British second-rate. 1665.Fig. 52.—British second-rate. 1665.
Fig. 52.—British second-rate. 1665.
Midship section of a fourth-rate.Fig. 53.—Midship section of a fourth-rate.
Fig. 53.—Midship section of a fourth-rate.
In order to complete the illustrations of British warships of the latter half of the seventeenth century views of a second-rate are given in Fig.52, and a cross-section of a fourth-rate in Fig.53.
It would be impossible in the present work to notice in detail all the alterations in size and structure of ships which took place during the eighteenth century. A few of the leading changes may, however, be mentioned. In the year 1706 an attempt was made to systematize the dimensions of the various rates, and the figures as given in the following table were fixed:—
When the figures were compared with those of contemporary French ships of the same rates, it was found that the British vessels of every class were of inferior dimensions. Whenever British men-of-war were captured by the French, the number of their guns was reduced. It was universally admitted that the French ships were superior in sailing qualities; so much so was this the case that, whenever a French squadron was chased, the English-built ships in it were the first to be overtaken. The subject of the superiority in size of the French ships was constantly coming to the front, and in 1719 a newestablishment was made for the dimension of ships in our Royal Navy, according to the following scale:—
In addition to the increase in dimensions, much improvement was made in the same year in the interior arrangements, and in the preservation of the timber of which ships were constructed. Up till this period both thick stuff and planks were prepared by charring the inner surface while the outer surface was kept wet, and this process was continued till the plank was brought to a fit condition for bending to the shape it was required to take. In this year, however, the process of stoving was introduced. It consisted in placing the timber in wet sand and subjecting it to the action of heat for such time as was necessary in order to extract the residue of the sap and to bring it to a condition of suppleness. In the year 1726 the process was favourably reported on by two of the master shipwrights in their report on the state of the planking on the bottom of theFalkland. Some of the planking had been charred by the old process, some stoved by the new, and the remainder had been neither stoved nor charred. The stoved planks were found to be in a good state of preservation, while many of the others were rotten. The process remained in use till 1736, when it was superseded by the practice of steaming the timber. The steaming and the kindred process of boiling remained in vogue during the whole of the remainder of the era of wooden shipbuilding. In 1771 the rapid decay of ships in the Royal Navy once more caused serious attention to be paid to the subject of the preservation of timber. It was, in consequence, arranged that larger stocksof timber should be kept in the dockyards, and that line-of-battle ships should stand in frame for at least a year, in order to season before the planking was put on. Similarly, frigates were to stand in frame for at least six months, and all thick stuff and planking was to be sawn out a year before it was used and stacked, with battens between the planks, so as to allow of the free circulation of the air. Similar regulations were put in force for the beam pieces, knees, and other portions of the ships.
Much trouble was caused by the injurious effects of bilge-water and foul air in the holds of ships, and various remedies were devised from time to time. In 1715 structural improvements were devised to allow of the bilge-water flowing more freely to the pumps, and trunks were fitted to the lower decks to convey air to the holds. In 1719 it was proposed that the holds of ships should have several feet of water run into them in the early spring in order to cool them, and that it should not be pumped out till August; but this remedy was never extensively practised. In 1753 Dr. S. Hales proposed a system of ventilation by means of windmills and hand-pumps, which produced excellent results. It was noticed that the accumulation of carbonic acid gas and foul damp air in the holds, not only set up rapid decay in the ship, but also most injuriously affected the health of the crews. Dr. Hales' system was employed in thePrincefrom 1753 to 1798, and it was considered that the durability of this vessel had been greatly increased. It was also reported by Lord Halifax that the mortality on the non-ventilated ships on the coast of Nova Scotia was twelve times as great as on those vessels which were fitted with Dr. Hales' appliances.
There are not many records in existence of the merchant-vessels of this period. Fig.54is a representation of an armed East Indiaman which was launched at Blackwall in 1752. Her length of keel was 108 ft. 9 in.; breadth, 34 ft.; and burthen,668 tons. She was named theFalmouth, and was constructed by the famous shipbuilder, John Perry, of Blackwall Yard. She was commenced almost exactly two years before the date of her launch. Like all her class, she was heavily armed.
The Falmouth. East Indiaman. Launched 1752.Fig. 54.—TheFalmouth. East Indiaman. Launched 1752.
Fig. 54.—TheFalmouth. East Indiaman. Launched 1752.
At the close of the war against France and Spain, which lasted from 1744 to 1748, great complaints were made of the weakness of our warships at sea. It was also found that the establishment of 1719 had not been adhered to, and the dimensions of ships were not fixed in accordance with any particular standard. The first defect was remedied by the placing of as many standards of wood, or iron, on the different decks as could be conveniently arranged, so as not to interfere with the guns, and by the use of larger bolts than had hitherto been employed, as high up as possible in the throats of the hanging knees. Also the beams of the quarter-deck and round-house were supported with lodging knees, and in some instances with hanging knees of wood, or iron. Various other pieces, such as the stem, were also strengthened and the weights of the taffrails and quarter-pieces were reduced. The advice of the master shipwrights of the various dockyards was sought, in order to fix a new establishment of dimensions, but great difficulties were found in introducing the much-needed reforms, and for some time afterwards the ships of the British Navy were at a disadvantage with those of foreign countries by reason of their contracted dimensions and inferior forms.
The capture, with great difficulty, of a Spanish ship of seventy guns, named thePrincessa, in 1740, by three British men-of-war of equal rating, but far inferior dimensions, was one of the events that first opened the eyes of the Admiralty to the defects of their vessels. The first attempt towards introducing a better type of ship was made in 1746, when theRoyal George, famous for her size, her services, her beauty andmisfortunes, was laid down. She was not launched till 1756. The following were her principal dimensions:—
Fig.55is an illustration of this ship. She rendered great services to the country under the orders of Admiral Lord Hawke, especially in the memorable defeat of the French Navy off the island of Belle-isle in 1759. She was lost at Spithead in 1782, when being inclined in order to have some repairs to her bottom executed. She capsized, and went under, 900 men, women, and children being drowned in her.
TheRoyal Georgewas followed by several others of various rates and improved dimensions, notably by theBlenheim(90) and thePrincess Amelia(80). The latter was one of the most famous ships of her day, and was constantly employed as long as she continued fit for service. In 1747 a French ship of seventy-four guns named theInvinciblewas captured, and was found to be such an excellent vessel that her dimensions were adopted for theThunderer, laid down about 1758. One of the most interesting models in the Museum is of theTriumph(74), also built on the lines of theInvinciblein 1764. Her length of gun-decks was 171 ft. 3 in.; breadth, 49 ft. 9 in.; depth of hold, 21 ft. 3 in.
In the following year was built theVictory, 100 guns, famous as Nelson's flagship at Trafalgar, and still afloat in Portsmouth Harbour. Her dimensions are: length of gun-deck, 186 ft.; breadth, 52 ft.; depth of hold, 21 ft. 6 in.; tonnage, 2,162.
The Royal George. 1746.Fig. 55.—TheRoyal George. 1746.
Fig. 55.—TheRoyal George. 1746.
The following table gives the dimensions of typical ships of war constructed about the middle of the eighteenth century:—
The genuine frigate—that is to say, a large cruiser, of relatively high speed, carrying its main armament on one deck—was introduced into the Royal Navy in 1741, when theAdventurewas built. She carried thirty-two guns, of which twenty-two were 12-pounders. The first British 36-gun frigates were theBrilliantandPallas, built in 1757. Their main armament also consisted of 12-pounders. French frigates of the same date were of larger dimensions, as is proved by the following table which compares the principal measurements of theBrilliantand of the French frigateAurore:—
In the year 1761 a most important improvement was introduced, which greatly increased the usefulness of ships. This was the discovery of the value of copper plates as a material for sheathing their bottoms. Previously to this period lead was the metal used for sheathing purposes, and even it was only employed occasionally. In other cases the bottoms of vessels were paid over with various compositions, the majority of which fouled rapidly. The first vessel in the navy that was copper-sheathed was theAlarm, a 32-gun frigate. At firstthe use of copper caused serious oxidation of the iron bolts employed in the bottom fastenings, and copper bolts were substituted for them.
About the year 1788 the dimensions of the various rates were again increased in order to keep pace with the improved French and Spanish ships. In the year 1780 the 38-gun frigate founded on a French model was introduced into the navy, and continued to be much used throughout the great wars at the close of the eighteenth and the commencement of the nineteenth century. The first British frigate of this rating was theMinerva, which measured 141 ft. in length of gun-deck; 38 ft. 10 in. width of beam; 13 ft. 9 in. depth of hold, and 940 tons—figures which were evidently based on those of theAurore, captured in 1758 (see p.128). In 1781 and 1782 two very large French frigates were captured. Their names were theArtoisandAigle, and they exceeded in size anything in this class that had yet been built. The length of gun-deck measured 158 ft.; width, 40 ft. 4 in.; depth of hold, 13 ft. 6 in.; tonnage, 1,152; they each carried 42 guns and 280 men.
Again, in 1790, the force of new ships of the various rates was much increased. The largest line-of-battle ship then built was theHibernia, of 110 guns. She was the first of her class introduced into the navy. Her dimensions were as follows:—Length on gun-deck, 201 ft. 2 in.; extreme breadth, 53 ft. 1 in.; depth of hold, 22 ft. 4 in.; burthen in tons, 2,508. The armament consisted of thirty 32-pounders on the lower deck, thirty 24-pounders on the middle, and thirty-two 18-pounders on the upper decks, while eighteen 12-pounders were mounted on the forecastle and quarter-deck. It is worthy of remark that, for some time previously, the large line-of-battle ships carried 42-pounders on the lower deck, but it was found that the 32-pounders could be loaded much more quickly, and that a great advantage arose in consequence.
The Commerce de Marseille. Captured 1792. 1746.Fig. 56.—TheCommerce de Marseille. Captured 1792.
Fig. 56.—TheCommerce de Marseille. Captured 1792.
In the year 1792 the first 40-gun frigate, theAcasta, was built. This type of vessel was intended to replace the old 44-gun two-decker. TheAcastameasured 150 ft. on deck; 40 ft. 9½ in. extreme breadth; 14 ft. 3 in. depth of hold; with a burthen of 1,142 tons. Her armament consisted of thirty 18-pounders on the main deck, and ten 9-pounder long guns on quarter-deck and forecastle.
British first-rate. 1794.Fig. 57.—British first-rate. 1794.
Fig. 57.—British first-rate. 1794.
During the whole of our naval history down to comparatively recent times, improvements in the dimensions and forms of our ships were only carried out after they had been originally adopted by the French, or Spaniards, or more recently by the people of the United States of America. Thus, we find that, shortly after war had been declared against the French Revolutionary Government in 1792, Admiral Hood took possession at Toulon, amongst other vessels, of a French first-rate called theCommerce de Marseille, which was larger and mounted more guns than any vessel in the service of Great Britain. Fig.56is an illustration of this fine man-of-war, which was 208 ft. 4 in. long on the lower deck, 54 ft. 9½ in. broad, of 25 ft. depth of hold, and of 2,747 tons burthen. As an instance of the progress in size, as related to armament, made during the century, we may compare the dimensions of this French first-rate with those of theRoyal Anne, an English 100-gun ship built in 1706. The length of gun-deck of the latter ship was 171 ft. 9 in., and tonnage 1,809, the more recent vessel showing an increase of nearly fifty per cent. in tonnage for an increased armament of twenty guns.
As further examples of the naval architecture of this period, in Figs. 57 and 58 are given views of an English first-rate of the year 1794, and in Figs. 59 and 60 corresponding views of a heavy French frigate of about the year 1780.
One of the greatest improvements made at the end of the eighteenth century was the raising of the lower batteryfurther above the water, so as to enable the heavy guns to be fought in all weathers. It was frequently observed that the old British men-of-war of seventy-four guns when engaging a hostile vessel to leeward were, on account of the crankness of the ship and the lowness of the battery, obliged to keep their lower ports closed; whereas the French ships, which were comparatively stiff, and carried their lower guns well above the water, were enabled to fight with the whole of their battery in all weathers.
British first-rate. 1794.Fig. 58.—British first-rate. 1794.
Fig. 58.—British first-rate. 1794.
After the capture of theCommerce de Marseille, an English first-rate, named theCaledonia, to carry 120 guns, was ordered to be laid down. She was not, however, commenced till 1805. Her dimensions and proportions closely approximated to those of her French prototype, and need not, therefore, be more particularly referred to. She was the first 120-gun ship built in this country.
Heavy French frigate of 1780.Fig. 59.—Heavy French frigate of 1780.
Fig. 59.—Heavy French frigate of 1780.
In the year 1812 the United States declared war against Great Britain. The struggle was memorable for several naval duels between the frigates of the two nations. When the war broke out the United States possessed some frigates of unusual dimensions and armament. The British cruisers were quite overmatched, and in severalinstances were captured. In consequence of these disasters a new and improved class of frigate was introduced into the Royal Navy. What had happened in the case of the frigates took place also in regard to the sloops employed as cruisers. They were completely outmatched by the American vessels of corresponding class, and many of them were taken.
Heavy French frigate of 1780.Fig. 60.—Heavy French frigate of 1780.
Fig. 60.—Heavy French frigate of 1780.
In 1815, on the conclusion of the long wars with France, there was, of course, a marked diminution in the number of ships built for purposes of war. TheHowe, of 120 guns (Fig.61), is given as an illustration of a first-rate of this period.
During the earlier years of the present century great improvements were introduced by Sir Robert Seppings and others into the structural arrangements of ships. During the long wars abundant experience had been gained as to the particular kinds of weakness which ships exhibited when exposed to the strains produced by waves. It had been felt for many years that the system of building was very defective, and the life of a man-of-war was consequently short, only fifteen years for a ship built of English oak in the Royal dockyards, and about twelve years for similar vessels built in private yards. Amongst the greatest defects was the absence of longitudinal strength to enable a ship to resist the effects of hogging and sagging strains in a sea-way.
The Howe. 1815. 1746.Fig. 61.—TheHowe. 1815.
Fig. 61.—TheHowe. 1815.
When a ship at sea is so placed that the crest of a large waveis passing about the midship section, the two ends may happen to be in the hollows between the waves, and in this case are to a great extent unsupported by the water, and consequently have a tendency to droop. The result is that the ship tends to arch up in the centre like a hog's back, and the upper decks are put into a state of tension, while the bottom of the vessel, on the contrary, undergoes compression. The strains set up in this way are called hogging strains. When the position of the waves is exactly reversed so that the two ends are supported by the crests, while the hollow between them passes under the middle, the latter part of the ship has a tendency to droop or sag, and the bottom is consequently extended, while the upper works are put into a state of compression.
It will be noticed, on referring to the illustration of theRoyal George(Fig.55), that the framework of ships built on the old system consisted of a series of transverse ribs which were connected together in the longitudinal direction by the outside planking and by the ceiling. As there was no filling between the ribs, the latter tended alternately to come closer together, or recede further apart, according as they experienced the influence of hogging or sagging stresses. The French during the eighteenth century had at various times proposed methods of overcoming this defect. One was to cross the ceiling with oblique iron riders. Another was to lay the ceiling itself and the outside planking diagonally. Sometimes the holds were strengthened with vertical and sometimes with diagonal riders, but none of these plans gave lasting satisfaction.
The means adopted by Sir Robert Seppings were as follows:—
Firstly, the spaces between the frames were filled in solid with timber (Fig.62). In this way the bottom of the ship was transformed into a solid mass of timber admirably adapted to resist working. At the same time the customary interior planking below the orlop beams was omitted.
Sir Robert Seppings' system of construction.Fig. 62.—Sir Robert Seppings' system of construction.
Fig. 62.—Sir Robert Seppings' system of construction.
Secondly, the beams were connected with the sides of the ship by means of thick longitudinal timbers below the knees running fore and aft, called shelf-pieces,a,a(Fig.63), and similar pieces above the beams,b,b(Fig.63), called waterways. These not only added to the longitudinal strength of the ship, but formed also very convenient features in the connection between the deck-beams and the ship's sides.
Sir Robert Seppings' system of construction.Fig. 63.—Sir Robert Seppings' system of construction.
Fig. 63.—Sir Robert Seppings' system of construction.
Thirdly, a trussed frame was laid on the inside of the transverse frames in the hold of the ship. This frame consisted of diagonal riders making an angle of about 45° with the vertical, together with trusses crossing them, and longitudinal pieces, as shown in Fig.62. This trussed frame was firmly bolted through the transverse frames and the planking of the ship.
Fourthly, it was proposed to lay the decks diagonally; but this system does not appear to have ever come into general use.
It should here be mentioned that the use of shelf-pieces and thick waterways in connection with the ends of the beams was first adopted by the French in very small vessels; also thesystem of fillings between the frames was an extension of a method which had been in use for some time, for it was customary to fill in the spaces as far as the heads of the floors, in order to strengthen the ship's bottom against the shocks and strains due to grounding.
Sir Robert Seppings' system of construction.Fig. 64.—Sir Robert Seppings' system of construction.
Fig. 64.—Sir Robert Seppings' system of construction.
Sir Robert Seppings further introduced many minor improvements into the details of the construction and the forms of ships. Amongst these may be mentioned the method of combining the frame-timbers. The old method of shaping the heads and heels of these timbers and of combining them with triangular chocks is shown on the left-hand side of Fig.64. In the new method the heads and heels were cut square, and combined with circular coaks, as shown on the right-hand side in the same Fig.
The Waterloo.Fig. 65.—TheWaterloo.
Fig. 65.—TheWaterloo.
The principal alterations in the forms of ships introduced by Sir Robert Seppings, were connected with the shapes of the bow and stern. Hitherto the bow was cut straight across at the cathead, so as to form a vertical wall extending down to the level of the upper deck portsills, and formed of thin boarding and stanchions. The old shape of the bow is clearly shown in Figs. 52 and 55. The disadvantage of this arrangement was that it exposed the ship to the raking fire of an enemy. The old form of bow was also deficient in structural strength, and was liable to cause leakage. Sir Robert Seppings carried the rounding of the bow right up to the upper deck, and made it as strong as any other part of the ship to resist either shot or stresses. This alteration also enabled him to provide for firing several guns in a line with the keel. The old square stern was also abolished and a circular one introduced, which enabled a more powerful battery to be carried aft.
In order to bring up the account of British sailing line-of-battle ships to the period when they were superseded by the adoption of steam-power in the Royal Navy, we give illustrations of a first-rate launched in the reign of William IV., called theWaterloo(Fig.65), of 120 guns, and of theQueen(Fig.66), of 110 guns: the latter was the first three-decker launched in the reign of Queen Victoria. A comparison of these illustrations with those representing the largest men-of-war in the time of the Stuart sovereigns, will do more than any verbal description to show the great alterations in form and size which had taken place during two centuries. TheWaterloohad a length on deck of 205 ft. 6 in., extreme breadth of 54 ft. 9 in., and a tonnage of 2,718; while the corresponding dimensions of theQueenwere 204 ft. 2½ in., 55 ft. 2½ in., and 3,104 tons.
The Queen.Fig. 66.—TheQueen.
Fig. 66.—TheQueen.
The Thames. East Indiaman. 1819.Fig. 67.—TheThames. East Indiaman. 1819.
Fig. 67.—TheThames. East Indiaman. 1819.
During the epoch covered in this chapter the chronicles of the British Mercantile Marine were extremely meagre. The seaborne commerce of the country had increased enormously since the time of the Restoration. It had, in fact, kept pace with the development of the Royal Navy, and, in proportionas the naval power of the country was increased so was her commerce extended and her Mercantile Marine increased. In the year 1801 the total amount of British Mercantile shipping was about 1,726,000 tons; in 1811 it had increased to 2,163,094 tons, and in 1816 to 2,489,068; while in 1846 it had reached 3,220,685 tons. The East India Company was by far the largest mercantile shipowner and ship-hirer in the country. In the year 1772 the Company employed 33 ships of the aggregate burthen of 23,159 tons, builders' measurement. It was about this period that the Company commenced the construction of a larger type of vessel for their own use. These vessels afterwards became famous for their exploits, and were called East Indiamen. Fig.67is an illustration of one of them named theThames, built in 1819, of 1,360 tons register. She carried 26 guns, and had a crew of 130 men.
The Thames. East Indiaman. 1819.Fig. 68.
Fig. 68.
East Indiamen were designed to serve simultaneously as freight-carriers, passenger-ships and men-of-war. In the latter capacity they fought many important actions and won many victories. Having had to fill so many purposes, they were naturally expensive ships both to build and work. Their crews were nearly four times as numerous as would be required for modern merchant sailing-ships of similar size.
At the close of the great wars in the early part of this century commercial pursuits naturally received a strong impetus. Great competition arose, not only between individual owners, but also between the shipowning classes in various countries. This caused considerable attention to be paid to the improvement of merchant-ships. The objects sought to be attained were greater economy in the working of vessels and increased speed combined with cargo-carrying capacity. The trade with the West Indies was not the subject of a monopoly as that with the East had been. It was consequently the subject of free competition amongst shipowners, and the naturalresult was the development of a class of vessel much better adapted to purely mercantile operations than were the ships owned or chartered by the East India Company. Fig.68is a late example of a West Indiaman, of the type common shortly after the commencement of the nineteenth century. The capacity for cargo of ships of this type was considerably in excess of their nominal tonnage, whereas in the case of the East Indiamen the reverse was the case. Also, the proportion of crew to tonnage was one-half of what was found necessary in the latter type of vessel. While possessing the above-named advantages, the West Indiamen were good boats for their time, both in sea-going qualities and in speed.
When the trade with the East was thrown open an impetus was given to the construction of vessels which were suitable for carrying freight to any part of the world. These boats were known as "Free Traders." An illustration of one of them is given in Fig.69. They were generally from 350 to 700 tons register. The vessels of all the types above referred to were very short, relatively, being rarely more than four beams in length.
To the Americans belongs the credit of having effected the greatest improvements in mercantile sailing-ships. In their celebrated Baltimore clippers they increased the length to five and even six times the beam, and thus secured greater sharpness of the water-lines and improved speed in sailing. At the same time, in order to reduce the cost of working, these vessels were lightly rigged in proportion to their tonnage, and mechanical devices, such as capstans and winches, were substituted, wherever it was possible, for manual labour. The crew, including officers, of an American clipper of 1,450 tons, English measurement, numbered about forty.
The part played by the Americans in the carrying trade of the world during the period between the close of the greatwars and the early fifties was so important that a few illustrations of the types of vessels they employed will be interesting. Fig.70represents an American cotton-ship, which also carried passengers on the route between New York and Havre in the year 1832. In form she was full and bluff; in fact, little more than a box with rounded ends.
Free-trade barque.Fig. 69.—Free-trade barque.
Fig. 69.—Free-trade barque.
The Bazaar. American cotton-ship. 1832.Fig. 70.—TheBazaar. American cotton-ship. 1832.
Fig. 70.—TheBazaar. American cotton-ship. 1832.
In 1840, when steamers had already commenced to cross the Atlantic, a much faster and better-shaped type of sailing-packet was put upon the New York-Havre route. These vessels were of from 800 to 1,000 tons. One of them, theSir John Franklin, is shown in Fig.71. They offered topassengers the advantages of a quick passage, excellent sea=going qualities, and, compared with the cotton-ships, most comfortable quarters. The Americans had also about this time admirable sailing-packets trading with British ports.
In the early fifties the doom of the sailing-packet on comparatively short voyages, such as that between New York and Western European ports, had been already sealed; but, for distant countries, such as China and Australia, and for cargo-carrying purposes in many trades, the sailing-ship was still able to hold its own. Fig.72represents an American three-masted clipper called theOcean Herald, built in the year 1855. She was 245 ft. long, 45 ft. in beam, and of 2,135 tons. Her ratio of length to breadth was 5.45 to 1.
Fig.73is an illustration of theGreat Republic, which was one of the finest of the American clippers owned by Messrs. A. Law and Co., of New York. She was 305 ft. long, 53 ft. beam, 30 ft. depth of hold, and of 3,400 tons. She was the first vessel fitted with double topsails. Her spread of canvas, without counting stay-sails, amounted to about 4,500 square yards. She had four decks, and her timber structure was strengthened from end to end with a diagonal lattice-work of iron.
The Sir John Franklin. American Transatlantic sailing-packet. 1840.Fig. 71.—TheSir John Franklin. American Transatlantic sailing-packet. 1840.
Fig. 71.—TheSir John Franklin. American Transatlantic sailing-packet. 1840.
The Ocean Herald. American clipper. 1855.Fig. 72.—TheOcean Herald. American clipper. 1855.
Fig. 72.—TheOcean Herald. American clipper. 1855.
The speed attained by some of these vessels was most remarkable. In 1851 theNightingale, built at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in a race from Shanghai to Deal, on one occasion ran 336 knots in twenty-four hours. In the same year theFlying Cloud, one of Donald McKay's American clippers, ran 427 knots in twenty-four hours in a voyage from New York to San Francisco. This performance was eclipsed by that of another vessel belonging to the same owner, theSovereign of the Seas, which on one occasion averaged over eighteen miles an hour for twenty-four consecutive hours. This vessel had a length of keel of 245 ft., 44 ft. 6 in.beam, and 25 ft. 6 in. depth of hold. She was of 2,421 tons register.
English shipowners were very slow to adopt these improvements, and it was not till the year 1850, after the abolition of the navigation laws, that our countrymen really bestirred themselves to produce sailing-ships which should rival and even surpass those of the Americans. The legislation in question so affected the prospects of British shipping, that nothing but the closest attention to the qualities of vessels and to economy in their navigation could save our carrying trade from the effects of American competition. Mr. Richard Green, of the Blackwall Line, was the first English shipbuilder to take up the American challenge. In the year 1850 he laid down the clipper ship theChallenger. About the same time, Messrs. Jardine, Matheson, and Co. gave an order to an Aberdeen firm of shipbuilders, Messrs. Hall and Co., to build two sharp ships on the American model, but of stronger construction. These vessels were named theStornowayandChrysolite, and were the first of the celebrated class of Aberdeen clippers. They were, however, only about half the dimensions of the larger American ships, and were, naturally, no match for them in sailing powers. TheCairngorm, built by the same firm, was the first vessel which equalled the Americans in speed, and, being of a stronger build, delivered her cargo in better condition, and consequently was preferred. In 1856 theLord of the Isles, built by Messrs. Scott, of Greenock, beat two of the fastest American clippers in a race to this country from China, and from that time forward British merchant vessels gradually regained their ascendency in a trade which our transatlantic competitors had almost made their own.