lies loose in the hold; being defended from the moisture, or wet of the hold, by a number of mats and a quantity ofdunnage. Such are usually the cargoes of corn, salt, or such materials.
LAID-UP, the situation of a ship when she is either moored in a harbour during the winter season, or laid by, for want of employment: or when by age and craziness she is rendered incapable of further service.
LANCH, a peculiar sort of long-boat, used by the French, Spanish, and Italian shipping; and in general by those of other European nations, when employed in voyaging in the Mediterranean sea.
A lanch is proportionably longer, lower, and more flat-bottomed than the long-boat; it is by consequence less fit for sailing, but better calculated for rowing and approaching a flat shore. Its principal superiority to the long-boat, however, consists in being, by its construction, much fitter to under-run the cable, which is a very necessary employment in the harbours of the Levant sea, where the cables of different ships are fastened across each other, and frequently render this exercise extremely necessary.
Lanchis also the movement by which a ship or boat descends from the shore, either when she is at first built, or at any time afterwards.
To facilitate the operation of lanching, and prevent any interruption therein, the ship is supported by two strong platforms, laid with a gradual inclination to the water, on the opposite sides of her keel, to which they are parallel. Upon the surface of this declivity are placed two corresponding ranges of planks, which compose the base of a frame called thecradle, whose upper-part envelops the ship’s bottom, whereto it is securely attached. Thus the lower surface of the cradle, conforming exactly to that of the frame below, lies flat upon it, lengthways, under the opposite sides of the ship’s bottom; and as the former is intended to slide downwards upon the latter, carrying the ship along with it, the planes or faces of both are well daubed with soap and tallow.
The necessary preparations for the lanch being made, all the blocks and wedges, by which the ship was formerly supported, are driven out from under her keel, till her whole weight gradually subsides upon the platforms above described, which are accordingly called theways. Theshoresand stanchions by which she is retained upon the stocks till the period approaches for lanching, are at length cut away, and the screws applied to move her, if necessary. The motion usually begins on the instant when the shores are cut, and the ship slides downward along the ways, which are generally prolonged under the surface of the water, to a sufficient depth, to float her as soon as she arrives at the farthest end thereof.
When a ship is to be lanched, the ensign, jack, and pendant, are always hoisted, the last being displayed from a staff erected in the middle of the ship. PlateV. fig. 4. represents a ship of war ready to be lanched from the stocks.
The largest ship that ever was lanched in England, is the Britannia, of 100 guns, built at Portsmouth. Ships of the first rate are commonly constructed in dry docks, and afterwards floated out, by throwing open the flood-gates, and suffering the tide to enter, as soon as they are finished.
LAND-FALL,atterrage, the first land discovered after a sea-voyage: hence it is common for ships, who accost each other at sea, to wish a good land-fall at parting, by which they imply a discovery of land, at or near the place whither their course is directed, and which they expect tomakeby their journals.
Land-locked,bouclé, the situation of a ship which is environed by the land on all sides in a road, bay, or haven; so as to exclude the prospect of the sea, unless over some intervening land. See the French wordterre, and the phrases following it.
LANGREL, or LANGRAGE,mitrailles, a particular kind of shot, formed of bolts, nails, bars, or other pieces of iron tied together, and forming a sort of cylinder, which corresponds with the bore of the cannon, from which it is intended to be discharged. This contrivance is particularly designed to wound or carry away the masts, or tear the sails and rigging of the adversary, so as to disable him from flight or pursuit. It is never used in royal ships, but very often by privateers and merchantmen.
LANIARD, (lanier, Fr.) a short piece of cord or line, fastened to several machines in a ship, and serving to secure them in a particular place, or to manage them more conveniently. Such are the laniards of the gun-ports, the laniard of the buoy, the laniard of the cat-hook, &c.
The principal laniards used in a ship, however, are those employed to extend the shrouds and stays of the masts, by their communication with the dead-eyes, so as to form a sort of mechanical power, resembling that of a tackle. SeeDead-Eyes.
These laniards,rides, are fixed in the dead-eyes as follows: One end of the laniard is thrust through one of the holes in the upper dead-eye, and then knotted, to prevent it from drawing out; the other end is then passed through one of the holes in the lower dead-eye, whence, returning upward, it is inserted through the second hole in the upper dead-eye, and next through the second in the lower dead-eye, and finally through the third holes in both dead-eyes. The end of the laniard being then directed upwards from the lowest dead-eye, is stretched as stiff as possible by the application of tackles; and that the several parts of it may slide with more facility through the holes in the dead-eyes, it is well smeared with hog’s lard or tallow, so that the strain is immediately communicated to all the turns at once.
LANTHORN, a well-known machine, of which there are many used in a ship, particularly for the purpose of directing the course of other ships in a fleet or convoy: such are the poop and top-lanthorns, &c.
LAP-SIDED,bordier, the state of a ship, which is built in such a manner as to have one side heavier than the other; and, by consequence, to retain a constantheel, or inclination towards the heaviest side; unless when she is brought upright, by placing a greater quantity of the cargo, or ballast, on the other side. SeeBallast.
LARBOARD,babord, a name given by seamen to the left side of a ship, wherein the right and left are apparently determined by the analogy of a ship’s position, on the water, to that of a fish.
LARGE, a phrase applied to the wind, when it crosses the line of a ship’s course in a favourable direction, particularly on thebeamorquarter. To understand this more clearly, let us suppose a ship steering west; then the wind, in any point of the compass to the eastward of the south or north, may be calledlarge, unless indeed when it is directly east, and then it is said to be right aft.
SailingLarge,aller vent largue, is therefore advancing with a large wind, so as that thesheetsare slackened andflowing, and thebowlinesentirely disused. This phrase is generally opposed to sailingclose-hauled, or with ascantwind, in which situation the sheets and bowlines are extended as much as possible.
LASHING,amarrage, a piece of rope employed to fasten or secure any moveable body in a ship, or about her masts, sails, and rigging: also the act of fastening or securing any thing by means of the rope used for this purpose.
LATEEN-SAIL, a long triangular sail extended by a lateen-yard, and frequently used by xebecs, polacres, settees, and other vessels navigated in the Mediterranean sea.
LAYINGthe Land, in navigation, the state of motion which increases the distance from the coast, so as to make it appear lower and smaller; a circumstance which evidently arises from the intervening convexity of the surface of the sea. It is used in contradistinction toraisingthe land, which is produced by the opposite motion of approach towards it.
LEAK, a chink or breach in the decks, sides, or bottom of a ship, through which the water passes into her hull. When a leak first commences, the vessel is said to have sprung a leak.
LEAKY, the state of a ship when abounding with leaks.
LEE, an epithet used by seamen to distinguish that part of the hemisphere to which the wind is directed, from the other part whence it arises; which latter is accordingly calledto windward. This expression is chiefly used when the wind crosses the line of a ship’s course, so that all on one side of her is calledto-windward, and all on the opposite side,to leeward: and hence,
Under theLee, implies farther to the leeward, or farther from that part of the horizon from whence the wind blows; as,
Under theLeeof the shore;i. e.at a short distance from the shore which lies to windward. This phrase is commonly understood to express the situation of a vessel, anchored, or sailing under the weather-shore, where there is always smoother water, and less danger of heavy seas, than at a great distance from it[37].
Lee-larches, the sudden and violent rolls which a ship often takes to the leeward in a high sea, particularly when a large wave strikes her on the weather-side.
Lee-side, all that part of a ship or boat which lies between the mast, and the side farthest from the direction of the wind; or otherwise, the half of a ship, which is pressed down towards the water by the effort of the sails, as separated from the other half, by a line drawn through the middle of her length. That part of the ship, which lies to windward of this line, is accordingly called theweather-side.
Thus admit a ship to be sailing southward, with the wind at east, then is her starboard, or right-side, thelee-side; and the larboard, or left, theweather-side.
Leeward-ship, a vessel that falls much to-leeward of her course, when sailingclose-hauled, and consequently loses much ground.
ToLeeward, towards that part of the horizon which lies under the lee, or whither the wind bloweth. Thus, “We saw a fleet under the lee,” and, “We saw a fleet to-leeward,” are synonimous expressions.
Lee-way, is the lateral movement of a ship to-leeward of her course, or the angle which the line of her way makes with the keel when she isclose-hauled. See that article.
This movement is produced by the mutual effort of the wind and sea upon her side, forcing her to-leeward of the line upon which she appears to sail; and in this situation her course is necessarily a compound of the two motions by which she is impelled, of which the one presses forward, according to the line of her keel, from H to K, fig. 5. plateV. whilst the other, acting in the line B A, pushes her to leeward of the course from B towards A, with a motion which is usually in proportion to the force of the wind, and the rate of her velocity, as appears by the following theory.
When a ship is close-hauled, and the head-sails are in perfect equilibrio with those abaft, the resistance of the water from A to B. fig. 5. plateV. is equal to the impulse of the sails, whether it is impressed upon the centre of gravity H of the ship, or any other point of her length before or abaft it. In this situation, the ship will as readily bear away as come nearer to the wind, with regard to the resistance of the water upon her bottom on one side, and the impulsion of the wind upon the sails on the other. But it must be observed, that the united effort of the sails acts upon the ship according to a direction B A, perpendicular to their surfaces, and commencing its action in some point H, being the meandbetween the different effects C G, of the sailsaforeand abaft, which should exactly correspond with the resistance of the water from A towards B; so that the vessel is pushed to leeward of the course I K, which she steers in the direction B A of the effort of the sails. But the resistance of the water, acting upon the lee-side of her bottom, counterbalances this effort, and becomes stronger, in proportion to the greater facility with which she divides the fluid with her stem; so that she will really advance in the course N R, which lies nearer the line of her keel than B A. Thus the angle K H R of the lee-way is proportional to the greater or less resistance the ship meets with from the fluid upon her lee side, respectively with her greater or less facility of dividing it with her fore-part; so that the lee-way is very inconsiderable, except, when the ship is close-hauled, and is accordingly disregarded whenever the wind, is large.
This demonstration might be pushed farther by a fact founded on daily experience, which proves that not only the lee-way depends on the form of the vessel, but also the degree of velocity with which she advances; and perhaps never, intirely, upon the greater or less obliquity of the sails with the keel, as some authors have pretended. For when a swift-sailing ship isclose-hauled, with all her sails out, in a very light wind, and scarcely havingsteerage-way, the lee-way is considerable even in smooth water. This is occasioned by the tardy motion of the vessel, which being feebly pushed forward, cannot impress the water with a forcible effect, and by consequence feels no resistance from it, but is accordingly carried with facility by her sails, in the direction of their effort B A: and if we consider the situation of the ship’s side, which presents a great surface of sail above the water, it appears that the lee-way will become yet more perpendicular to the keel. But when the wind makes a forcible impression, the velocity of moving forward is considerably augmented; the ship strikes the fluid with a force, expressed by the square of two or three leagues of swiftness, from B towards A, in the space of an hour, whilst the water repels her effort in a contrary direction. The resistance of the water is then, in the ratio of this square, to the square of her first velocity, or head-way; and in this state will not readily yield to its effort. The lee-way immediately decreases, and will be still farther diminished, if the ship’s course is accelerated. If then at the moment when the ship advances with great rapidity, shebears away12 or 15 degrees, or even two points, without altering the general arrangement of her sails, their obliquity remains the same, the ship therefore ought to have the same lee-way, according to the opinion of those who have written on the theory of sailing. The velocity is augmented, because the sails then receive the wind by a greater sine of incidence, and thereby acquire a more powerful effort, whilst the ship’sheadis always struck by the water in the same parts, and by the same sine of incidence; so that the lee-way is also diminished, because the water resists more, in consequence of the accelerated swiftness; and because the resistance is more exerted on the ship’s side than on her head, which is less opposed to its impulsion. Hence we may conclude, that the lee-way of a ship does not entirely depend on the disposition of her sails; that it is different in different vessels, because they are neither formed alike, nor are their sails equallytrimmedin the same oblique courses: and finally, because they have always a different velocity, at the same time, and under the same sail. Thus it is evident, that the lee-way is always composed of the ship’s comparative velocity; of her form, which gives more or less proportional resistance upon the side than on the fore-part; and of the disposition of her sails, as forming a greater or smaller obliquity with the keel. See alsoClose-hauled,Drift, andSailing.