dēad,dead.eall,all.hāl,1whole,hale.heard,hard.ðæt hors,horse.lēof,dear[as lief].lȳtel,little.micel,great,large.mǫnig,many.niman,to take[nimble, numb].nīwe,new.rīce,rich,powerful.sōð,true[sooth-sayer].stælwierðe,2serviceable[stalwart].swīðe,very.sē tūn,town,village.sē ðegn,servant,thane,warrior.ðæt ðing,thing.sē weg,way.wīs,wise.wið(with acc.),against, in a hostile sense [with-stand].sē ilca,the same[of that ilk].87.Exercises.I. 1. Ðās scipu ne sind swīðe swift, ac hīe sind swīðe stælwierðu. 2. Sēo gōde cwēn giefð ǣlcum ðegne mǫniga giefa. 3. Ðēs wīsa cyning hæfð mǫnige micele tūnas on his rīce. 4. Nǣnig mǫn is wīs on eallum ðingum. 5. Ðȳ ilcan dæge (§98, (2)) mǫn fǫnd (found) ðone ðegn ðe mīnes wines bēc hæfde. 6. Ealle ðā sęcgas ðā ðe swift hors habbað rīdað wið ðone bǫnan. 7. Ðīne fīend sind mīnefrīend. 8. Sē micela stān ðone ðe ic on mīnum hǫndum hæbbe is swīðe heard. 9. Hīe scęððað ðǣm ealdum horsum. 10. Uton niman ðās tilan giefa ǫnd hīe beran tō ūrum lēofum bearnum.II. 1. These holy men are wise and good. 2. Are the little children very dear to the servants (dat. withouttō)? 3. Gifts are not given (§70, Note 1) to rich men. 4. All the horses that are in the king’s fields are swift. 5. These stones are very large and hard. 6. He takes the dead man’s spear and fights against the large army. 7. This new house has many doors. 8. My ways are not your ways. 9. Whosoever chooses me, him I also (ēac) choose. 10. Every man has many friends that are not wise.1.Hālig,holy, contains, of course, the same root. “I find,” says Carlyle, “that you could not get any better definition of what ‘holy’ really is than ‘healthy—completely healthy.’”2.This word has been much discussed. The older etymologists explained it as meaningworth stealing. A more improbable conjecture is that it meansworth a stallorplace. It is used of ships in theAnglo-Saxon Chronicle. As applied to men, Skeat thinks it meantgoodorworthy at stealing; but the etymology is still unsettled.----CHAPTER XV.Numerals.88.Numerals are either (a) Cardinal, expressing pure number,one,two,three; or (b) Ordinal, expressing rank or succession,first,second,third.(a) Cardinals.89.The Cardinals fall into the three following syntactic groups:Group I.1. ān2. twēgen [twain]3. ðrīeThese numerals are inflected adjectives.Ān,one,an,a, being a long stemmed monosyllable, is declined likegōd(§80). The weak form,āna, meansalone.Twēgenandðrīe, which have no singular, are thus declined:Masc.Fem.Neut.Masc.Fem.Neut.Plur. N.A.twēgentwātwā (tū)ðrīeðrēoðrēoG.twēgratwēgratwēgraðrēoraðrēoraðrēoraD.{twǣm(twām)twǣm(twām)twǣm(twām)ðrīmðrīmðrīm90.Group II.4.fēower5.fīf6.siex7.seofon8.eahta9.nigon10.tīen11.ęndlefan12.twęlf13.ðrēotīene14.fēowertīene15.fīftīene16.siextīene17.seofontīene18.eahtatīene19.nigontīeneThese words are used chiefly as uninflected adjectives:on gewitscipe ðrēora oþþe fēower bisceopa,on testimony of three or four bishops;on siex dagum,in six days;ān nǣdre ðe hæfde nigon hēafdu,a serpent which had nine heads;æðeling eahtatīene wintra,a prince of eighteen winters.91.Group III.20.twēntig21.ān ǫnd twēntig30.ðrītig40.fēowertig50.fīftig60.siextig70.hundseofontig80.hundeahtatig90.hundnigontig100.hund200.twā hund1000.ðūsend2000.twā ðūsendAll these numbers are employed as neuter singular nouns, and are followed by the genitive plural:Næfde hē þēah mā ðonne twēntig hrȳðera, and twēntig scēapa, andtwēntig swȳna,He did not have, however, more than twenty(of)cattle, and twenty(of)sheep, and twenty(of)swine;Hīe hæfdon hundeahtatig scipa,They had eighty ships;twā hund mīla brād,two hundred miles broad;ðǣr wǣron seofon hund gūðfanena genumen,there were seven hundred standards captured;ān ðūsend mǫnna,a thousand men;Hannibales folces wæs twā ðūsend ofslagen,Of Hannibal’s men there were two thousand slain;Hīe ācuron ęndlefan ðūsend mǫnna,They chose eleven thousand men.Note 1.—Group III is rarely inflected. Almost the only inflectional endings that are added are (1)-es, a genitive singular termination for the numerals in-tig, and (2)-e, a dative singular forhund. (1) The first is confined to adjectives expressing extent of space or time, as,eald,old;brād,broad;hēah,high; andlǫng,long:ðæt is ðrītiges mīla lǫng,that is thirty miles long;Hē wæs ðrītiges gēara eald,He was thirty years old. (2) The second is employed aftermid:mid twǣm hunde scipa,with two hundred ships;mid ðrīm hunde mǫnna,with three hundred men;Ðǣr wearð ... Regulus gefangen mid V hunde mǫnna,There was Regulus captured with five hundred men.The statement made in nearly all the grammars thathundeoccurs as a nominative and accusative plural is without foundation.Note 2.—Many numerals, otherwise indeclinable, are used in the genitive plural with the indefinite pronounsum, which then meansone ofa certain number. In this peculiar construction, the numeral always precedessum:fēowera sum,one of four(=with three others);Hē sǣde þæt hē syxa sum ofslōge syxtig,He said that he, with five others, slew sixty(whales);Hē wæs fēowertigra sum,He was one of forty.Note 3.—These are the most common constructions with the Cardinals. The forms in-tighave only recently been investigated. A study of Wülfing’s citations shows that Alfred occasionally uses the forms in-tig(1) as adjectives with plural inflections:mid XXXgum cyningum,with thirty kings; and (2) as nouns with plural inflections:æfter siextigum daga,after sixty days. But both constructions are rare.(b) Ordinals.92.The Ordinals, except the first two, are formed from the Cardinals. They are:1.forma, ǣresta, fyrsta2.ōðer, æfterra3.ðridda4.fēorða5.fīfta6.siexta7.seofoða8.eahtoða9.nigoða10.tēoða11.ęndlefta12.twęlfta13.ðrēotēoða14.fēowertēoða15.fīftēoðaetc.20.twēntigoða21.ān ǫnd twēntigoða30.ðrītigoðaetc.Note.—There are no Ordinals corresponding tohundandðūsend.With the exception ofōðer(§77), all the Ordinals are declined as Weak Adjectives; the article, however, as in Mn.E., is frequently omitted:Brūtus wæs sē forma consul,Brutus was the first consul;Hēr ęndað sēo ǣreste bōc, ǫnd onginneð sēo ōðer,Here the first book ends, and the second begins;ðȳ fīftan dæge,on the fifth day;on ðǣm tēoðan gēare hiera gewinnes,in the tenth year of their strife;Hēo wæs twęlfte,She was twelfth;Sē wæs fēorða frǫm Agusto,He was fourth from Augustus.----CHAPTER XVI.Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions.Adverbs.93.(1) Adverbs are formed by adding-eor-līceto the corresponding adjectives:sōð,true;sōðeorsōðlīce,truly;earmlīc,wretched;earmlīce,wretchedly;wīd,wide;wīde,widely;micel,great;micle(micele),greatly,much.(2) The terminations-eand-līceare replaced in some adverbs by-(l)ungaor-(l)inga:eallunga,entirely;fǣringa,suddenly;grundlunga,from the ground,completely.Note 1.—In Mn.E.headlong,darkling, andgroveling, originally adverbs, we have survivals of these endings.(3) The genitive case is frequently used adverbially:sūðeweardes,southwards;ealles,altogether,entirely;dæges,by day;nihtes,by night;ðæs,from that time,afterwards.Cf.hys(=his)wegesinÐonne rīdeð ǣlc hys weges,Then rides each his way.Note 2.—The adverbial genitive is abundantly preserved in Mn.E.Always,crossways,sideways,needs(=necessarily),sometimes, etc., are not plurals, but old genitive singulars. The same construction is seen inof course,of a truth,of an evening,of old,of late, and similar phrases.(4) Dative and instrumental plurals may be used as adverbs:hwīlum,at times,sometimes[whilom];stundum(stund=period),from time to time;miclum,greatly. Especially common is the suffix-mǣlum(mǣl=time,measure[meal]), preserved adverbially in Mn.E.piecemeal:dropmǣlum,drop by drop;styccemǣlum(stycce=piece),piecemeal,here and there.(5) The suffix-anusually denotes motion from:hēr,here.hider,hither.heonan,hence.ðǣr,there.ðider,thither.ðǫnan,thence.hwǣr,where?hwider,whither?hwǫnan,whence?norðan,from the north.ēastan,from the east.hindan,from behind.feorran,from far.ūtan,from without.(6) The adverbrihte(riht=right,straight) denotesmotion towardinnorðrihte,northward,due north;ēastrihte,due east;sūðrihte,due south;westrihte,due west.Prepositions.94.The nominative is the only case in O.E. that is never governed by a preposition. Of the other cases, the dative and accusative occur most frequently with prepositions.(1) The prepositions that are most frequently found with the dative are:æfter,after.ǣt,at.be(bī),by,near,about.betwēonan(betuh),between.būtan(būton),except.for,for.frǫm(fram),from,by.mid,with.of,of,from.tō,to.tōforan,before.tōweard,toward.(2) The following prepositions require the accusative:geond,throughout[be-yond].ofer,over,upon.oð,until,up to.ðurh,through.ymbe,about,around[um-while, ember-days].(3) The prepositionon(rarelyin), meaninginto, is usually followed by the accusative; but meaningin,on, orduring, it takes the dative or instrumental. The prepositionwið, meaningtoward, may be followed by the genitive, dative, or accusative; but meaningagainst, and implyingmotionorhostility, the accusative is more common.(4) The following phrases are used prepositionally with the dative:be norðan,north of.be ēastan,east of.be sūðan,south of.be westan,west of.tō ēacan,in addition to.on emnlange(efn-lang=evenly long),along.tō emnes,along.(5) Prepositions regularly precede the noun or pronoun that they introduce; but by their adverbial nature they are sometimes drawn in front of the verb:And him wæs mycel męnegu tō gegaderod,And there was gathered unto him a great multitude. In relative clauses introduced byðe, the preceding position is very common:sēo scīr ... ðe hē on būde,the district, ... which he dwelt in(=which he in-habited);Hē wæs swȳðe spēdig man on ðǣm ǣhtum ðe hiera spēda on bēoð,He was a very rich man in those possessions which their riches consist in;nȳhst ðǣm tūne ðe sē dēada man on līð,nearest the town that the dead man lies in.Conjunctions.95.(1) The most frequently occurring conjunctions are:ac,but.ǣr,before,ere.būtan(būton),except that,unless.ēac,also[eke].for ðǣm,}because.for ðǣm ðe,for ðon,for ðon ðe,for ðȳ,therefore.gif,if.hwæðer,whether.ǫnd(and),and.oððe,or.ðæt,that,so that.ðēah,though,however.(2) The correlative conjunctions are:ǣgðer ge. . . .ge,both. . . . . . . .and.ǣgðer. . . . . . .oððe. . . . . . . .ōðeroððe}either. . . . . . .or.nē. . . . . . . . . .nē,neither. . . . .nor.sam. . . . . . . . .sam,whether. . . .or.swā. . . . . . . . .swā{the . . . . . . . . .as. . . . . . . . . .the.as.ðā . . . . . . . . . . .ðonne. . . . . . .ðāðonne{when. . . . . . .then.----CHAPTER XVII.Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs.Adjectives.96.(1) Adjectives are regularly compared by adding-rafor the comparative, and-ost(rarely-est) for the superlative:Positive.Comparative.Superlative.earm,poorearmraearmostrīce,richrīcrarīcostsmæl,narrowsmælrasmalostbrād,broadbrādra(brǣdra)brādostswift,swiftswiftraswiftost(2) Forms withi-umlaut usually have superlative in-est:Positive.Comparative.Superlative.eald,oldieldraieldestlǫng,longlęngralęngeststrǫng,strongstręngrastręngestgeong,younggiengragiengesthēah,highhīerrahīehst(3) The following adjectives are compared irregularly:Positive.Comparative.Superlative.gōd,goodbętrabętstlȳtel,little,smalllǣssalǣstmicel,great,muchmāramǣstyfel,badwiersawierst(4) The positive is sometimes supplied by an adverb:Positive.Comparative.Superlative.feor,farfierrafierrestnēah,nearnēarranīehstǣr,beforeǣrra,formerǣrest,first(5) The comparatives all follow the Weak Declension. The superlatives, when preceded by the definite article, are weak; but when used predicatively they are frequently strong:sē lǣsta dǣl,the least part;Ðonne cymeð sē man sē ðæt swiftoste hors hafað tō ðǣm ǣrestan dǣle and tō ðǣm mǣstan,Then comes the man that has the swiftest horse to the first part and to the largest. But,ðæt bȳne land is ēasteweard brādost(notbrādoste),the cultivated land is broadest eastward;and(hit)bið ealra wyrta mǣst,and it is largest of all herbs;Ac hyra(=hiera)ār is mǣst on ðǣm gafole ðe ðā Finnas him gyldað,But their income is greatest in the tribute that the Fins pay them.(6) The comparative is usually followed byðonneand the nominative case:Sē hwæl bið micle lǣssa ðonne ōðre hwalas,That whale is much smaller than other whales;Ðā wunda ðæs mōdes bēoð dīgelran ðonne ðā wunda ðæs līchaman.The wounds of the mind are more secret than the wounds of the body.But whenðonneis omitted, the comparative is followed by the dative:Ūre Ālīesend, ðe māra is ǫndmǣrra eallum gesceaftum,Our Redeemer, who is greater and more glorious than all created things;nē ongeat hē nō hiene selfne bętran ōðrum gōdum mǫnnum,nor did he consider himself better than other good men.Adverbs.97.(1) Adverbs are regularly compared by adding-orfor the comparative and-ost(rarely-est) for the superlative:Positive.Comparative.Superlative.georne,willinglygeornorgeornostswīðe,very,severelyswīðor,moreswīðost,most,chieflyǣr,beforeǣror,formerlyǣrest,firstnorð,northwardsnorðornorðmest1(2) The comparatives of a few adverbs may be found by dropping-raof the corresponding adjective form:Positive.Comparative.Superlative.lǫnge,longlęnglęngestmicle,muchmāmǣstwel,wellbętbętstExpressions of Time.98.(1) Duration of time and extent of space are usually expressed by the accusative case:Ealle ðā hwīle ðe ðæt līc bið inne,All the time that the body is within;twēgen dagas,for two days;ealne weg,all the way,always.(2) Time when is more often expressed by the instrumental case when no preposition is used:ðȳ ilcan dæge,the same day;ǣlce gēare,each year;ðȳ gēare,that year;ǣlce dæge,each day.(3) Time or space within which is expressed byonand the dative:on sumera,in summer;on wintra,in winter;on fīf dagum,in five days;on fīf mīlum,in five miles;on ðissum gēare,in this year;on ðǣm tīman,in those times. Sometimes by the genitive without a preceding preposition:ðǣs gēares,in that year.99.Vocabulary.ðæt gefylce[folc],troop,division.ðæt lǫnd(land),land.sēo mīl,mile.ōðer ... ōðer,the one ... the other;the former ... the latter.sē sige,victory.sige2habban,to win(the)victory.sprecan,to speak.ðæt swīn(swȳn),swine,hog.wēste,waste.100.Exercises.I. 1. Hē hæfð ðrēo swīðe swift hors. 2. Ic hæbbe nigontīene scēap ǫnd mā ðonne twēntig swīna. 3. Sēo gōde cwēn cīest twā hund mǫnna. 4. Uton feohtan wið ðā Dęne mid ðrīm hunde scipa. 5. Ǫnd hīe wǣron on twǣm gefylcum: on ōðrum wæs3Bāchsęcg ǫnd Halfdęne ðā hǣðnan cyningas, ǫnd on ōðrum wǣron ðā eorlas. 6. Ðū spricst sōðlīce. 7. Ðonne rīt ǣlc mǫn his weges. 8. Æfter mǫnigum dagum, hæfde Ælfred cyning4sige. 9. Ðis lǫnd is wēste styccemǣlum. 10. Ðēs feld is fīftiges mīla brād.11. Ælfred cyning hæfde mǫnige frīend, for ðǣm ðe hē wæs ǣgðer ge wīs ge gōd. 12. Ðā hwalas, ðe ðū ymbe spricst, sind micle lǣssan ōðrum hwalum. 13. Hēo is ieldre ðonne hiere swuster, ac mīn brōðor is ieldra ðonne hēo. 14. Wē cumað tō ðǣm tūne ǣlce gēare. 15. Ðā męn ðe ðā swiftostan hors hǣfdon wǣron mid ðǣm Dęnum fēower dagas.II. 1. Our army (werod) was in two divisions: one was large, the other was small. 2. The richest men in the kingdom have more (mā) than thirty ships. 3. He was much wiser than his brother. 4. He fights against the Northumbrians with two ships. 5. After three years King Alfred gained the victory. 6. Whosoever chooses these gifts, chooses well. 7. This man’s son is both wiser and better than his father. 8. When the king rides, then ride his thanes also. 9. The richest men are not always (ā) the wisest men.1.This is really a double superlative,mbeing itself an old superlative suffix.Cf.Latinopti-m-us. In Mn.E.northmostandhindmost,-m-esthas been confused with-most, with which etymologically it has nothing to do.2.Sigeusually, but not invariably, precedeshabban.3.See p. 100,note ongefeaht.4.The proper noun comes first in appositive expressions:Ælfred cyning,Sidroc eorl,Hēahmund bisceop.----CHAPTER XVIII.Strong Verbs: Class I. (See§17.)Syntax of Moods.101.Of the three hundred simple verbs belonging to the O.E. Strong Conjugation, it is estimated1that seventy-eight have preserved their strong inflections in Mn.E., that eighty-eight have become weak, and that the remaining one hundred and thirty-four have entirely disappeared, their places being taken in most cases by verbs of Latin origin introduced through the Norman-French.Note.—Only the simple or primitive verbs, not the compound forms, are here taken into consideration. The proportionate loss, therefore, is really much greater. O.E. abounded in formative prefixes. “Thus from the Anglo-Saxonflōwan,to flow, ten new compounds were formed by the addition of various prefixes, of which ten, only one,oferflōwan,to overflow, survives with us. In a similar manner, from the verbsittan,to sit, thirteen new verbs were formed, of which not a single one is to be found to-day.” Lounsbury,ib.Part I, p. 107.102.Class I: The “Drive” Conjugation.Vowel Succession:ī,ā,i,i.Infinitive.Preterit Sing.Preterit Plur.Past Part.Drīf-andrāfdrif-ongedrif-en,to drive.Indicative.Subjunctive.Present.Present.Sing.1.Ic drīf-eSing.1.Ic}drīf-e2.ðū drīf-st (drīf-est)2.ðū3.hē drīf-ð (drīf-eð)3.hēPlur.1.wē}(drīf-að)Plur.1.wē}drīf-en2.gē2.gē3.hīe3.hīePreterit.Preterit.Sing.1.Ic drāfSing.1.Ic}drif-e2.ðū drif-e2.ðū3.hē drāf3.hēPlur.1.wē}drif-onPlur.1.wē}drif-en2.gē2.gē3.hīe3.hīeImperative.Infinitive.Present Participle.Sing.2.drīfdrīf-andrīf-endePlur.1.drīf-an2.drīf-aðGerund.Past Participle.tō drīf-anne (-enne)gedrif-enTense Formation of Strong Verbs.103.(1) It will be seen from the conjugation ofdrīfanthat thepresent stemin all strong verbs is used throughout the present indicative, the present subjunctive, the imperative, the infinitive, the gerund, and the present participle. More than half of the endings, therefore, of the Strong Conjugation are added directly to the present stem.(2) That thepreterit singular stemis used in only two forms of the verb, the 1st and 3d persons singular of the preterit indicative:Ic drāf,hē drāf.(3) That thepreterit plural stemis used in the preterit plural indicative, in the second person of the preterit singular indicative, and in the singular and plural of the preterit subjunctive.(4) That thestem of the past participle(gedrif-) is used for no other form.Syntax of the Verb.104.The Indicative Mood2represents the predicateas a reality. It is used both in independent and in dependent clauses, its function in O.E. corresponding with its function in Mn.E.105.The Subjunctive Mood represents the predicateas an idea.3It is of far more frequent occurrence in O.E. than in Mn.E.1. When used in independent clauses it denotes desire, command, or entreaty, and usually precedes its subject:Sīe ðīn nama gehālgod,Hallowed be Thy name;Ne swęrigen gē,Do not swear.2. In dependent clauses it denotes uncertainty, possibility, or mere futurity.4(a) Concessive clauses (introduced byðēah,though) and (b) temporal clauses (introduced byǣr,ǣr ðǣm ðe,before) are rarely found with any other mood than the subjunctive. The subjunctive is also regularly used in Alfredian prose (c) after verbs of saying, even when no suggestion of doubt or discredit attaches to the narration.5“Whether the statement refer to a fact or not, whether the subject-matter be vouched for by the reporter, as regards its objective reality and truth, the subjunctive does not tell. It simply represents a statement as reported”6:ðēah man āsętte twēgen fǣtels full ealað oððe wæteres,though one set two vessels full of ale or water;ǣr ðǣm ðe hit eall forhęrgod wǣre,before it was all ravaged;Hē sǣde ðæt Norðmanna land wǣre swȳðe lang and swȳðe smæl,He said that the Norwegians’ land was very long and very narrow.106.The Imperative is the mood of command or intercession:Iōhannes, cum tō mē,John, come to me;And forgyf ūs ūre gyltas,And forgive us our trespasses;Ne drīf ūs fram ðē,Do not drive us from thee.107.(1) The Infinitive and Participles are used chiefly in verb-phrases (§§138-141); but apart from this function, the Infinitive, being a neuter noun, may serve as the subject or direct object of a verb.Hātan(to command,bid),lǣtan(to let,permit), and onginnan (to begin) are regularly followed by the Infinitive:Hine rīdan lyste,To ride pleased him;Hēt ðā bǣre sęttan,He bade set down the bier;7Lǣtað ðā lȳtlingas tō mē cuman,Let the little ones come to me;ðā ongann hē sprecan,then began he to speak.(2) The Participles may be used independently in the dative absolute construction (an imitation of the Latin ablative absolute), usually for the expression of time:8Him ðā gȳt sprecendum,While he was yet speaking;gefylledum dagum,the days having been fulfilled.108.The Gerund, or Gerundial Infinitive, is used:(1) To express purpose:Ūt ēode sē sāwere his sǣd tō sāwenne,Out went the sower his seed to sow.(2) To expand or determine the meaning of a noun or adjective:Sȳmōn, ic hæbbe ðē tō sęcgenne sum ðing,Simon, I have something to say to thee;Hit is scǫndlīc ymb swelc tō sprecanne,It is shameful to speak about such things.(3) Afterbēon(wesan) to denote duty or necessity:Hwæt is nū mā ymbe ðis tō sprecanne,What more is there now to say about this?ðonne is tō geðęncenne hwaet Crīst self cwæð,then it behooves to bethink what Christ himself said.Note.—The Gerund is simply the dative case of the Infinitive aftertō. It began very early to supplant the simple Infinitive; hence the use oftowith the Infinitive in Mn.E. As late as the Elizabethan age the Gerund sometimes replaced the Infinitive even after the auxiliary verbs:
dēad,dead.eall,all.hāl,1whole,hale.heard,hard.ðæt hors,horse.lēof,dear[as lief].lȳtel,little.micel,great,large.mǫnig,many.niman,to take[nimble, numb].nīwe,new.rīce,rich,powerful.sōð,true[sooth-sayer].stælwierðe,2serviceable[stalwart].swīðe,very.sē tūn,town,village.sē ðegn,servant,thane,warrior.ðæt ðing,thing.sē weg,way.wīs,wise.wið(with acc.),against, in a hostile sense [with-stand].sē ilca,the same[of that ilk].87.Exercises.I. 1. Ðās scipu ne sind swīðe swift, ac hīe sind swīðe stælwierðu. 2. Sēo gōde cwēn giefð ǣlcum ðegne mǫniga giefa. 3. Ðēs wīsa cyning hæfð mǫnige micele tūnas on his rīce. 4. Nǣnig mǫn is wīs on eallum ðingum. 5. Ðȳ ilcan dæge (§98, (2)) mǫn fǫnd (found) ðone ðegn ðe mīnes wines bēc hæfde. 6. Ealle ðā sęcgas ðā ðe swift hors habbað rīdað wið ðone bǫnan. 7. Ðīne fīend sind mīnefrīend. 8. Sē micela stān ðone ðe ic on mīnum hǫndum hæbbe is swīðe heard. 9. Hīe scęððað ðǣm ealdum horsum. 10. Uton niman ðās tilan giefa ǫnd hīe beran tō ūrum lēofum bearnum.II. 1. These holy men are wise and good. 2. Are the little children very dear to the servants (dat. withouttō)? 3. Gifts are not given (§70, Note 1) to rich men. 4. All the horses that are in the king’s fields are swift. 5. These stones are very large and hard. 6. He takes the dead man’s spear and fights against the large army. 7. This new house has many doors. 8. My ways are not your ways. 9. Whosoever chooses me, him I also (ēac) choose. 10. Every man has many friends that are not wise.1.Hālig,holy, contains, of course, the same root. “I find,” says Carlyle, “that you could not get any better definition of what ‘holy’ really is than ‘healthy—completely healthy.’”2.This word has been much discussed. The older etymologists explained it as meaningworth stealing. A more improbable conjecture is that it meansworth a stallorplace. It is used of ships in theAnglo-Saxon Chronicle. As applied to men, Skeat thinks it meantgoodorworthy at stealing; but the etymology is still unsettled.----CHAPTER XV.Numerals.88.Numerals are either (a) Cardinal, expressing pure number,one,two,three; or (b) Ordinal, expressing rank or succession,first,second,third.(a) Cardinals.89.The Cardinals fall into the three following syntactic groups:Group I.1. ān2. twēgen [twain]3. ðrīeThese numerals are inflected adjectives.Ān,one,an,a, being a long stemmed monosyllable, is declined likegōd(§80). The weak form,āna, meansalone.Twēgenandðrīe, which have no singular, are thus declined:Masc.Fem.Neut.Masc.Fem.Neut.Plur. N.A.twēgentwātwā (tū)ðrīeðrēoðrēoG.twēgratwēgratwēgraðrēoraðrēoraðrēoraD.{twǣm(twām)twǣm(twām)twǣm(twām)ðrīmðrīmðrīm90.Group II.4.fēower5.fīf6.siex7.seofon8.eahta9.nigon10.tīen11.ęndlefan12.twęlf13.ðrēotīene14.fēowertīene15.fīftīene16.siextīene17.seofontīene18.eahtatīene19.nigontīeneThese words are used chiefly as uninflected adjectives:on gewitscipe ðrēora oþþe fēower bisceopa,on testimony of three or four bishops;on siex dagum,in six days;ān nǣdre ðe hæfde nigon hēafdu,a serpent which had nine heads;æðeling eahtatīene wintra,a prince of eighteen winters.91.Group III.20.twēntig21.ān ǫnd twēntig30.ðrītig40.fēowertig50.fīftig60.siextig70.hundseofontig80.hundeahtatig90.hundnigontig100.hund200.twā hund1000.ðūsend2000.twā ðūsendAll these numbers are employed as neuter singular nouns, and are followed by the genitive plural:Næfde hē þēah mā ðonne twēntig hrȳðera, and twēntig scēapa, andtwēntig swȳna,He did not have, however, more than twenty(of)cattle, and twenty(of)sheep, and twenty(of)swine;Hīe hæfdon hundeahtatig scipa,They had eighty ships;twā hund mīla brād,two hundred miles broad;ðǣr wǣron seofon hund gūðfanena genumen,there were seven hundred standards captured;ān ðūsend mǫnna,a thousand men;Hannibales folces wæs twā ðūsend ofslagen,Of Hannibal’s men there were two thousand slain;Hīe ācuron ęndlefan ðūsend mǫnna,They chose eleven thousand men.Note 1.—Group III is rarely inflected. Almost the only inflectional endings that are added are (1)-es, a genitive singular termination for the numerals in-tig, and (2)-e, a dative singular forhund. (1) The first is confined to adjectives expressing extent of space or time, as,eald,old;brād,broad;hēah,high; andlǫng,long:ðæt is ðrītiges mīla lǫng,that is thirty miles long;Hē wæs ðrītiges gēara eald,He was thirty years old. (2) The second is employed aftermid:mid twǣm hunde scipa,with two hundred ships;mid ðrīm hunde mǫnna,with three hundred men;Ðǣr wearð ... Regulus gefangen mid V hunde mǫnna,There was Regulus captured with five hundred men.The statement made in nearly all the grammars thathundeoccurs as a nominative and accusative plural is without foundation.Note 2.—Many numerals, otherwise indeclinable, are used in the genitive plural with the indefinite pronounsum, which then meansone ofa certain number. In this peculiar construction, the numeral always precedessum:fēowera sum,one of four(=with three others);Hē sǣde þæt hē syxa sum ofslōge syxtig,He said that he, with five others, slew sixty(whales);Hē wæs fēowertigra sum,He was one of forty.Note 3.—These are the most common constructions with the Cardinals. The forms in-tighave only recently been investigated. A study of Wülfing’s citations shows that Alfred occasionally uses the forms in-tig(1) as adjectives with plural inflections:mid XXXgum cyningum,with thirty kings; and (2) as nouns with plural inflections:æfter siextigum daga,after sixty days. But both constructions are rare.(b) Ordinals.92.The Ordinals, except the first two, are formed from the Cardinals. They are:1.forma, ǣresta, fyrsta2.ōðer, æfterra3.ðridda4.fēorða5.fīfta6.siexta7.seofoða8.eahtoða9.nigoða10.tēoða11.ęndlefta12.twęlfta13.ðrēotēoða14.fēowertēoða15.fīftēoðaetc.20.twēntigoða21.ān ǫnd twēntigoða30.ðrītigoðaetc.Note.—There are no Ordinals corresponding tohundandðūsend.With the exception ofōðer(§77), all the Ordinals are declined as Weak Adjectives; the article, however, as in Mn.E., is frequently omitted:Brūtus wæs sē forma consul,Brutus was the first consul;Hēr ęndað sēo ǣreste bōc, ǫnd onginneð sēo ōðer,Here the first book ends, and the second begins;ðȳ fīftan dæge,on the fifth day;on ðǣm tēoðan gēare hiera gewinnes,in the tenth year of their strife;Hēo wæs twęlfte,She was twelfth;Sē wæs fēorða frǫm Agusto,He was fourth from Augustus.----CHAPTER XVI.Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions.Adverbs.93.(1) Adverbs are formed by adding-eor-līceto the corresponding adjectives:sōð,true;sōðeorsōðlīce,truly;earmlīc,wretched;earmlīce,wretchedly;wīd,wide;wīde,widely;micel,great;micle(micele),greatly,much.(2) The terminations-eand-līceare replaced in some adverbs by-(l)ungaor-(l)inga:eallunga,entirely;fǣringa,suddenly;grundlunga,from the ground,completely.Note 1.—In Mn.E.headlong,darkling, andgroveling, originally adverbs, we have survivals of these endings.(3) The genitive case is frequently used adverbially:sūðeweardes,southwards;ealles,altogether,entirely;dæges,by day;nihtes,by night;ðæs,from that time,afterwards.Cf.hys(=his)wegesinÐonne rīdeð ǣlc hys weges,Then rides each his way.Note 2.—The adverbial genitive is abundantly preserved in Mn.E.Always,crossways,sideways,needs(=necessarily),sometimes, etc., are not plurals, but old genitive singulars. The same construction is seen inof course,of a truth,of an evening,of old,of late, and similar phrases.(4) Dative and instrumental plurals may be used as adverbs:hwīlum,at times,sometimes[whilom];stundum(stund=period),from time to time;miclum,greatly. Especially common is the suffix-mǣlum(mǣl=time,measure[meal]), preserved adverbially in Mn.E.piecemeal:dropmǣlum,drop by drop;styccemǣlum(stycce=piece),piecemeal,here and there.(5) The suffix-anusually denotes motion from:hēr,here.hider,hither.heonan,hence.ðǣr,there.ðider,thither.ðǫnan,thence.hwǣr,where?hwider,whither?hwǫnan,whence?norðan,from the north.ēastan,from the east.hindan,from behind.feorran,from far.ūtan,from without.(6) The adverbrihte(riht=right,straight) denotesmotion towardinnorðrihte,northward,due north;ēastrihte,due east;sūðrihte,due south;westrihte,due west.Prepositions.94.The nominative is the only case in O.E. that is never governed by a preposition. Of the other cases, the dative and accusative occur most frequently with prepositions.(1) The prepositions that are most frequently found with the dative are:æfter,after.ǣt,at.be(bī),by,near,about.betwēonan(betuh),between.būtan(būton),except.for,for.frǫm(fram),from,by.mid,with.of,of,from.tō,to.tōforan,before.tōweard,toward.(2) The following prepositions require the accusative:geond,throughout[be-yond].ofer,over,upon.oð,until,up to.ðurh,through.ymbe,about,around[um-while, ember-days].(3) The prepositionon(rarelyin), meaninginto, is usually followed by the accusative; but meaningin,on, orduring, it takes the dative or instrumental. The prepositionwið, meaningtoward, may be followed by the genitive, dative, or accusative; but meaningagainst, and implyingmotionorhostility, the accusative is more common.(4) The following phrases are used prepositionally with the dative:be norðan,north of.be ēastan,east of.be sūðan,south of.be westan,west of.tō ēacan,in addition to.on emnlange(efn-lang=evenly long),along.tō emnes,along.(5) Prepositions regularly precede the noun or pronoun that they introduce; but by their adverbial nature they are sometimes drawn in front of the verb:And him wæs mycel męnegu tō gegaderod,And there was gathered unto him a great multitude. In relative clauses introduced byðe, the preceding position is very common:sēo scīr ... ðe hē on būde,the district, ... which he dwelt in(=which he in-habited);Hē wæs swȳðe spēdig man on ðǣm ǣhtum ðe hiera spēda on bēoð,He was a very rich man in those possessions which their riches consist in;nȳhst ðǣm tūne ðe sē dēada man on līð,nearest the town that the dead man lies in.Conjunctions.95.(1) The most frequently occurring conjunctions are:ac,but.ǣr,before,ere.būtan(būton),except that,unless.ēac,also[eke].for ðǣm,}because.for ðǣm ðe,for ðon,for ðon ðe,for ðȳ,therefore.gif,if.hwæðer,whether.ǫnd(and),and.oððe,or.ðæt,that,so that.ðēah,though,however.(2) The correlative conjunctions are:ǣgðer ge. . . .ge,both. . . . . . . .and.ǣgðer. . . . . . .oððe. . . . . . . .ōðeroððe}either. . . . . . .or.nē. . . . . . . . . .nē,neither. . . . .nor.sam. . . . . . . . .sam,whether. . . .or.swā. . . . . . . . .swā{the . . . . . . . . .as. . . . . . . . . .the.as.ðā . . . . . . . . . . .ðonne. . . . . . .ðāðonne{when. . . . . . .then.----CHAPTER XVII.Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs.Adjectives.96.(1) Adjectives are regularly compared by adding-rafor the comparative, and-ost(rarely-est) for the superlative:Positive.Comparative.Superlative.earm,poorearmraearmostrīce,richrīcrarīcostsmæl,narrowsmælrasmalostbrād,broadbrādra(brǣdra)brādostswift,swiftswiftraswiftost(2) Forms withi-umlaut usually have superlative in-est:Positive.Comparative.Superlative.eald,oldieldraieldestlǫng,longlęngralęngeststrǫng,strongstręngrastręngestgeong,younggiengragiengesthēah,highhīerrahīehst(3) The following adjectives are compared irregularly:Positive.Comparative.Superlative.gōd,goodbętrabętstlȳtel,little,smalllǣssalǣstmicel,great,muchmāramǣstyfel,badwiersawierst(4) The positive is sometimes supplied by an adverb:Positive.Comparative.Superlative.feor,farfierrafierrestnēah,nearnēarranīehstǣr,beforeǣrra,formerǣrest,first(5) The comparatives all follow the Weak Declension. The superlatives, when preceded by the definite article, are weak; but when used predicatively they are frequently strong:sē lǣsta dǣl,the least part;Ðonne cymeð sē man sē ðæt swiftoste hors hafað tō ðǣm ǣrestan dǣle and tō ðǣm mǣstan,Then comes the man that has the swiftest horse to the first part and to the largest. But,ðæt bȳne land is ēasteweard brādost(notbrādoste),the cultivated land is broadest eastward;and(hit)bið ealra wyrta mǣst,and it is largest of all herbs;Ac hyra(=hiera)ār is mǣst on ðǣm gafole ðe ðā Finnas him gyldað,But their income is greatest in the tribute that the Fins pay them.(6) The comparative is usually followed byðonneand the nominative case:Sē hwæl bið micle lǣssa ðonne ōðre hwalas,That whale is much smaller than other whales;Ðā wunda ðæs mōdes bēoð dīgelran ðonne ðā wunda ðæs līchaman.The wounds of the mind are more secret than the wounds of the body.But whenðonneis omitted, the comparative is followed by the dative:Ūre Ālīesend, ðe māra is ǫndmǣrra eallum gesceaftum,Our Redeemer, who is greater and more glorious than all created things;nē ongeat hē nō hiene selfne bętran ōðrum gōdum mǫnnum,nor did he consider himself better than other good men.Adverbs.97.(1) Adverbs are regularly compared by adding-orfor the comparative and-ost(rarely-est) for the superlative:Positive.Comparative.Superlative.georne,willinglygeornorgeornostswīðe,very,severelyswīðor,moreswīðost,most,chieflyǣr,beforeǣror,formerlyǣrest,firstnorð,northwardsnorðornorðmest1(2) The comparatives of a few adverbs may be found by dropping-raof the corresponding adjective form:Positive.Comparative.Superlative.lǫnge,longlęnglęngestmicle,muchmāmǣstwel,wellbętbętstExpressions of Time.98.(1) Duration of time and extent of space are usually expressed by the accusative case:Ealle ðā hwīle ðe ðæt līc bið inne,All the time that the body is within;twēgen dagas,for two days;ealne weg,all the way,always.(2) Time when is more often expressed by the instrumental case when no preposition is used:ðȳ ilcan dæge,the same day;ǣlce gēare,each year;ðȳ gēare,that year;ǣlce dæge,each day.(3) Time or space within which is expressed byonand the dative:on sumera,in summer;on wintra,in winter;on fīf dagum,in five days;on fīf mīlum,in five miles;on ðissum gēare,in this year;on ðǣm tīman,in those times. Sometimes by the genitive without a preceding preposition:ðǣs gēares,in that year.99.Vocabulary.ðæt gefylce[folc],troop,division.ðæt lǫnd(land),land.sēo mīl,mile.ōðer ... ōðer,the one ... the other;the former ... the latter.sē sige,victory.sige2habban,to win(the)victory.sprecan,to speak.ðæt swīn(swȳn),swine,hog.wēste,waste.100.Exercises.I. 1. Hē hæfð ðrēo swīðe swift hors. 2. Ic hæbbe nigontīene scēap ǫnd mā ðonne twēntig swīna. 3. Sēo gōde cwēn cīest twā hund mǫnna. 4. Uton feohtan wið ðā Dęne mid ðrīm hunde scipa. 5. Ǫnd hīe wǣron on twǣm gefylcum: on ōðrum wæs3Bāchsęcg ǫnd Halfdęne ðā hǣðnan cyningas, ǫnd on ōðrum wǣron ðā eorlas. 6. Ðū spricst sōðlīce. 7. Ðonne rīt ǣlc mǫn his weges. 8. Æfter mǫnigum dagum, hæfde Ælfred cyning4sige. 9. Ðis lǫnd is wēste styccemǣlum. 10. Ðēs feld is fīftiges mīla brād.11. Ælfred cyning hæfde mǫnige frīend, for ðǣm ðe hē wæs ǣgðer ge wīs ge gōd. 12. Ðā hwalas, ðe ðū ymbe spricst, sind micle lǣssan ōðrum hwalum. 13. Hēo is ieldre ðonne hiere swuster, ac mīn brōðor is ieldra ðonne hēo. 14. Wē cumað tō ðǣm tūne ǣlce gēare. 15. Ðā męn ðe ðā swiftostan hors hǣfdon wǣron mid ðǣm Dęnum fēower dagas.II. 1. Our army (werod) was in two divisions: one was large, the other was small. 2. The richest men in the kingdom have more (mā) than thirty ships. 3. He was much wiser than his brother. 4. He fights against the Northumbrians with two ships. 5. After three years King Alfred gained the victory. 6. Whosoever chooses these gifts, chooses well. 7. This man’s son is both wiser and better than his father. 8. When the king rides, then ride his thanes also. 9. The richest men are not always (ā) the wisest men.1.This is really a double superlative,mbeing itself an old superlative suffix.Cf.Latinopti-m-us. In Mn.E.northmostandhindmost,-m-esthas been confused with-most, with which etymologically it has nothing to do.2.Sigeusually, but not invariably, precedeshabban.3.See p. 100,note ongefeaht.4.The proper noun comes first in appositive expressions:Ælfred cyning,Sidroc eorl,Hēahmund bisceop.----CHAPTER XVIII.Strong Verbs: Class I. (See§17.)Syntax of Moods.101.Of the three hundred simple verbs belonging to the O.E. Strong Conjugation, it is estimated1that seventy-eight have preserved their strong inflections in Mn.E., that eighty-eight have become weak, and that the remaining one hundred and thirty-four have entirely disappeared, their places being taken in most cases by verbs of Latin origin introduced through the Norman-French.Note.—Only the simple or primitive verbs, not the compound forms, are here taken into consideration. The proportionate loss, therefore, is really much greater. O.E. abounded in formative prefixes. “Thus from the Anglo-Saxonflōwan,to flow, ten new compounds were formed by the addition of various prefixes, of which ten, only one,oferflōwan,to overflow, survives with us. In a similar manner, from the verbsittan,to sit, thirteen new verbs were formed, of which not a single one is to be found to-day.” Lounsbury,ib.Part I, p. 107.102.Class I: The “Drive” Conjugation.Vowel Succession:ī,ā,i,i.Infinitive.Preterit Sing.Preterit Plur.Past Part.Drīf-andrāfdrif-ongedrif-en,to drive.Indicative.Subjunctive.Present.Present.Sing.1.Ic drīf-eSing.1.Ic}drīf-e2.ðū drīf-st (drīf-est)2.ðū3.hē drīf-ð (drīf-eð)3.hēPlur.1.wē}(drīf-að)Plur.1.wē}drīf-en2.gē2.gē3.hīe3.hīePreterit.Preterit.Sing.1.Ic drāfSing.1.Ic}drif-e2.ðū drif-e2.ðū3.hē drāf3.hēPlur.1.wē}drif-onPlur.1.wē}drif-en2.gē2.gē3.hīe3.hīeImperative.Infinitive.Present Participle.Sing.2.drīfdrīf-andrīf-endePlur.1.drīf-an2.drīf-aðGerund.Past Participle.tō drīf-anne (-enne)gedrif-enTense Formation of Strong Verbs.103.(1) It will be seen from the conjugation ofdrīfanthat thepresent stemin all strong verbs is used throughout the present indicative, the present subjunctive, the imperative, the infinitive, the gerund, and the present participle. More than half of the endings, therefore, of the Strong Conjugation are added directly to the present stem.(2) That thepreterit singular stemis used in only two forms of the verb, the 1st and 3d persons singular of the preterit indicative:Ic drāf,hē drāf.(3) That thepreterit plural stemis used in the preterit plural indicative, in the second person of the preterit singular indicative, and in the singular and plural of the preterit subjunctive.(4) That thestem of the past participle(gedrif-) is used for no other form.Syntax of the Verb.104.The Indicative Mood2represents the predicateas a reality. It is used both in independent and in dependent clauses, its function in O.E. corresponding with its function in Mn.E.105.The Subjunctive Mood represents the predicateas an idea.3It is of far more frequent occurrence in O.E. than in Mn.E.1. When used in independent clauses it denotes desire, command, or entreaty, and usually precedes its subject:Sīe ðīn nama gehālgod,Hallowed be Thy name;Ne swęrigen gē,Do not swear.2. In dependent clauses it denotes uncertainty, possibility, or mere futurity.4(a) Concessive clauses (introduced byðēah,though) and (b) temporal clauses (introduced byǣr,ǣr ðǣm ðe,before) are rarely found with any other mood than the subjunctive. The subjunctive is also regularly used in Alfredian prose (c) after verbs of saying, even when no suggestion of doubt or discredit attaches to the narration.5“Whether the statement refer to a fact or not, whether the subject-matter be vouched for by the reporter, as regards its objective reality and truth, the subjunctive does not tell. It simply represents a statement as reported”6:ðēah man āsętte twēgen fǣtels full ealað oððe wæteres,though one set two vessels full of ale or water;ǣr ðǣm ðe hit eall forhęrgod wǣre,before it was all ravaged;Hē sǣde ðæt Norðmanna land wǣre swȳðe lang and swȳðe smæl,He said that the Norwegians’ land was very long and very narrow.106.The Imperative is the mood of command or intercession:Iōhannes, cum tō mē,John, come to me;And forgyf ūs ūre gyltas,And forgive us our trespasses;Ne drīf ūs fram ðē,Do not drive us from thee.107.(1) The Infinitive and Participles are used chiefly in verb-phrases (§§138-141); but apart from this function, the Infinitive, being a neuter noun, may serve as the subject or direct object of a verb.Hātan(to command,bid),lǣtan(to let,permit), and onginnan (to begin) are regularly followed by the Infinitive:Hine rīdan lyste,To ride pleased him;Hēt ðā bǣre sęttan,He bade set down the bier;7Lǣtað ðā lȳtlingas tō mē cuman,Let the little ones come to me;ðā ongann hē sprecan,then began he to speak.(2) The Participles may be used independently in the dative absolute construction (an imitation of the Latin ablative absolute), usually for the expression of time:8Him ðā gȳt sprecendum,While he was yet speaking;gefylledum dagum,the days having been fulfilled.108.The Gerund, or Gerundial Infinitive, is used:(1) To express purpose:Ūt ēode sē sāwere his sǣd tō sāwenne,Out went the sower his seed to sow.(2) To expand or determine the meaning of a noun or adjective:Sȳmōn, ic hæbbe ðē tō sęcgenne sum ðing,Simon, I have something to say to thee;Hit is scǫndlīc ymb swelc tō sprecanne,It is shameful to speak about such things.(3) Afterbēon(wesan) to denote duty or necessity:Hwæt is nū mā ymbe ðis tō sprecanne,What more is there now to say about this?ðonne is tō geðęncenne hwaet Crīst self cwæð,then it behooves to bethink what Christ himself said.Note.—The Gerund is simply the dative case of the Infinitive aftertō. It began very early to supplant the simple Infinitive; hence the use oftowith the Infinitive in Mn.E. As late as the Elizabethan age the Gerund sometimes replaced the Infinitive even after the auxiliary verbs:
dēad,dead.eall,all.hāl,1whole,hale.heard,hard.ðæt hors,horse.lēof,dear[as lief].lȳtel,little.micel,great,large.mǫnig,many.niman,to take[nimble, numb].nīwe,new.rīce,rich,powerful.sōð,true[sooth-sayer].stælwierðe,2serviceable[stalwart].swīðe,very.sē tūn,town,village.sē ðegn,servant,thane,warrior.ðæt ðing,thing.sē weg,way.wīs,wise.wið(with acc.),against, in a hostile sense [with-stand].sē ilca,the same[of that ilk].
dēad,dead.
eall,all.
hāl,1whole,hale.
heard,hard.
ðæt hors,horse.
lēof,dear[as lief].
lȳtel,little.
micel,great,large.
mǫnig,many.
niman,to take[nimble, numb].
nīwe,new.
rīce,rich,powerful.
sōð,true[sooth-sayer].
stælwierðe,2serviceable[stalwart].
swīðe,very.
sē tūn,town,village.
sē ðegn,servant,thane,warrior.
ðæt ðing,thing.
sē weg,way.
wīs,wise.
wið(with acc.),against, in a hostile sense [with-stand].
sē ilca,the same[of that ilk].
Exercises.
I. 1. Ðās scipu ne sind swīðe swift, ac hīe sind swīðe stælwierðu. 2. Sēo gōde cwēn giefð ǣlcum ðegne mǫniga giefa. 3. Ðēs wīsa cyning hæfð mǫnige micele tūnas on his rīce. 4. Nǣnig mǫn is wīs on eallum ðingum. 5. Ðȳ ilcan dæge (§98, (2)) mǫn fǫnd (found) ðone ðegn ðe mīnes wines bēc hæfde. 6. Ealle ðā sęcgas ðā ðe swift hors habbað rīdað wið ðone bǫnan. 7. Ðīne fīend sind mīnefrīend. 8. Sē micela stān ðone ðe ic on mīnum hǫndum hæbbe is swīðe heard. 9. Hīe scęððað ðǣm ealdum horsum. 10. Uton niman ðās tilan giefa ǫnd hīe beran tō ūrum lēofum bearnum.
II. 1. These holy men are wise and good. 2. Are the little children very dear to the servants (dat. withouttō)? 3. Gifts are not given (§70, Note 1) to rich men. 4. All the horses that are in the king’s fields are swift. 5. These stones are very large and hard. 6. He takes the dead man’s spear and fights against the large army. 7. This new house has many doors. 8. My ways are not your ways. 9. Whosoever chooses me, him I also (ēac) choose. 10. Every man has many friends that are not wise.
1.Hālig,holy, contains, of course, the same root. “I find,” says Carlyle, “that you could not get any better definition of what ‘holy’ really is than ‘healthy—completely healthy.’”2.This word has been much discussed. The older etymologists explained it as meaningworth stealing. A more improbable conjecture is that it meansworth a stallorplace. It is used of ships in theAnglo-Saxon Chronicle. As applied to men, Skeat thinks it meantgoodorworthy at stealing; but the etymology is still unsettled.
1.Hālig,holy, contains, of course, the same root. “I find,” says Carlyle, “that you could not get any better definition of what ‘holy’ really is than ‘healthy—completely healthy.’”
2.This word has been much discussed. The older etymologists explained it as meaningworth stealing. A more improbable conjecture is that it meansworth a stallorplace. It is used of ships in theAnglo-Saxon Chronicle. As applied to men, Skeat thinks it meantgoodorworthy at stealing; but the etymology is still unsettled.
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Numerals are either (a) Cardinal, expressing pure number,one,two,three; or (b) Ordinal, expressing rank or succession,first,second,third.
The Cardinals fall into the three following syntactic groups:
Group I.1. ān2. twēgen [twain]3. ðrīe
Group I.
1. ān
2. twēgen [twain]
3. ðrīe
These numerals are inflected adjectives.Ān,one,an,a, being a long stemmed monosyllable, is declined likegōd(§80). The weak form,āna, meansalone.
Twēgenandðrīe, which have no singular, are thus declined:
Group II.
These words are used chiefly as uninflected adjectives:on gewitscipe ðrēora oþþe fēower bisceopa,on testimony of three or four bishops;on siex dagum,in six days;ān nǣdre ðe hæfde nigon hēafdu,a serpent which had nine heads;æðeling eahtatīene wintra,a prince of eighteen winters.
Group III.
All these numbers are employed as neuter singular nouns, and are followed by the genitive plural:Næfde hē þēah mā ðonne twēntig hrȳðera, and twēntig scēapa, andtwēntig swȳna,He did not have, however, more than twenty(of)cattle, and twenty(of)sheep, and twenty(of)swine;Hīe hæfdon hundeahtatig scipa,They had eighty ships;twā hund mīla brād,two hundred miles broad;ðǣr wǣron seofon hund gūðfanena genumen,there were seven hundred standards captured;ān ðūsend mǫnna,a thousand men;Hannibales folces wæs twā ðūsend ofslagen,Of Hannibal’s men there were two thousand slain;Hīe ācuron ęndlefan ðūsend mǫnna,They chose eleven thousand men.
Note 1.—Group III is rarely inflected. Almost the only inflectional endings that are added are (1)-es, a genitive singular termination for the numerals in-tig, and (2)-e, a dative singular forhund. (1) The first is confined to adjectives expressing extent of space or time, as,eald,old;brād,broad;hēah,high; andlǫng,long:ðæt is ðrītiges mīla lǫng,that is thirty miles long;Hē wæs ðrītiges gēara eald,He was thirty years old. (2) The second is employed aftermid:mid twǣm hunde scipa,with two hundred ships;mid ðrīm hunde mǫnna,with three hundred men;Ðǣr wearð ... Regulus gefangen mid V hunde mǫnna,There was Regulus captured with five hundred men.
The statement made in nearly all the grammars thathundeoccurs as a nominative and accusative plural is without foundation.
Note 2.—Many numerals, otherwise indeclinable, are used in the genitive plural with the indefinite pronounsum, which then meansone ofa certain number. In this peculiar construction, the numeral always precedessum:fēowera sum,one of four(=with three others);Hē sǣde þæt hē syxa sum ofslōge syxtig,He said that he, with five others, slew sixty(whales);Hē wæs fēowertigra sum,He was one of forty.
Note 3.—These are the most common constructions with the Cardinals. The forms in-tighave only recently been investigated. A study of Wülfing’s citations shows that Alfred occasionally uses the forms in-tig(1) as adjectives with plural inflections:mid XXXgum cyningum,with thirty kings; and (2) as nouns with plural inflections:æfter siextigum daga,after sixty days. But both constructions are rare.
The Ordinals, except the first two, are formed from the Cardinals. They are:
fīftēoðaetc.
ðrītigoðaetc.
Note.—There are no Ordinals corresponding tohundandðūsend.
With the exception ofōðer(§77), all the Ordinals are declined as Weak Adjectives; the article, however, as in Mn.E., is frequently omitted:Brūtus wæs sē forma consul,Brutus was the first consul;Hēr ęndað sēo ǣreste bōc, ǫnd onginneð sēo ōðer,Here the first book ends, and the second begins;ðȳ fīftan dæge,on the fifth day;on ðǣm tēoðan gēare hiera gewinnes,in the tenth year of their strife;Hēo wæs twęlfte,She was twelfth;Sē wæs fēorða frǫm Agusto,He was fourth from Augustus.
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(1) Adverbs are formed by adding-eor-līceto the corresponding adjectives:sōð,true;sōðeorsōðlīce,truly;earmlīc,wretched;earmlīce,wretchedly;wīd,wide;wīde,widely;micel,great;micle(micele),greatly,much.
(2) The terminations-eand-līceare replaced in some adverbs by-(l)ungaor-(l)inga:eallunga,entirely;fǣringa,suddenly;grundlunga,from the ground,completely.
Note 1.—In Mn.E.headlong,darkling, andgroveling, originally adverbs, we have survivals of these endings.
(3) The genitive case is frequently used adverbially:sūðeweardes,southwards;ealles,altogether,entirely;dæges,by day;nihtes,by night;ðæs,from that time,afterwards.Cf.hys(=his)wegesinÐonne rīdeð ǣlc hys weges,Then rides each his way.
Note 2.—The adverbial genitive is abundantly preserved in Mn.E.Always,crossways,sideways,needs(=necessarily),sometimes, etc., are not plurals, but old genitive singulars. The same construction is seen inof course,of a truth,of an evening,of old,of late, and similar phrases.
(4) Dative and instrumental plurals may be used as adverbs:hwīlum,at times,sometimes[whilom];stundum(stund=period),from time to time;miclum,greatly. Especially common is the suffix-mǣlum(mǣl=time,measure[meal]), preserved adverbially in Mn.E.piecemeal:dropmǣlum,drop by drop;styccemǣlum(stycce=piece),piecemeal,here and there.
(5) The suffix-anusually denotes motion from:
(6) The adverbrihte(riht=right,straight) denotesmotion towardinnorðrihte,northward,due north;ēastrihte,due east;sūðrihte,due south;westrihte,due west.
The nominative is the only case in O.E. that is never governed by a preposition. Of the other cases, the dative and accusative occur most frequently with prepositions.
(1) The prepositions that are most frequently found with the dative are:
æfter,after.ǣt,at.be(bī),by,near,about.betwēonan(betuh),between.būtan(būton),except.for,for.frǫm(fram),from,by.mid,with.of,of,from.tō,to.tōforan,before.tōweard,toward.
æfter,after.
ǣt,at.
be(bī),by,near,about.
betwēonan(betuh),between.
būtan(būton),except.
for,for.
frǫm(fram),from,by.
mid,with.
of,of,from.
tō,to.
tōforan,before.
tōweard,toward.
(2) The following prepositions require the accusative:
geond,throughout[be-yond].ofer,over,upon.oð,until,up to.ðurh,through.ymbe,about,around[um-while, ember-days].
geond,throughout[be-yond].
ofer,over,upon.
oð,until,up to.
ðurh,through.
ymbe,about,around[um-while, ember-days].
(3) The prepositionon(rarelyin), meaninginto, is usually followed by the accusative; but meaningin,on, orduring, it takes the dative or instrumental. The prepositionwið, meaningtoward, may be followed by the genitive, dative, or accusative; but meaningagainst, and implyingmotionorhostility, the accusative is more common.
(4) The following phrases are used prepositionally with the dative:
be norðan,north of.be ēastan,east of.be sūðan,south of.be westan,west of.tō ēacan,in addition to.on emnlange(efn-lang=evenly long),along.tō emnes,along.
be norðan,north of.
be ēastan,east of.
be sūðan,south of.
be westan,west of.
tō ēacan,in addition to.
on emnlange(efn-lang=evenly long),along.
tō emnes,along.
(5) Prepositions regularly precede the noun or pronoun that they introduce; but by their adverbial nature they are sometimes drawn in front of the verb:And him wæs mycel męnegu tō gegaderod,And there was gathered unto him a great multitude. In relative clauses introduced byðe, the preceding position is very common:sēo scīr ... ðe hē on būde,the district, ... which he dwelt in(=which he in-habited);Hē wæs swȳðe spēdig man on ðǣm ǣhtum ðe hiera spēda on bēoð,He was a very rich man in those possessions which their riches consist in;nȳhst ðǣm tūne ðe sē dēada man on līð,nearest the town that the dead man lies in.
(1) The most frequently occurring conjunctions are:
(2) The correlative conjunctions are:
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(1) Adjectives are regularly compared by adding-rafor the comparative, and-ost(rarely-est) for the superlative:
(2) Forms withi-umlaut usually have superlative in-est:
(3) The following adjectives are compared irregularly:
(4) The positive is sometimes supplied by an adverb:
(5) The comparatives all follow the Weak Declension. The superlatives, when preceded by the definite article, are weak; but when used predicatively they are frequently strong:sē lǣsta dǣl,the least part;Ðonne cymeð sē man sē ðæt swiftoste hors hafað tō ðǣm ǣrestan dǣle and tō ðǣm mǣstan,Then comes the man that has the swiftest horse to the first part and to the largest. But,ðæt bȳne land is ēasteweard brādost(notbrādoste),the cultivated land is broadest eastward;and(hit)bið ealra wyrta mǣst,and it is largest of all herbs;Ac hyra(=hiera)ār is mǣst on ðǣm gafole ðe ðā Finnas him gyldað,But their income is greatest in the tribute that the Fins pay them.
(6) The comparative is usually followed byðonneand the nominative case:Sē hwæl bið micle lǣssa ðonne ōðre hwalas,That whale is much smaller than other whales;Ðā wunda ðæs mōdes bēoð dīgelran ðonne ðā wunda ðæs līchaman.The wounds of the mind are more secret than the wounds of the body.
But whenðonneis omitted, the comparative is followed by the dative:Ūre Ālīesend, ðe māra is ǫndmǣrra eallum gesceaftum,Our Redeemer, who is greater and more glorious than all created things;nē ongeat hē nō hiene selfne bętran ōðrum gōdum mǫnnum,nor did he consider himself better than other good men.
(1) Adverbs are regularly compared by adding-orfor the comparative and-ost(rarely-est) for the superlative:
(2) The comparatives of a few adverbs may be found by dropping-raof the corresponding adjective form:
(1) Duration of time and extent of space are usually expressed by the accusative case:Ealle ðā hwīle ðe ðæt līc bið inne,All the time that the body is within;twēgen dagas,for two days;ealne weg,all the way,always.
(2) Time when is more often expressed by the instrumental case when no preposition is used:ðȳ ilcan dæge,the same day;ǣlce gēare,each year;ðȳ gēare,that year;ǣlce dæge,each day.
(3) Time or space within which is expressed byonand the dative:on sumera,in summer;on wintra,in winter;on fīf dagum,in five days;on fīf mīlum,in five miles;on ðissum gēare,in this year;on ðǣm tīman,in those times. Sometimes by the genitive without a preceding preposition:ðǣs gēares,in that year.
Vocabulary.
ðæt gefylce[folc],troop,division.ðæt lǫnd(land),land.sēo mīl,mile.ōðer ... ōðer,the one ... the other;the former ... the latter.sē sige,victory.sige2habban,to win(the)victory.sprecan,to speak.ðæt swīn(swȳn),swine,hog.wēste,waste.
ðæt gefylce[folc],troop,division.
ðæt lǫnd(land),land.
sēo mīl,mile.
ōðer ... ōðer,the one ... the other;the former ... the latter.
sē sige,victory.
sige2habban,to win(the)victory.
sprecan,to speak.
ðæt swīn(swȳn),swine,hog.
wēste,waste.
Exercises.
I. 1. Hē hæfð ðrēo swīðe swift hors. 2. Ic hæbbe nigontīene scēap ǫnd mā ðonne twēntig swīna. 3. Sēo gōde cwēn cīest twā hund mǫnna. 4. Uton feohtan wið ðā Dęne mid ðrīm hunde scipa. 5. Ǫnd hīe wǣron on twǣm gefylcum: on ōðrum wæs3Bāchsęcg ǫnd Halfdęne ðā hǣðnan cyningas, ǫnd on ōðrum wǣron ðā eorlas. 6. Ðū spricst sōðlīce. 7. Ðonne rīt ǣlc mǫn his weges. 8. Æfter mǫnigum dagum, hæfde Ælfred cyning4sige. 9. Ðis lǫnd is wēste styccemǣlum. 10. Ðēs feld is fīftiges mīla brād.11. Ælfred cyning hæfde mǫnige frīend, for ðǣm ðe hē wæs ǣgðer ge wīs ge gōd. 12. Ðā hwalas, ðe ðū ymbe spricst, sind micle lǣssan ōðrum hwalum. 13. Hēo is ieldre ðonne hiere swuster, ac mīn brōðor is ieldra ðonne hēo. 14. Wē cumað tō ðǣm tūne ǣlce gēare. 15. Ðā męn ðe ðā swiftostan hors hǣfdon wǣron mid ðǣm Dęnum fēower dagas.
II. 1. Our army (werod) was in two divisions: one was large, the other was small. 2. The richest men in the kingdom have more (mā) than thirty ships. 3. He was much wiser than his brother. 4. He fights against the Northumbrians with two ships. 5. After three years King Alfred gained the victory. 6. Whosoever chooses these gifts, chooses well. 7. This man’s son is both wiser and better than his father. 8. When the king rides, then ride his thanes also. 9. The richest men are not always (ā) the wisest men.
1.This is really a double superlative,mbeing itself an old superlative suffix.Cf.Latinopti-m-us. In Mn.E.northmostandhindmost,-m-esthas been confused with-most, with which etymologically it has nothing to do.2.Sigeusually, but not invariably, precedeshabban.3.See p. 100,note ongefeaht.4.The proper noun comes first in appositive expressions:Ælfred cyning,Sidroc eorl,Hēahmund bisceop.
1.This is really a double superlative,mbeing itself an old superlative suffix.Cf.Latinopti-m-us. In Mn.E.northmostandhindmost,-m-esthas been confused with-most, with which etymologically it has nothing to do.
2.Sigeusually, but not invariably, precedeshabban.
3.See p. 100,note ongefeaht.
4.The proper noun comes first in appositive expressions:Ælfred cyning,Sidroc eorl,Hēahmund bisceop.
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Of the three hundred simple verbs belonging to the O.E. Strong Conjugation, it is estimated1that seventy-eight have preserved their strong inflections in Mn.E., that eighty-eight have become weak, and that the remaining one hundred and thirty-four have entirely disappeared, their places being taken in most cases by verbs of Latin origin introduced through the Norman-French.
Note.—Only the simple or primitive verbs, not the compound forms, are here taken into consideration. The proportionate loss, therefore, is really much greater. O.E. abounded in formative prefixes. “Thus from the Anglo-Saxonflōwan,to flow, ten new compounds were formed by the addition of various prefixes, of which ten, only one,oferflōwan,to overflow, survives with us. In a similar manner, from the verbsittan,to sit, thirteen new verbs were formed, of which not a single one is to be found to-day.” Lounsbury,ib.Part I, p. 107.
Class I: The “Drive” Conjugation.
Vowel Succession:ī,ā,i,i.
(1) It will be seen from the conjugation ofdrīfanthat thepresent stemin all strong verbs is used throughout the present indicative, the present subjunctive, the imperative, the infinitive, the gerund, and the present participle. More than half of the endings, therefore, of the Strong Conjugation are added directly to the present stem.
(2) That thepreterit singular stemis used in only two forms of the verb, the 1st and 3d persons singular of the preterit indicative:Ic drāf,hē drāf.
(3) That thepreterit plural stemis used in the preterit plural indicative, in the second person of the preterit singular indicative, and in the singular and plural of the preterit subjunctive.
(4) That thestem of the past participle(gedrif-) is used for no other form.
The Indicative Mood2represents the predicateas a reality. It is used both in independent and in dependent clauses, its function in O.E. corresponding with its function in Mn.E.
The Subjunctive Mood represents the predicateas an idea.3It is of far more frequent occurrence in O.E. than in Mn.E.
1. When used in independent clauses it denotes desire, command, or entreaty, and usually precedes its subject:Sīe ðīn nama gehālgod,Hallowed be Thy name;Ne swęrigen gē,Do not swear.
2. In dependent clauses it denotes uncertainty, possibility, or mere futurity.4(a) Concessive clauses (introduced byðēah,though) and (b) temporal clauses (introduced byǣr,ǣr ðǣm ðe,before) are rarely found with any other mood than the subjunctive. The subjunctive is also regularly used in Alfredian prose (c) after verbs of saying, even when no suggestion of doubt or discredit attaches to the narration.5“Whether the statement refer to a fact or not, whether the subject-matter be vouched for by the reporter, as regards its objective reality and truth, the subjunctive does not tell. It simply represents a statement as reported”6:ðēah man āsętte twēgen fǣtels full ealað oððe wæteres,though one set two vessels full of ale or water;ǣr ðǣm ðe hit eall forhęrgod wǣre,before it was all ravaged;Hē sǣde ðæt Norðmanna land wǣre swȳðe lang and swȳðe smæl,He said that the Norwegians’ land was very long and very narrow.
The Imperative is the mood of command or intercession:Iōhannes, cum tō mē,John, come to me;And forgyf ūs ūre gyltas,And forgive us our trespasses;Ne drīf ūs fram ðē,Do not drive us from thee.
(1) The Infinitive and Participles are used chiefly in verb-phrases (§§138-141); but apart from this function, the Infinitive, being a neuter noun, may serve as the subject or direct object of a verb.Hātan(to command,bid),lǣtan(to let,permit), and onginnan (to begin) are regularly followed by the Infinitive:Hine rīdan lyste,To ride pleased him;Hēt ðā bǣre sęttan,He bade set down the bier;7Lǣtað ðā lȳtlingas tō mē cuman,Let the little ones come to me;ðā ongann hē sprecan,then began he to speak.
(2) The Participles may be used independently in the dative absolute construction (an imitation of the Latin ablative absolute), usually for the expression of time:8Him ðā gȳt sprecendum,While he was yet speaking;gefylledum dagum,the days having been fulfilled.
The Gerund, or Gerundial Infinitive, is used:
(1) To express purpose:Ūt ēode sē sāwere his sǣd tō sāwenne,Out went the sower his seed to sow.
(2) To expand or determine the meaning of a noun or adjective:Sȳmōn, ic hæbbe ðē tō sęcgenne sum ðing,Simon, I have something to say to thee;Hit is scǫndlīc ymb swelc tō sprecanne,It is shameful to speak about such things.
(3) Afterbēon(wesan) to denote duty or necessity:Hwæt is nū mā ymbe ðis tō sprecanne,What more is there now to say about this?ðonne is tō geðęncenne hwaet Crīst self cwæð,then it behooves to bethink what Christ himself said.
Note.—The Gerund is simply the dative case of the Infinitive aftertō. It began very early to supplant the simple Infinitive; hence the use oftowith the Infinitive in Mn.E. As late as the Elizabethan age the Gerund sometimes replaced the Infinitive even after the auxiliary verbs: