[80]Here blood and the element, air, are related; the passage quoted in the preceding paragraph shows a similar relation between blood and the element water. Such inconsistencies are extremely common.[81]Etym., 4. 5.[82]Etym., 4, 7, 4.[83]Etym., 13, 7, 1.[84]Etym., 13, 3.[85]Etym., 13, 7. Almost side by side with this explanation of rain is another which says that rains “arise from an exhalation from land and sea, which being carried aloft falls in drops on the lands, being acted upon by the sun’s heat, or condensed by strong winds,” 13, 10, 2. Lightning is explained as caused by the collision of clouds (13, 9, 1); thunder, by their bursting (13, 8); the rainbow, by the sun shining into a hollow cloud (13, 10, 1).[86]D. N. R., 7, 4.Cf. Etym., 5, 35, 1.[87]Sent., 1, 11, 1.[88]“Mundus est universitas omnis, quae constat ex coelo et terra.... Secundum mysticum sensum, mundus competenter homo significatur, quia sicut ille ex quatuor concretus est elementis, ita et iste constat quatuor humoribus uno temperamento commistis. Unde et veteres hominem in communionem fabricae mundi constituerunt. Siquidem Graece mundus κόσμος, homo autem μικρόκοσμος, id est minor mundus, est appellatus.”D. N. R., 9, 2, and 3.Cf.11, 3.[89]Sentent., 1, 8, 1–2.[90]Etym., 16, 25, 19.[91]Etym., 1, 3, 4.Cf.6, 1, 3.[92]Etym., 11, 1, 109.Cf. Diff., 2, 17, 56 and 71.[93]While this mode of viewing the universe had its origin in pagan antiquity, and even earlier, its scope was greatly enlarged by Christian thinkers. Living in a world whose general constitution and purpose they thought they thoroughly understood, they were confident that even in its smallest details there could be perceived a conscious adaptation to the whole. This idea they often carried so far as seemingly to leave no place for chance or convention. Each trifling matter was given a meaning that was greater than itself.[94]Etym., 16, 26, 10.[95]Etym., 16, 25, 20.[96]Etym., 3, 23, 2.[97]Etym., 3, 4, 3.[98]The explanation suggested accounts for the prevalence of allegory in medieval times. Among the less comprehensive and not characteristically medieval causes for it must be reckoned the influence of the parables that are explained in the New Testament, the occasional grossness of Biblical characters and language which called for an interpretation that would remove offence and offer edification, the congenial activity which allegorizing offered to the pious mind, and, finally, the fact that by a clever use of allegorical interpretation some desired end might be obtained.[99]Migne,P. L., 83, col. 303. “Inter haec igitur omnia decem praecepta solum ibi quod de Sabbato positum est figurate observandum praecipitur. Quam figuram nos intelligendam, non etiam per otium corporale celebrandam, suscipimus. Reliqua tamen ibi praecepta proprie praecepta sunt, quae sine ulla figurata significatione observantur. Nihil enim mystice significant, sed sic intelliguntur ut sonant. Et notandum quia sicut decem plagis percutiuntur Aegyptii, sic decem praeceptis conscribuntur tabulae, quibus regantur populi Dei.” The Scriptures were for Isidoreun vasto simbolismo(Cañal,San Isidoro, p. 51).[100]D. N. R., 29, 2.[101]De Natura Rerum, 14, 2.[102]Sent., 1, 8, 6.[103]Etym., 11, 3, 1 and 2.[104]Diff., 2, 100.[105]Diff., 2, 92.[106]Diff., 2, 97.[107]Sentent., 3, 3, 5.[108]Sentent., 3, 16, 5.[109]Etym., 8, 3, 2–3.[110]Jerome,In Isaiam, Lib. xi, ch. 40. “Ita universa gentium multitudo supernis ministeriis et angelorum multitudini comparata pro nihilo ducitur.”Cf. Etym., 7, 5, 19.[111]Etym., 7, 5, 24.[112]For appearance to man.Cf.Angeli corpora in quibus hominibus apparent, de superno aere sumunt.Sentent., 1, 10, 19.[113]Diff., 2, 41.[114]Sentent., 1, 10, 16.[115]Sentent., 1, 10, 13.[116]De Ord. Creat., 8, 7–10.[117]Diff., 2, 41.[118]Sentent., 1, 10, 17.[119]Sentent., 3, 5, 35–36.[120]See pp.199–206.[121]Four definitions are given, 2, 24, 3 and 9.Cf.8, 6, 1;Diff., 2, 149. See pp.116–119. For the marshaling of the minor subjects under philosophy seeAppendix II.[122]Sentent., 1, 17, 1–4.[123]Etym., 8, 6, 23. In books VII and VIII of theEtymologies, where the subjects taken up appear to be treated in the order of merit, the place of the pagan philosophers in the list is an instructive one. The list is as follows: God, the persons of the Trinity, angels, patriarchs, prophets and martyrs, the clergy, the faithful, heretics, pagan philosophers, poets, sibyls, magi, the heathen, and heathen gods, who are the equivalent of demons. Seep. 196,note.[124]8, 7, 10.[125]Seep. 26.[126]8, 7, 1.[127]Sentent., 3, 13, 1. It seems extremely probable that Isidore did not quote from the poets directly but merely appropriated along with other material the quotations contained in the sources which he consulted.[128]“Illud trimodum intelligentiae genus,”Diff., 2, 154.Cf.“Tripliciter autem scribitur, dum non solum historialiter vel mystice sed etiam moraliter quid in unum quodque gerere debeat edocetur.”Contra Judaeos, 2, 20. See alsoDe Ord. Creat., 10, 4–7 andEtym., 6, 1, 11 (p. 186).[129]De Universois published in Migne,Patr. Lat., 3. In the preface Rabanus says: “Much is set forth in this work concerning the natures of things and the meanings of words and also as to the mystical signification of things. Accordingly I have arranged my matter so that the reader may find the historical and mystical explanations of each thing set together (continuatim positam); and so may be able to satisfy his desire to know both significations.” Isidore’sEtymologiesis said to have been left unfinished (quamvis imperfectum ipse reliquerit. Braulio’sIntroduction. Seep. 25). The conjecture may be offered that the finishing of the work might have meant chiefly the insertion of “the higher meaning”.[130]Sentent., 2, 1, 14.[131]Sentent., 1, 17, 2.[132]Cuvier,Histoire des Sciences Naturelles, vol. i, pp. 260–280.[133]Cf.Isidore’s attitude: “The histories of the gentiles do no harm where they tell of what is profitable,” 1, 41, 1. Seep. 103.[134]Seep. 28and note.[135]5, 38, 5; 5, 39.[136]9, 1, 1.[137]9, 2, 132.[138]The basis on which the canon of the seven liberal arts was formed is indicated by a passage in Martianus Capella, who makes Apollo say in regard to the exclusion of medicine and architecture from it that “their attention and skill is given to mortal and earthly things, and they have nothing in common with the ether and the gods; it is not unseemly to reject them with loathing.” (Ed. Eyssenhardt, IV, 13). The Christian Isidore held much the same notion as the pagan Capella. He believed that the order of the seven liberal arts terminating in astronomy was one whose object was “to free souls entangled by secular wisdom from earthly matters and set them at meditation upon the things on high” (3, 71, 41). See also pp.65,77. It is plain enough that education in both the pagan and Christian spheres was strongly affected by the mystical tendency of the time, and it is not too much to say that the seven liberal arts stand not so much for the impracticality of a “gentleman’s” education as for that desirable in the education of a mystic.[139]Cf.Cañal,San Isidoro(Sevilla, 1897), p. 23.[140]Cf.Roger,L’Enseignement des lettres classiques d’Ausone à Alcuin(Paris, 1905), pp. 126–129.[141]Of Augustine’s treatises on grammar, dialectic, rhetoric, geometry, arithmetic, and music, all but that on music were lost within a very short time. They could have had but little influence.Cf.Retract., 1, c. 6, and Teuffel and Schwabe,History of Roman Literature, Sect. 440, 7.[142]M. Aurelii Cassiodori,De Institutione Divinarum LitterarumandDe Artibus ac Disciplinis Liberalium Litterarum. In Migne,P. L., vol. 70.[143]Cassiodorus,De Institutione Divinarum Litterarum, Migne,P. L., 70, 1108 and 1141. In the former of these passages Cassiodorus discusses also the question whether there should be absolute reliance on divine aid in the interpretation of the Scriptures—in which connection he cites miraculous interpretations by illiterate persons—or “whether it is better to continue in the use of the ordinary learning.” He decides on the whole for the latter course. The fact that Cassiodorus wrote an account of the seven liberal arts shows perhaps that he was more benighted in his theory than in his practice. Gregory the Great, however, was more consistent and thorough-going. He stands as the typical example of extreme illiberality in the history of European education. His position is shown in the notorious letter addressed to the Bishop of Vienne: “A report has reached us which we cannot mention without a blush, that thou expoundest grammar to certain friends; whereat we are so offended and filled with scorn that our former opinion of thee is turned to mourning and sorrow.... If hereafter it be clearly established that the rumor which we have heard is false and that thou art not applying thyself to the idle vanities of secular learning (nugis et secularibus litteris), we shall render thanks to our God.” Gregory the Great, Ep. ix. 54. The translation is that given in R. Lane-Poole,Medieval Thought.[144]The second council of Toledo (531) devoted especial attention to the subject of preparation for the priesthood. See Mansi,Sacrorum Conciliorum Collectio(Florence, 1764), vol. 8 (Concilium Toletanum II).[145]Mansi, vol. 8, p. 785.[146]Cap. 2.[147]Mansi, vol. 10, p. 626 (Concilium Toletanum, IV, Cap. 24).[148]Isidore’sRegula Monachorum, 20, 5.[149]Seep. 30.[150]Etym., 3, 71, 41.[151]To this conception of the time, that the secular side of education was a necessary evil, of which a minimum use must be made, the school disciplines had in reality been adapting themselves for centuries by their growing formalism and loss of content. Among the seven liberal arts rhetoric is the best example of the former characteristic. It was so purely conventional a discipline in Isidore’s time that, even though he wrote of it, he confesses that it made no impression on him, either good or bad. “When it is laid aside,” he says, “all recollection vanishes.” The loss of content, on the other hand, is best seen in Isidore’s account of the four mathematical sciences, especially in that of geometry, which consists of nothing more than a few definitions.[152]Seep. 31for outline of contents.[153]However, Cassiodorus had in theDe Institutione Divinarum Litteraruma chapter entitled “On monks having the care of the infirm”. In this he urged upon them the reading of a number of medical works (those of Dioscorides, Hippocrates, Galen, Caelius Aurelianus, and “various others”. Migne,P. L., 70, 1146).[154]4, 13. See alsop. 163.[155]See Sandys,History of Classical Scholarship, pp. 6–10.[156]It is still in existence. The best text is that of Uhlig, 1883 (Leipzig).[157]“Grammar is a practical knowledge of the usages of language as generally current among poets and prose writers. It is divided into six parts: (1) trained reading with due regard to prosody; (2) explanation according to poetical figures; (3) ready statement of dialectical peculiarities and allusions; (4) discovery of etymology; (5) an accurate account of analogies; (6) criticism of poetical productions, which is the noblest part of grammatic art.”The Grammar of Dionysius Thrax, translated by T. Davidson (St. Louis, 1874), p. 3. In contrast to this definition the body of the work is devoted to reading, punctuation, the alphabet, syllables, and the parts of speech.[158]The older definition or its substance was still retained, however. Seep. 97. Its retention is rather an evidence of conservatism than a proof of the continued study of the poets.[159]The following list of passages gives some idea of the way in which grammatical works were produced in this age.Vox sive sonus est aer ictus, id est percussus, sensibilis auditu quantum in ipso est. Probi,Instituta Artiumin Keil,Grammatici Latini, vol. vi, p. 4, 13.Vox est aer ictus sensibilis auditu, quantum in ipso est. Donati,Ars Grammatica.Ibid., vol. iv, p. 367, 5.Vox est aer ictus sensibilis auditu, verbis emissa, et exacta sensus prolatio. Sergii,Explanationum in artem Donati, Liber I.,Ibid., vol. iv, p. 487, 4.Vox est aer auditu percipibilis quantum in ipso est. Marius Victorinus,Ars Grammatica.Ibid., vol. vi, p. 4, 13.Vox quid est? Aer ictus sensibilisque auditu quantum in ipso est. Maximus Victorinus,Ars Grammatica.Ibid., vol. vi, p. 189, 8.Vox articulata est aer percussus sensibilis auditu quantum in ipso est. Cassiodorus,Institutio de Arte Grammatica.Ibid., vol. vii, p. 215, 4.Vox est aer ictus sensibilis auditu, quantum in ipso est. Isidore,Etymologiae, 1, 15.These grammars are almost altogether made up of definitions which had become stereotyped.[160]The greater length of his treatment is due to the fact that he includes more subjects than do the preceding writers of text-books. A comparison of his table of contents with those of Cassiodorus, Martianus Capella, Donatus, and Servius shows that he professes to cover much more than they; he has ten topics that do not appear in Donatus’Ars Grammatica, and a greater number that do not appear in Servius, Capella, or Cassiodorus.[161]See especially his definition of verbum, 1, 9, 1.[162]The analysis is meant to indicate briefly the formal organization of the subject. It is followed by selected passages in translation, which, while illustrating the technical treatment, are meant rather to give what is of more general interest. It must be remembered that this treatment by selected passages fails to give a just idea of the meagerness, attenuation, and confusion of the material considered as a whole.[163]Seep. 97.[164]A set of terms unfamiliar to the modern student of grammar is given under this head. Nouns having six distinct case-forms are calledhexaptota; those having five,pentaptota, and so on. See 1, 7, 33.[165]Pronouns are classified according to use intofinita,infinita,minus quam finita,possessiva,relativa,demonstrativa; and according to origin intoprimigeniaanddeductiva.[166]Three conjugations are given.[167]Note part of the definition: “Adverbium autem sine verbo non habet plenam significationem, ut hodie: adjicis illi verbum, hodie scribo, et juncto verbo implesti sensum.” 1, 10, 1.[168]Isidore asserts that there are one hundred and twenty-four sorts of metrical feet, “four of two syllables, eight of three, sixteen of four, thirty-two of five, sixty-four of six.” 1, 17, 1.[169]The ten so-called accents of the grammarians are described: the acute, the grave, the circumflex, the marks to indicate long and short vowels, the hyphen, the comma, the apostrophe, the rough and smooth breathing.[170]This section is to be explained by reference to the chief controversy in the history of the science of grammar in classical times, that between analogy and anomaly, or whether grammatical regularity or irregularity was the more basic phenomenon. In Capella’s grammaranalogiais the heading under which declensions of nouns and conjugations of verbs are given, while exceptions are grouped under the headinganomala. See Martianus Capella, Eyssenhardt, pp. 75–97. Also Sandys,History of Classical Scholarship, Index.[171]Solecism is “the failure to put words together according to the correct method”, while barbarism includes blunders in the use of single words. 1, 33, 1.[172]Chiefly a parade of long words, likeperissologia,macrologia,tapinosis,cacosyntheton, etc. 1, 34.[173]A large number of poetical figures are described. This section is probably nothing but an evidence of conservatism, since Isidore certainly did not include a study of the poets in his scheme of education.[174]A number of metres are described and some attention is given to different kinds of poetry, such as the elegiac, bucolic, hymn, cento, etc.[175]Du Breul hasdisciplinis, notartibus.[176]Librarii et calculatores.[177]From Jerome,ad Soph., in Migne,Patr. Lat., 6, 7, 30.[178]This sentence, as many others, is in the accusative and infinitive without any governing verb.[179]Liberalium litterarum.[180]In complexum istarum cadunt.[181]SeeEtym., 1, 21, 2–28.[182]The grammarian.[183]Notas sed tantum praepositionum.Probably abbreviations for prepositions and other connectives that were in frequent use.[184]Praefixis characteribus.[185]Among the seven liberal arts grammar is the artpar excellence.[186]Cf. Quintilian, 1, 6, 28.[187]Quia nomina et verba rerum nota facit.[188]Cf.17, 6, 5, wheresilva(xilva) is derived from ξύλον (wood).[189]De Fabrica mundi et Evangeliis.[190]Isidore,Etym., 2, 19, 14, “Praeterea secundum Victorinum enthymematis est altera definitio. Ex sola propositione, sicut jam dictum est, ita constat. ‘Si tempestas vitanda est, non est navigatio requirenda.’”Cassiodorus,De Rhet.Halm,Rhetores Latini, p. 500. “Praeterea secundum Victorinum enthymematis est altera definitio. Ex sola propositione, sicut jam dictum est, ita constat enthymema, ut est illud: ‘si tempestas vitanda est, non est navigatio requirenda.’”Isidore,Etym., 2, 9, 18. “Hunc Cicero ita facit in arte rhetorica.”Cass. in Halm, p. 500, 18. “Hunc Cicero facit in arte rhetorica.”[191]The analytical treatment of this subject is obviously carried to an absurd degree. The whole activity of the orator is analyzed into five parts:inventio,dispositio,elocutio(wording),memoria,pronuntiatio. The whole subject-matter is analyzed into three parts: deliberative, epideictic, forensic. All court cases are analyzed from the point of view of the defence, according tostatus, that is, according to the nature of the leading point in the case. The speech itself (oratio) is analyzed into four parts: introduction, narrative, argument and conclusion. All cases are analyzed again according to the psychological impression they make on the audience. All arguments are analyzed into regular and irregular syllogisms. Even negation, giving the lie, is analyzed into several sorts. Rhetorical figures are analyzed elaborately.[192]“In which there is discussion of what ought or ought not to be done in regard to any of the practical affairs of life.” 2, 4, 1. Thegenus deliberativumis divided intosuasioanddissuasio, and each of these again, under the three headings,honestum,utile,possibile.[193]Epideictic; divided intolausandvituperatio, 2, 4.[194]Forensic rhetoric.[195]Under this heading we have the chief effort of ancient rhetoric to be helpful to the defense in cases brought before the courts. The termstatusmeant the crucial point in a case, and its subdivisions are intended to include the chief kinds of crucial points upon which the advocate must base his speech. The inference in both Isidore and Cassiodorus is that there is only one status in a case, but Quintilian (3, 6, 21) expressly says that there are more than one, and that the chief status in a case “is the strongest point in it on which the whole matter chiefly turns.”In this section Isidore borrows from Cassiodorus almost without change in the wording. In one case he has made a serious blunder in copying: the subdivisions that Cassiodorus places underqualitas, Isidore has placed underfinis. (Cass.,De Rhet., Halm, p. 496.)[196]“When an act that is imputed to a person is denied by another” (2, 5, 3), and the balancing of evidence is the method of deciding.[197]“When it is maintained that the act that is the matter of accusation is not that [specified], and its nature is shown by the use of definitions.” 2, 5, 3.[198]“In which the nature of justice and right and the abstract grounds of reward and punishment are gone into.” 2, 5, 5.
[80]Here blood and the element, air, are related; the passage quoted in the preceding paragraph shows a similar relation between blood and the element water. Such inconsistencies are extremely common.
[80]Here blood and the element, air, are related; the passage quoted in the preceding paragraph shows a similar relation between blood and the element water. Such inconsistencies are extremely common.
[81]Etym., 4. 5.
[81]Etym., 4. 5.
[82]Etym., 4, 7, 4.
[82]Etym., 4, 7, 4.
[83]Etym., 13, 7, 1.
[83]Etym., 13, 7, 1.
[84]Etym., 13, 3.
[84]Etym., 13, 3.
[85]Etym., 13, 7. Almost side by side with this explanation of rain is another which says that rains “arise from an exhalation from land and sea, which being carried aloft falls in drops on the lands, being acted upon by the sun’s heat, or condensed by strong winds,” 13, 10, 2. Lightning is explained as caused by the collision of clouds (13, 9, 1); thunder, by their bursting (13, 8); the rainbow, by the sun shining into a hollow cloud (13, 10, 1).
[85]Etym., 13, 7. Almost side by side with this explanation of rain is another which says that rains “arise from an exhalation from land and sea, which being carried aloft falls in drops on the lands, being acted upon by the sun’s heat, or condensed by strong winds,” 13, 10, 2. Lightning is explained as caused by the collision of clouds (13, 9, 1); thunder, by their bursting (13, 8); the rainbow, by the sun shining into a hollow cloud (13, 10, 1).
[86]D. N. R., 7, 4.Cf. Etym., 5, 35, 1.
[86]D. N. R., 7, 4.Cf. Etym., 5, 35, 1.
[87]Sent., 1, 11, 1.
[87]Sent., 1, 11, 1.
[88]“Mundus est universitas omnis, quae constat ex coelo et terra.... Secundum mysticum sensum, mundus competenter homo significatur, quia sicut ille ex quatuor concretus est elementis, ita et iste constat quatuor humoribus uno temperamento commistis. Unde et veteres hominem in communionem fabricae mundi constituerunt. Siquidem Graece mundus κόσμος, homo autem μικρόκοσμος, id est minor mundus, est appellatus.”D. N. R., 9, 2, and 3.Cf.11, 3.
[88]“Mundus est universitas omnis, quae constat ex coelo et terra.... Secundum mysticum sensum, mundus competenter homo significatur, quia sicut ille ex quatuor concretus est elementis, ita et iste constat quatuor humoribus uno temperamento commistis. Unde et veteres hominem in communionem fabricae mundi constituerunt. Siquidem Graece mundus κόσμος, homo autem μικρόκοσμος, id est minor mundus, est appellatus.”D. N. R., 9, 2, and 3.Cf.11, 3.
[89]Sentent., 1, 8, 1–2.
[89]Sentent., 1, 8, 1–2.
[90]Etym., 16, 25, 19.
[90]Etym., 16, 25, 19.
[91]Etym., 1, 3, 4.Cf.6, 1, 3.
[91]Etym., 1, 3, 4.Cf.6, 1, 3.
[92]Etym., 11, 1, 109.Cf. Diff., 2, 17, 56 and 71.
[92]Etym., 11, 1, 109.Cf. Diff., 2, 17, 56 and 71.
[93]While this mode of viewing the universe had its origin in pagan antiquity, and even earlier, its scope was greatly enlarged by Christian thinkers. Living in a world whose general constitution and purpose they thought they thoroughly understood, they were confident that even in its smallest details there could be perceived a conscious adaptation to the whole. This idea they often carried so far as seemingly to leave no place for chance or convention. Each trifling matter was given a meaning that was greater than itself.
[93]While this mode of viewing the universe had its origin in pagan antiquity, and even earlier, its scope was greatly enlarged by Christian thinkers. Living in a world whose general constitution and purpose they thought they thoroughly understood, they were confident that even in its smallest details there could be perceived a conscious adaptation to the whole. This idea they often carried so far as seemingly to leave no place for chance or convention. Each trifling matter was given a meaning that was greater than itself.
[94]Etym., 16, 26, 10.
[94]Etym., 16, 26, 10.
[95]Etym., 16, 25, 20.
[95]Etym., 16, 25, 20.
[96]Etym., 3, 23, 2.
[96]Etym., 3, 23, 2.
[97]Etym., 3, 4, 3.
[97]Etym., 3, 4, 3.
[98]The explanation suggested accounts for the prevalence of allegory in medieval times. Among the less comprehensive and not characteristically medieval causes for it must be reckoned the influence of the parables that are explained in the New Testament, the occasional grossness of Biblical characters and language which called for an interpretation that would remove offence and offer edification, the congenial activity which allegorizing offered to the pious mind, and, finally, the fact that by a clever use of allegorical interpretation some desired end might be obtained.
[98]The explanation suggested accounts for the prevalence of allegory in medieval times. Among the less comprehensive and not characteristically medieval causes for it must be reckoned the influence of the parables that are explained in the New Testament, the occasional grossness of Biblical characters and language which called for an interpretation that would remove offence and offer edification, the congenial activity which allegorizing offered to the pious mind, and, finally, the fact that by a clever use of allegorical interpretation some desired end might be obtained.
[99]Migne,P. L., 83, col. 303. “Inter haec igitur omnia decem praecepta solum ibi quod de Sabbato positum est figurate observandum praecipitur. Quam figuram nos intelligendam, non etiam per otium corporale celebrandam, suscipimus. Reliqua tamen ibi praecepta proprie praecepta sunt, quae sine ulla figurata significatione observantur. Nihil enim mystice significant, sed sic intelliguntur ut sonant. Et notandum quia sicut decem plagis percutiuntur Aegyptii, sic decem praeceptis conscribuntur tabulae, quibus regantur populi Dei.” The Scriptures were for Isidoreun vasto simbolismo(Cañal,San Isidoro, p. 51).
[99]Migne,P. L., 83, col. 303. “Inter haec igitur omnia decem praecepta solum ibi quod de Sabbato positum est figurate observandum praecipitur. Quam figuram nos intelligendam, non etiam per otium corporale celebrandam, suscipimus. Reliqua tamen ibi praecepta proprie praecepta sunt, quae sine ulla figurata significatione observantur. Nihil enim mystice significant, sed sic intelliguntur ut sonant. Et notandum quia sicut decem plagis percutiuntur Aegyptii, sic decem praeceptis conscribuntur tabulae, quibus regantur populi Dei.” The Scriptures were for Isidoreun vasto simbolismo(Cañal,San Isidoro, p. 51).
[100]D. N. R., 29, 2.
[100]D. N. R., 29, 2.
[101]De Natura Rerum, 14, 2.
[101]De Natura Rerum, 14, 2.
[102]Sent., 1, 8, 6.
[102]Sent., 1, 8, 6.
[103]Etym., 11, 3, 1 and 2.
[103]Etym., 11, 3, 1 and 2.
[104]Diff., 2, 100.
[104]Diff., 2, 100.
[105]Diff., 2, 92.
[105]Diff., 2, 92.
[106]Diff., 2, 97.
[106]Diff., 2, 97.
[107]Sentent., 3, 3, 5.
[107]Sentent., 3, 3, 5.
[108]Sentent., 3, 16, 5.
[108]Sentent., 3, 16, 5.
[109]Etym., 8, 3, 2–3.
[109]Etym., 8, 3, 2–3.
[110]Jerome,In Isaiam, Lib. xi, ch. 40. “Ita universa gentium multitudo supernis ministeriis et angelorum multitudini comparata pro nihilo ducitur.”Cf. Etym., 7, 5, 19.
[110]Jerome,In Isaiam, Lib. xi, ch. 40. “Ita universa gentium multitudo supernis ministeriis et angelorum multitudini comparata pro nihilo ducitur.”Cf. Etym., 7, 5, 19.
[111]Etym., 7, 5, 24.
[111]Etym., 7, 5, 24.
[112]For appearance to man.Cf.Angeli corpora in quibus hominibus apparent, de superno aere sumunt.Sentent., 1, 10, 19.
[112]For appearance to man.Cf.Angeli corpora in quibus hominibus apparent, de superno aere sumunt.Sentent., 1, 10, 19.
[113]Diff., 2, 41.
[113]Diff., 2, 41.
[114]Sentent., 1, 10, 16.
[114]Sentent., 1, 10, 16.
[115]Sentent., 1, 10, 13.
[115]Sentent., 1, 10, 13.
[116]De Ord. Creat., 8, 7–10.
[116]De Ord. Creat., 8, 7–10.
[117]Diff., 2, 41.
[117]Diff., 2, 41.
[118]Sentent., 1, 10, 17.
[118]Sentent., 1, 10, 17.
[119]Sentent., 3, 5, 35–36.
[119]Sentent., 3, 5, 35–36.
[120]See pp.199–206.
[120]See pp.199–206.
[121]Four definitions are given, 2, 24, 3 and 9.Cf.8, 6, 1;Diff., 2, 149. See pp.116–119. For the marshaling of the minor subjects under philosophy seeAppendix II.
[121]Four definitions are given, 2, 24, 3 and 9.Cf.8, 6, 1;Diff., 2, 149. See pp.116–119. For the marshaling of the minor subjects under philosophy seeAppendix II.
[122]Sentent., 1, 17, 1–4.
[122]Sentent., 1, 17, 1–4.
[123]Etym., 8, 6, 23. In books VII and VIII of theEtymologies, where the subjects taken up appear to be treated in the order of merit, the place of the pagan philosophers in the list is an instructive one. The list is as follows: God, the persons of the Trinity, angels, patriarchs, prophets and martyrs, the clergy, the faithful, heretics, pagan philosophers, poets, sibyls, magi, the heathen, and heathen gods, who are the equivalent of demons. Seep. 196,note.
[123]Etym., 8, 6, 23. In books VII and VIII of theEtymologies, where the subjects taken up appear to be treated in the order of merit, the place of the pagan philosophers in the list is an instructive one. The list is as follows: God, the persons of the Trinity, angels, patriarchs, prophets and martyrs, the clergy, the faithful, heretics, pagan philosophers, poets, sibyls, magi, the heathen, and heathen gods, who are the equivalent of demons. Seep. 196,note.
[124]8, 7, 10.
[124]8, 7, 10.
[125]Seep. 26.
[125]Seep. 26.
[126]8, 7, 1.
[126]8, 7, 1.
[127]Sentent., 3, 13, 1. It seems extremely probable that Isidore did not quote from the poets directly but merely appropriated along with other material the quotations contained in the sources which he consulted.
[127]Sentent., 3, 13, 1. It seems extremely probable that Isidore did not quote from the poets directly but merely appropriated along with other material the quotations contained in the sources which he consulted.
[128]“Illud trimodum intelligentiae genus,”Diff., 2, 154.Cf.“Tripliciter autem scribitur, dum non solum historialiter vel mystice sed etiam moraliter quid in unum quodque gerere debeat edocetur.”Contra Judaeos, 2, 20. See alsoDe Ord. Creat., 10, 4–7 andEtym., 6, 1, 11 (p. 186).
[128]“Illud trimodum intelligentiae genus,”Diff., 2, 154.Cf.“Tripliciter autem scribitur, dum non solum historialiter vel mystice sed etiam moraliter quid in unum quodque gerere debeat edocetur.”Contra Judaeos, 2, 20. See alsoDe Ord. Creat., 10, 4–7 andEtym., 6, 1, 11 (p. 186).
[129]De Universois published in Migne,Patr. Lat., 3. In the preface Rabanus says: “Much is set forth in this work concerning the natures of things and the meanings of words and also as to the mystical signification of things. Accordingly I have arranged my matter so that the reader may find the historical and mystical explanations of each thing set together (continuatim positam); and so may be able to satisfy his desire to know both significations.” Isidore’sEtymologiesis said to have been left unfinished (quamvis imperfectum ipse reliquerit. Braulio’sIntroduction. Seep. 25). The conjecture may be offered that the finishing of the work might have meant chiefly the insertion of “the higher meaning”.
[129]De Universois published in Migne,Patr. Lat., 3. In the preface Rabanus says: “Much is set forth in this work concerning the natures of things and the meanings of words and also as to the mystical signification of things. Accordingly I have arranged my matter so that the reader may find the historical and mystical explanations of each thing set together (continuatim positam); and so may be able to satisfy his desire to know both significations.” Isidore’sEtymologiesis said to have been left unfinished (quamvis imperfectum ipse reliquerit. Braulio’sIntroduction. Seep. 25). The conjecture may be offered that the finishing of the work might have meant chiefly the insertion of “the higher meaning”.
[130]Sentent., 2, 1, 14.
[130]Sentent., 2, 1, 14.
[131]Sentent., 1, 17, 2.
[131]Sentent., 1, 17, 2.
[132]Cuvier,Histoire des Sciences Naturelles, vol. i, pp. 260–280.
[132]Cuvier,Histoire des Sciences Naturelles, vol. i, pp. 260–280.
[133]Cf.Isidore’s attitude: “The histories of the gentiles do no harm where they tell of what is profitable,” 1, 41, 1. Seep. 103.
[133]Cf.Isidore’s attitude: “The histories of the gentiles do no harm where they tell of what is profitable,” 1, 41, 1. Seep. 103.
[134]Seep. 28and note.
[134]Seep. 28and note.
[135]5, 38, 5; 5, 39.
[135]5, 38, 5; 5, 39.
[136]9, 1, 1.
[136]9, 1, 1.
[137]9, 2, 132.
[137]9, 2, 132.
[138]The basis on which the canon of the seven liberal arts was formed is indicated by a passage in Martianus Capella, who makes Apollo say in regard to the exclusion of medicine and architecture from it that “their attention and skill is given to mortal and earthly things, and they have nothing in common with the ether and the gods; it is not unseemly to reject them with loathing.” (Ed. Eyssenhardt, IV, 13). The Christian Isidore held much the same notion as the pagan Capella. He believed that the order of the seven liberal arts terminating in astronomy was one whose object was “to free souls entangled by secular wisdom from earthly matters and set them at meditation upon the things on high” (3, 71, 41). See also pp.65,77. It is plain enough that education in both the pagan and Christian spheres was strongly affected by the mystical tendency of the time, and it is not too much to say that the seven liberal arts stand not so much for the impracticality of a “gentleman’s” education as for that desirable in the education of a mystic.
[138]The basis on which the canon of the seven liberal arts was formed is indicated by a passage in Martianus Capella, who makes Apollo say in regard to the exclusion of medicine and architecture from it that “their attention and skill is given to mortal and earthly things, and they have nothing in common with the ether and the gods; it is not unseemly to reject them with loathing.” (Ed. Eyssenhardt, IV, 13). The Christian Isidore held much the same notion as the pagan Capella. He believed that the order of the seven liberal arts terminating in astronomy was one whose object was “to free souls entangled by secular wisdom from earthly matters and set them at meditation upon the things on high” (3, 71, 41). See also pp.65,77. It is plain enough that education in both the pagan and Christian spheres was strongly affected by the mystical tendency of the time, and it is not too much to say that the seven liberal arts stand not so much for the impracticality of a “gentleman’s” education as for that desirable in the education of a mystic.
[139]Cf.Cañal,San Isidoro(Sevilla, 1897), p. 23.
[139]Cf.Cañal,San Isidoro(Sevilla, 1897), p. 23.
[140]Cf.Roger,L’Enseignement des lettres classiques d’Ausone à Alcuin(Paris, 1905), pp. 126–129.
[140]Cf.Roger,L’Enseignement des lettres classiques d’Ausone à Alcuin(Paris, 1905), pp. 126–129.
[141]Of Augustine’s treatises on grammar, dialectic, rhetoric, geometry, arithmetic, and music, all but that on music were lost within a very short time. They could have had but little influence.Cf.Retract., 1, c. 6, and Teuffel and Schwabe,History of Roman Literature, Sect. 440, 7.
[141]Of Augustine’s treatises on grammar, dialectic, rhetoric, geometry, arithmetic, and music, all but that on music were lost within a very short time. They could have had but little influence.Cf.Retract., 1, c. 6, and Teuffel and Schwabe,History of Roman Literature, Sect. 440, 7.
[142]M. Aurelii Cassiodori,De Institutione Divinarum LitterarumandDe Artibus ac Disciplinis Liberalium Litterarum. In Migne,P. L., vol. 70.
[142]M. Aurelii Cassiodori,De Institutione Divinarum LitterarumandDe Artibus ac Disciplinis Liberalium Litterarum. In Migne,P. L., vol. 70.
[143]Cassiodorus,De Institutione Divinarum Litterarum, Migne,P. L., 70, 1108 and 1141. In the former of these passages Cassiodorus discusses also the question whether there should be absolute reliance on divine aid in the interpretation of the Scriptures—in which connection he cites miraculous interpretations by illiterate persons—or “whether it is better to continue in the use of the ordinary learning.” He decides on the whole for the latter course. The fact that Cassiodorus wrote an account of the seven liberal arts shows perhaps that he was more benighted in his theory than in his practice. Gregory the Great, however, was more consistent and thorough-going. He stands as the typical example of extreme illiberality in the history of European education. His position is shown in the notorious letter addressed to the Bishop of Vienne: “A report has reached us which we cannot mention without a blush, that thou expoundest grammar to certain friends; whereat we are so offended and filled with scorn that our former opinion of thee is turned to mourning and sorrow.... If hereafter it be clearly established that the rumor which we have heard is false and that thou art not applying thyself to the idle vanities of secular learning (nugis et secularibus litteris), we shall render thanks to our God.” Gregory the Great, Ep. ix. 54. The translation is that given in R. Lane-Poole,Medieval Thought.
[143]Cassiodorus,De Institutione Divinarum Litterarum, Migne,P. L., 70, 1108 and 1141. In the former of these passages Cassiodorus discusses also the question whether there should be absolute reliance on divine aid in the interpretation of the Scriptures—in which connection he cites miraculous interpretations by illiterate persons—or “whether it is better to continue in the use of the ordinary learning.” He decides on the whole for the latter course. The fact that Cassiodorus wrote an account of the seven liberal arts shows perhaps that he was more benighted in his theory than in his practice. Gregory the Great, however, was more consistent and thorough-going. He stands as the typical example of extreme illiberality in the history of European education. His position is shown in the notorious letter addressed to the Bishop of Vienne: “A report has reached us which we cannot mention without a blush, that thou expoundest grammar to certain friends; whereat we are so offended and filled with scorn that our former opinion of thee is turned to mourning and sorrow.... If hereafter it be clearly established that the rumor which we have heard is false and that thou art not applying thyself to the idle vanities of secular learning (nugis et secularibus litteris), we shall render thanks to our God.” Gregory the Great, Ep. ix. 54. The translation is that given in R. Lane-Poole,Medieval Thought.
[144]The second council of Toledo (531) devoted especial attention to the subject of preparation for the priesthood. See Mansi,Sacrorum Conciliorum Collectio(Florence, 1764), vol. 8 (Concilium Toletanum II).
[144]The second council of Toledo (531) devoted especial attention to the subject of preparation for the priesthood. See Mansi,Sacrorum Conciliorum Collectio(Florence, 1764), vol. 8 (Concilium Toletanum II).
[145]Mansi, vol. 8, p. 785.
[145]Mansi, vol. 8, p. 785.
[146]Cap. 2.
[146]Cap. 2.
[147]Mansi, vol. 10, p. 626 (Concilium Toletanum, IV, Cap. 24).
[147]Mansi, vol. 10, p. 626 (Concilium Toletanum, IV, Cap. 24).
[148]Isidore’sRegula Monachorum, 20, 5.
[148]Isidore’sRegula Monachorum, 20, 5.
[149]Seep. 30.
[149]Seep. 30.
[150]Etym., 3, 71, 41.
[150]Etym., 3, 71, 41.
[151]To this conception of the time, that the secular side of education was a necessary evil, of which a minimum use must be made, the school disciplines had in reality been adapting themselves for centuries by their growing formalism and loss of content. Among the seven liberal arts rhetoric is the best example of the former characteristic. It was so purely conventional a discipline in Isidore’s time that, even though he wrote of it, he confesses that it made no impression on him, either good or bad. “When it is laid aside,” he says, “all recollection vanishes.” The loss of content, on the other hand, is best seen in Isidore’s account of the four mathematical sciences, especially in that of geometry, which consists of nothing more than a few definitions.
[151]To this conception of the time, that the secular side of education was a necessary evil, of which a minimum use must be made, the school disciplines had in reality been adapting themselves for centuries by their growing formalism and loss of content. Among the seven liberal arts rhetoric is the best example of the former characteristic. It was so purely conventional a discipline in Isidore’s time that, even though he wrote of it, he confesses that it made no impression on him, either good or bad. “When it is laid aside,” he says, “all recollection vanishes.” The loss of content, on the other hand, is best seen in Isidore’s account of the four mathematical sciences, especially in that of geometry, which consists of nothing more than a few definitions.
[152]Seep. 31for outline of contents.
[152]Seep. 31for outline of contents.
[153]However, Cassiodorus had in theDe Institutione Divinarum Litteraruma chapter entitled “On monks having the care of the infirm”. In this he urged upon them the reading of a number of medical works (those of Dioscorides, Hippocrates, Galen, Caelius Aurelianus, and “various others”. Migne,P. L., 70, 1146).
[153]However, Cassiodorus had in theDe Institutione Divinarum Litteraruma chapter entitled “On monks having the care of the infirm”. In this he urged upon them the reading of a number of medical works (those of Dioscorides, Hippocrates, Galen, Caelius Aurelianus, and “various others”. Migne,P. L., 70, 1146).
[154]4, 13. See alsop. 163.
[154]4, 13. See alsop. 163.
[155]See Sandys,History of Classical Scholarship, pp. 6–10.
[155]See Sandys,History of Classical Scholarship, pp. 6–10.
[156]It is still in existence. The best text is that of Uhlig, 1883 (Leipzig).
[156]It is still in existence. The best text is that of Uhlig, 1883 (Leipzig).
[157]“Grammar is a practical knowledge of the usages of language as generally current among poets and prose writers. It is divided into six parts: (1) trained reading with due regard to prosody; (2) explanation according to poetical figures; (3) ready statement of dialectical peculiarities and allusions; (4) discovery of etymology; (5) an accurate account of analogies; (6) criticism of poetical productions, which is the noblest part of grammatic art.”The Grammar of Dionysius Thrax, translated by T. Davidson (St. Louis, 1874), p. 3. In contrast to this definition the body of the work is devoted to reading, punctuation, the alphabet, syllables, and the parts of speech.
[157]“Grammar is a practical knowledge of the usages of language as generally current among poets and prose writers. It is divided into six parts: (1) trained reading with due regard to prosody; (2) explanation according to poetical figures; (3) ready statement of dialectical peculiarities and allusions; (4) discovery of etymology; (5) an accurate account of analogies; (6) criticism of poetical productions, which is the noblest part of grammatic art.”The Grammar of Dionysius Thrax, translated by T. Davidson (St. Louis, 1874), p. 3. In contrast to this definition the body of the work is devoted to reading, punctuation, the alphabet, syllables, and the parts of speech.
[158]The older definition or its substance was still retained, however. Seep. 97. Its retention is rather an evidence of conservatism than a proof of the continued study of the poets.
[158]The older definition or its substance was still retained, however. Seep. 97. Its retention is rather an evidence of conservatism than a proof of the continued study of the poets.
[159]The following list of passages gives some idea of the way in which grammatical works were produced in this age.Vox sive sonus est aer ictus, id est percussus, sensibilis auditu quantum in ipso est. Probi,Instituta Artiumin Keil,Grammatici Latini, vol. vi, p. 4, 13.Vox est aer ictus sensibilis auditu, quantum in ipso est. Donati,Ars Grammatica.Ibid., vol. iv, p. 367, 5.Vox est aer ictus sensibilis auditu, verbis emissa, et exacta sensus prolatio. Sergii,Explanationum in artem Donati, Liber I.,Ibid., vol. iv, p. 487, 4.Vox est aer auditu percipibilis quantum in ipso est. Marius Victorinus,Ars Grammatica.Ibid., vol. vi, p. 4, 13.Vox quid est? Aer ictus sensibilisque auditu quantum in ipso est. Maximus Victorinus,Ars Grammatica.Ibid., vol. vi, p. 189, 8.Vox articulata est aer percussus sensibilis auditu quantum in ipso est. Cassiodorus,Institutio de Arte Grammatica.Ibid., vol. vii, p. 215, 4.Vox est aer ictus sensibilis auditu, quantum in ipso est. Isidore,Etymologiae, 1, 15.These grammars are almost altogether made up of definitions which had become stereotyped.
[159]The following list of passages gives some idea of the way in which grammatical works were produced in this age.
Vox sive sonus est aer ictus, id est percussus, sensibilis auditu quantum in ipso est. Probi,Instituta Artiumin Keil,Grammatici Latini, vol. vi, p. 4, 13.
Vox est aer ictus sensibilis auditu, quantum in ipso est. Donati,Ars Grammatica.Ibid., vol. iv, p. 367, 5.
Vox est aer ictus sensibilis auditu, verbis emissa, et exacta sensus prolatio. Sergii,Explanationum in artem Donati, Liber I.,Ibid., vol. iv, p. 487, 4.
Vox est aer auditu percipibilis quantum in ipso est. Marius Victorinus,Ars Grammatica.Ibid., vol. vi, p. 4, 13.
Vox quid est? Aer ictus sensibilisque auditu quantum in ipso est. Maximus Victorinus,Ars Grammatica.Ibid., vol. vi, p. 189, 8.
Vox articulata est aer percussus sensibilis auditu quantum in ipso est. Cassiodorus,Institutio de Arte Grammatica.Ibid., vol. vii, p. 215, 4.
Vox est aer ictus sensibilis auditu, quantum in ipso est. Isidore,Etymologiae, 1, 15.
These grammars are almost altogether made up of definitions which had become stereotyped.
[160]The greater length of his treatment is due to the fact that he includes more subjects than do the preceding writers of text-books. A comparison of his table of contents with those of Cassiodorus, Martianus Capella, Donatus, and Servius shows that he professes to cover much more than they; he has ten topics that do not appear in Donatus’Ars Grammatica, and a greater number that do not appear in Servius, Capella, or Cassiodorus.
[160]The greater length of his treatment is due to the fact that he includes more subjects than do the preceding writers of text-books. A comparison of his table of contents with those of Cassiodorus, Martianus Capella, Donatus, and Servius shows that he professes to cover much more than they; he has ten topics that do not appear in Donatus’Ars Grammatica, and a greater number that do not appear in Servius, Capella, or Cassiodorus.
[161]See especially his definition of verbum, 1, 9, 1.
[161]See especially his definition of verbum, 1, 9, 1.
[162]The analysis is meant to indicate briefly the formal organization of the subject. It is followed by selected passages in translation, which, while illustrating the technical treatment, are meant rather to give what is of more general interest. It must be remembered that this treatment by selected passages fails to give a just idea of the meagerness, attenuation, and confusion of the material considered as a whole.
[162]The analysis is meant to indicate briefly the formal organization of the subject. It is followed by selected passages in translation, which, while illustrating the technical treatment, are meant rather to give what is of more general interest. It must be remembered that this treatment by selected passages fails to give a just idea of the meagerness, attenuation, and confusion of the material considered as a whole.
[163]Seep. 97.
[163]Seep. 97.
[164]A set of terms unfamiliar to the modern student of grammar is given under this head. Nouns having six distinct case-forms are calledhexaptota; those having five,pentaptota, and so on. See 1, 7, 33.
[164]A set of terms unfamiliar to the modern student of grammar is given under this head. Nouns having six distinct case-forms are calledhexaptota; those having five,pentaptota, and so on. See 1, 7, 33.
[165]Pronouns are classified according to use intofinita,infinita,minus quam finita,possessiva,relativa,demonstrativa; and according to origin intoprimigeniaanddeductiva.
[165]Pronouns are classified according to use intofinita,infinita,minus quam finita,possessiva,relativa,demonstrativa; and according to origin intoprimigeniaanddeductiva.
[166]Three conjugations are given.
[166]Three conjugations are given.
[167]Note part of the definition: “Adverbium autem sine verbo non habet plenam significationem, ut hodie: adjicis illi verbum, hodie scribo, et juncto verbo implesti sensum.” 1, 10, 1.
[167]Note part of the definition: “Adverbium autem sine verbo non habet plenam significationem, ut hodie: adjicis illi verbum, hodie scribo, et juncto verbo implesti sensum.” 1, 10, 1.
[168]Isidore asserts that there are one hundred and twenty-four sorts of metrical feet, “four of two syllables, eight of three, sixteen of four, thirty-two of five, sixty-four of six.” 1, 17, 1.
[168]Isidore asserts that there are one hundred and twenty-four sorts of metrical feet, “four of two syllables, eight of three, sixteen of four, thirty-two of five, sixty-four of six.” 1, 17, 1.
[169]The ten so-called accents of the grammarians are described: the acute, the grave, the circumflex, the marks to indicate long and short vowels, the hyphen, the comma, the apostrophe, the rough and smooth breathing.
[169]The ten so-called accents of the grammarians are described: the acute, the grave, the circumflex, the marks to indicate long and short vowels, the hyphen, the comma, the apostrophe, the rough and smooth breathing.
[170]This section is to be explained by reference to the chief controversy in the history of the science of grammar in classical times, that between analogy and anomaly, or whether grammatical regularity or irregularity was the more basic phenomenon. In Capella’s grammaranalogiais the heading under which declensions of nouns and conjugations of verbs are given, while exceptions are grouped under the headinganomala. See Martianus Capella, Eyssenhardt, pp. 75–97. Also Sandys,History of Classical Scholarship, Index.
[170]This section is to be explained by reference to the chief controversy in the history of the science of grammar in classical times, that between analogy and anomaly, or whether grammatical regularity or irregularity was the more basic phenomenon. In Capella’s grammaranalogiais the heading under which declensions of nouns and conjugations of verbs are given, while exceptions are grouped under the headinganomala. See Martianus Capella, Eyssenhardt, pp. 75–97. Also Sandys,History of Classical Scholarship, Index.
[171]Solecism is “the failure to put words together according to the correct method”, while barbarism includes blunders in the use of single words. 1, 33, 1.
[171]Solecism is “the failure to put words together according to the correct method”, while barbarism includes blunders in the use of single words. 1, 33, 1.
[172]Chiefly a parade of long words, likeperissologia,macrologia,tapinosis,cacosyntheton, etc. 1, 34.
[172]Chiefly a parade of long words, likeperissologia,macrologia,tapinosis,cacosyntheton, etc. 1, 34.
[173]A large number of poetical figures are described. This section is probably nothing but an evidence of conservatism, since Isidore certainly did not include a study of the poets in his scheme of education.
[173]A large number of poetical figures are described. This section is probably nothing but an evidence of conservatism, since Isidore certainly did not include a study of the poets in his scheme of education.
[174]A number of metres are described and some attention is given to different kinds of poetry, such as the elegiac, bucolic, hymn, cento, etc.
[174]A number of metres are described and some attention is given to different kinds of poetry, such as the elegiac, bucolic, hymn, cento, etc.
[175]Du Breul hasdisciplinis, notartibus.
[175]Du Breul hasdisciplinis, notartibus.
[176]Librarii et calculatores.
[176]Librarii et calculatores.
[177]From Jerome,ad Soph., in Migne,Patr. Lat., 6, 7, 30.
[177]From Jerome,ad Soph., in Migne,Patr. Lat., 6, 7, 30.
[178]This sentence, as many others, is in the accusative and infinitive without any governing verb.
[178]This sentence, as many others, is in the accusative and infinitive without any governing verb.
[179]Liberalium litterarum.
[179]Liberalium litterarum.
[180]In complexum istarum cadunt.
[180]In complexum istarum cadunt.
[181]SeeEtym., 1, 21, 2–28.
[181]SeeEtym., 1, 21, 2–28.
[182]The grammarian.
[182]The grammarian.
[183]Notas sed tantum praepositionum.Probably abbreviations for prepositions and other connectives that were in frequent use.
[183]Notas sed tantum praepositionum.Probably abbreviations for prepositions and other connectives that were in frequent use.
[184]Praefixis characteribus.
[184]Praefixis characteribus.
[185]Among the seven liberal arts grammar is the artpar excellence.
[185]Among the seven liberal arts grammar is the artpar excellence.
[186]Cf. Quintilian, 1, 6, 28.
[186]Cf. Quintilian, 1, 6, 28.
[187]Quia nomina et verba rerum nota facit.
[187]Quia nomina et verba rerum nota facit.
[188]Cf.17, 6, 5, wheresilva(xilva) is derived from ξύλον (wood).
[188]Cf.17, 6, 5, wheresilva(xilva) is derived from ξύλον (wood).
[189]De Fabrica mundi et Evangeliis.
[189]De Fabrica mundi et Evangeliis.
[190]Isidore,Etym., 2, 19, 14, “Praeterea secundum Victorinum enthymematis est altera definitio. Ex sola propositione, sicut jam dictum est, ita constat. ‘Si tempestas vitanda est, non est navigatio requirenda.’”Cassiodorus,De Rhet.Halm,Rhetores Latini, p. 500. “Praeterea secundum Victorinum enthymematis est altera definitio. Ex sola propositione, sicut jam dictum est, ita constat enthymema, ut est illud: ‘si tempestas vitanda est, non est navigatio requirenda.’”Isidore,Etym., 2, 9, 18. “Hunc Cicero ita facit in arte rhetorica.”Cass. in Halm, p. 500, 18. “Hunc Cicero facit in arte rhetorica.”
[190]Isidore,Etym., 2, 19, 14, “Praeterea secundum Victorinum enthymematis est altera definitio. Ex sola propositione, sicut jam dictum est, ita constat. ‘Si tempestas vitanda est, non est navigatio requirenda.’”
Cassiodorus,De Rhet.Halm,Rhetores Latini, p. 500. “Praeterea secundum Victorinum enthymematis est altera definitio. Ex sola propositione, sicut jam dictum est, ita constat enthymema, ut est illud: ‘si tempestas vitanda est, non est navigatio requirenda.’”
Isidore,Etym., 2, 9, 18. “Hunc Cicero ita facit in arte rhetorica.”
Cass. in Halm, p. 500, 18. “Hunc Cicero facit in arte rhetorica.”
[191]The analytical treatment of this subject is obviously carried to an absurd degree. The whole activity of the orator is analyzed into five parts:inventio,dispositio,elocutio(wording),memoria,pronuntiatio. The whole subject-matter is analyzed into three parts: deliberative, epideictic, forensic. All court cases are analyzed from the point of view of the defence, according tostatus, that is, according to the nature of the leading point in the case. The speech itself (oratio) is analyzed into four parts: introduction, narrative, argument and conclusion. All cases are analyzed again according to the psychological impression they make on the audience. All arguments are analyzed into regular and irregular syllogisms. Even negation, giving the lie, is analyzed into several sorts. Rhetorical figures are analyzed elaborately.
[191]The analytical treatment of this subject is obviously carried to an absurd degree. The whole activity of the orator is analyzed into five parts:inventio,dispositio,elocutio(wording),memoria,pronuntiatio. The whole subject-matter is analyzed into three parts: deliberative, epideictic, forensic. All court cases are analyzed from the point of view of the defence, according tostatus, that is, according to the nature of the leading point in the case. The speech itself (oratio) is analyzed into four parts: introduction, narrative, argument and conclusion. All cases are analyzed again according to the psychological impression they make on the audience. All arguments are analyzed into regular and irregular syllogisms. Even negation, giving the lie, is analyzed into several sorts. Rhetorical figures are analyzed elaborately.
[192]“In which there is discussion of what ought or ought not to be done in regard to any of the practical affairs of life.” 2, 4, 1. Thegenus deliberativumis divided intosuasioanddissuasio, and each of these again, under the three headings,honestum,utile,possibile.
[192]“In which there is discussion of what ought or ought not to be done in regard to any of the practical affairs of life.” 2, 4, 1. Thegenus deliberativumis divided intosuasioanddissuasio, and each of these again, under the three headings,honestum,utile,possibile.
[193]Epideictic; divided intolausandvituperatio, 2, 4.
[193]Epideictic; divided intolausandvituperatio, 2, 4.
[194]Forensic rhetoric.
[194]Forensic rhetoric.
[195]Under this heading we have the chief effort of ancient rhetoric to be helpful to the defense in cases brought before the courts. The termstatusmeant the crucial point in a case, and its subdivisions are intended to include the chief kinds of crucial points upon which the advocate must base his speech. The inference in both Isidore and Cassiodorus is that there is only one status in a case, but Quintilian (3, 6, 21) expressly says that there are more than one, and that the chief status in a case “is the strongest point in it on which the whole matter chiefly turns.”In this section Isidore borrows from Cassiodorus almost without change in the wording. In one case he has made a serious blunder in copying: the subdivisions that Cassiodorus places underqualitas, Isidore has placed underfinis. (Cass.,De Rhet., Halm, p. 496.)
[195]Under this heading we have the chief effort of ancient rhetoric to be helpful to the defense in cases brought before the courts. The termstatusmeant the crucial point in a case, and its subdivisions are intended to include the chief kinds of crucial points upon which the advocate must base his speech. The inference in both Isidore and Cassiodorus is that there is only one status in a case, but Quintilian (3, 6, 21) expressly says that there are more than one, and that the chief status in a case “is the strongest point in it on which the whole matter chiefly turns.”
In this section Isidore borrows from Cassiodorus almost without change in the wording. In one case he has made a serious blunder in copying: the subdivisions that Cassiodorus places underqualitas, Isidore has placed underfinis. (Cass.,De Rhet., Halm, p. 496.)
[196]“When an act that is imputed to a person is denied by another” (2, 5, 3), and the balancing of evidence is the method of deciding.
[196]“When an act that is imputed to a person is denied by another” (2, 5, 3), and the balancing of evidence is the method of deciding.
[197]“When it is maintained that the act that is the matter of accusation is not that [specified], and its nature is shown by the use of definitions.” 2, 5, 3.
[197]“When it is maintained that the act that is the matter of accusation is not that [specified], and its nature is shown by the use of definitions.” 2, 5, 3.
[198]“In which the nature of justice and right and the abstract grounds of reward and punishment are gone into.” 2, 5, 5.
[198]“In which the nature of justice and right and the abstract grounds of reward and punishment are gone into.” 2, 5, 5.