The Project Gutenberg eBook ofAnglo-Saxon Primer, With Grammar, Notes, and Glossary

The Project Gutenberg eBook ofAnglo-Saxon Primer, With Grammar, Notes, and GlossaryThis ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online atwww.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.Title: Anglo-Saxon Primer, With Grammar, Notes, and GlossaryAuthor: Henry SweetRelease date: November 14, 2010 [eBook #34316]Language: EnglishCredits: E-text prepared by Charlene Taylor, David Clarke, Keith Edkins, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANGLO-SAXON PRIMER, WITH GRAMMAR, NOTES, AND GLOSSARY ***

This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online atwww.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.

Title: Anglo-Saxon Primer, With Grammar, Notes, and GlossaryAuthor: Henry SweetRelease date: November 14, 2010 [eBook #34316]Language: EnglishCredits: E-text prepared by Charlene Taylor, David Clarke, Keith Edkins, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team

Title: Anglo-Saxon Primer, With Grammar, Notes, and Glossary

Author: Henry Sweet

Release date: November 14, 2010 [eBook #34316]

Language: English

Credits: E-text prepared by Charlene Taylor, David Clarke, Keith Edkins, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANGLO-SAXON PRIMER, WITH GRAMMAR, NOTES, AND GLOSSARY ***

E-text prepared by Charlene Taylor, David Clarke, Keith Edkins,and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team(http://www.pgdp.net)

WITH

PRINTED IN ENGLANDAT THE OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

The want of an introduction to the study of Old-English has long been felt. Vernon'sAnglo-Saxon Guidewas an admirable book for its time, but has long been completely antiquated. I was therefore obliged to make myAnglo-Saxon Readera somewhat unsatisfactory compromise between an elementary primer and a manual for advanced students, but I always looked forward to producing a strictly elementary book like the present one, which would enable me to give the larger one a more scientific character, and would at the same time serve as an introduction to it. Meanwhile, however, Professor Earle has brought out hisBook for the beginner in Anglo-Saxon. But this work is quite unsuited to serve as an introduction to my Reader, and will be found to differ so totally in plan and execution from the present one as to preclude all idea of rivalry on my part. We work on lines which instead of clashing can only diverge more and more.

My main principle has been to make the book the easiest possible introduction to the study of Old-English.

Poetry has been excluded, and a selection made from the easiest prose pieces I could find. Old-English original prose is unfortunately limited in extent, and the most suitable pieces (such as the voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan) are already given in the Reader; these I could not give overagain. But I hope the short extracts from the Chronicle and the Martyrdom of King Edmund will be found not wanting in interest. For the rest of the selections I have had to fall back on scriptural extracts, which have the great advantages of simplicity and familiarity of subject. The Gospel extracts have been transferred here from the Reader, where they will be omitted in the next edition. The sentences which head the selections have been gathered mainly from the Gospels, Ælfric's Homilies, and the Chronicle. They are all of the simplest possible character, only those having been taken which would bear isolation from their context. They are intended to serve both as an introduction and as a supplement to the longer pieces. They are grouped roughly into paragraphs, according to the grammatical forms they illustrate. Thus the first paragraph consists mainly of examples of the nominative singular of nouns and adjectives, the second of accusative singulars, and so on.

The spelling has been made rigorously uniform throughout on an early West-Saxon basis. Injurious as normalizing is to the advanced student, it is an absolute necessity for the beginner, who wants to have the definite results of scholarship laid before him, not the confused and fluctuating spellings which he cannot yet interpret intelligently. Even for purely scientific purposes we require a standard of comparison and classification, as in the arrangement of words in a dictionary, where we have to decide, for instance, whether to put the original ofhearunderē, īe, īorȳ. The spelling I here adopt is, in fact, the one I should recommend for dictionary purposes. From early West-Saxon it is an easy step both to late W. S. and to the Mercian forms from which Modern English is derived. That I give Ælfric in a spelling slightly earlier than his date is no moreunreasonable than it is for a classical scholar to print Ausonius (who doubtless spoke Latin with an almost Italian pronunciation) in the same spelling as Virgil.

It is impossible to go into details, but in doubtful or optional cases I have preferred those forms which seemed most instructive to the student. Thus I have preferred keeping up the distinction between the indic.bundonand the subj.bunden, although the latter is often levelled under the former even in early MS. In the accentuation I have for the present retained the conventional quantities, which are really 'prehistoric' quantities, as I have shown elsewhere (Phil. Soc. Proc. 1880, 1881). It is no use trying to disguise the fact that Old English philology (owing mainly to its neglect in its native land) is still in an unsettled state.

In the Grammar I have cut down the phonology to the narrowest limits, giving only what is necessary to enable the beginner to trace the connection of forms within the language itself. Derivation and syntax have been treated with the same fulness as the inflections. In my opinion, to give inflections without explaining their use is as absurd as it would be to teach the names of the different parts of a machine without explaining their use, and derivation is as much a fundamental element of a language as inflection. The grammar has been based throughout on the texts, from which all words and sentences given as examples have, as far as possible, been taken. This I consider absolutely essential in an elementary book. What is the use of a grammar which gives a number of forms and rules which the learner has no occasion to apply practically in his reading? Simply to cut down an ordinary grammar and prefix it to a selection of elementary texts, without any attempt to adapt them to one another, is a most unjustifiable proceeding.

In the Glossary cognate and root words are given only when they occur in the texts, or else are easily recognizable by the ordinary English reader.

All reference to cognate languages has been avoided. Of course, if the beginner knows German, the labour of learning Old English will be lightened for him by one half, but he does not require to have the analogies pointed out to him. The same applies to the relation between Old and Modern English. To trace the history of the sounds would be quite out of place in this book, and postulates a knowledge of the intermediate stages which the beginner cannot have.

The Notes consist chiefly of references to the Grammar, and are intended mainly for those who study without a teacher. As a general rule, no such references are given where the passage itself is quoted in the Grammar.

On the whole I do not think the book could be made much easier without defeating its object. Thus, instead of simply referring the student fromstęnttostandan, and thence to the Grammar, I might have saved him all this trouble by putting 'stęnt, 3 sg. pres. ofstandan, stand,' but the result would be in many cases that he would not look at the Grammar at all—surely a most undesirable result.

Although I have given everything that I believe to benecessary, every teacher may, of course, at his own discretion add such further illustrations, linguistic, historical, antiquarian, or otherwise, as he thinks likely to instruct or interest his pupils.

My thanks are due to Professor Skeat, not only for constant advice and encouragement in planning and carrying out this work, but also for help in correcting the proofs.

In conclusion I may be allowed to express a hope that this little book may prove useful not only to young beginners, but also to some of our Professors of andExaminers in the English language, most of whom are now beginning to see the importance of a sound elementary knowledge of 'Anglo-Saxon'—a knowledge which I believe this book to be capable of imparting, if studied diligently, and not hurriedly cast aside for a more ambitious one.

HENRY SWEET.

Heath Street, Hampstead,March 31, 1882.

Heath Street, Hampstead,

March 31, 1882.

In the present edition I have put this book into what must be (for some time at least) its permanent form, making such additions and alterations as seemed necessary.

If I had any opportunity of teaching the language, I should no doubt have been able to introduce many other improvements; as it is, I have had to rely mainly on the suggestions and corrections kindly sent to me by various teachers and students who have used this book, among whom my especial thanks are due to the Rev. W. F. Moulton, of Cambridge, and Mr. C. Stoffel, of Amsterdam.

HENRY SWEET.

London,October 15, 1884.

London,

October 15, 1884.

The oldest stage of English before the Norman Conquest is called 'Old English,' which name will be used throughout in this Book, although the name 'Anglo-Saxon' is still often used.

There were several dialects of Old English. This book deals only with theWest-Saxondialect in its earliest form.

VOWELS.

The vowel-letters in Old English had nearly the same values as in Latin. Long vowels were occasionally marked by (´), short vowels being left unmarked. In this book long vowels are marked by (ˉ). The following are the elementary vowels and diphthongs, with examples, and key-words from English, French (F.), and German (G.):—

The diphthongs are pronounced with the stress on the first element.

Those who find a difficulty in learning strange vowel-sounds may adopt the following approximate pronunciation:—aas inask (short)nama (năhmăh).ā,,fatherstān (stahn).æ,,manglæd (glad).ǣ,,thereǣr (air).e, ę,,menete (etty), męnn (men).ē,,theyhē (hay).i, ie,,fincwic (quick), ieldran (ildrăhn).ī, īe,,seewīn (ween), hīeran (heerăhn).o,,notgod (god).ō,,notegōd (goad).u,,fullfull (full).ū,,foolnū (noo).y,,finsynn (zin).ȳ,,seebrȳd (breed).ea=ĕ-ăheall (ĕ-ăhl).ēa=ai-ăhēast (ai-ăhst).eo=ĕ-oweorc (wĕ-ork).ēo=ai-odēop (dai-op).The pronunciation given in parentheses is the nearest that can be expressed in English letters as pronounced in Southern English.

Those who find a difficulty in learning strange vowel-sounds may adopt the following approximate pronunciation:—

The pronunciation given in parentheses is the nearest that can be expressed in English letters as pronounced in Southern English.

CONSONANTS.

Double consonants must be pronounced double, or long, as in Italian. Thussunu(son) must be distinguished fromsunne(sun) in the same way aspennyis distinguished frompenknife. So alsoin(in) must be distinguished frominn(house); noting that in modern English final consonants in accented monosyllables after a short vowel are long, ourinandinnboth having the pronunciation of Old Englishinn, not of O.E.in.

candghad each aback(guttural) and afront(palatal) pron., which latter is in this book writtenċ,ġ.

c=k, as incēne(bold),cnāwan(know).

ċ=kj, akformed in thej(Englishy) position, nearly as in the old-fashioned pron. ofsky:ċiriċe(church),styċċe(piece),þęnċan(think).

ginitially and in the combinationngwas pron. as in 'get':gōd(good),lang(long); otherwise (that is, medially and finally after vowels andl, r) as in Germansagen: dagas(days),burg(city),hālga(saint).

ġinitially and in the combinationnġwas pronouncedgj(corresponding tokj):ġē(ye),ġeorn(willing),spręnġan(scatter); otherwise =j(as in 'you'):dæġ(day),wrēġan(accuse),hęrġian(ravage). It is possible thatġinġe-boren(born) and other unaccented syllables was already pronouncedj. ċġ = ġġ: sęċġan(say),hryċġ(back).

fhad the sound ofveverywhere where it was possible:—faran(go),of(of),ofer(over); not, of course, inoft(often), or when doubled, as inoffrian(offer).

hinitially, as inhē(he), had the same sound as now. Everywhere else it had that of Scotch and Germanchinloch:—hēah(high),Wealh(Welshman),riht(right).hw, as inhwæt(what),hwīl(while), had the sound of ourwh; andhl, hn, hrdiffered froml, n, rrespectively precisely aswhdiffers fromw, that is, they were these consonants devocalized,hlbeing nearly the same as Welshll:—hlāford(lord),hlūd(loud);hnappian(doze),hnutu(nut);hraþe(quickly),hrēod(reed).

rwas always a strong trill, as in Scotch:—rǣran(to raise),hēr(here),word(word).

shad the sound ofz:—sēċan(seek),swā(so),wīs(wise),ā·rīsan(rise); not, of course, in combination with hard consonants, as instān(stone),fæst(firm),rīċsian(rule), or when double, as incyssan(kiss).

þhad the sound of ourth(= dh) inthen:—þū(thou),þing(thing),sōþ(true),hǣþen(heathen); except when in combination with hard consonants, where it had that of ourthinthin, as insēċþ(seeks). Notehæfþ(has) =hævdh.

wwas fully pronounced wherever written:—wrītan(write),nīwe(new),sēow(sowedpret.).

STRESS.

The stress or accent is marked throughout in this book, whenever it is not on the first syllable of a word, by (·) preceding the letter on which the stress begins. Thusfor·ġiefanis pronounced with the same stress as that offorgive,andswaruwith that ofanswer.

VOWELS.

Different vowels are related to one another in various ways in O.E., the most important of which aremutation(Germanumlaut) andgradation(G.ablaut).

The following changes aremutations:—

a .. ę:—mann,pl.męnn; wand (woundprt.), węndan (to turn).

ea (= a) .. ie (= ę):—eald (old), ieldra (older); feallan (fall), fielþ (falls).

ā .. ǣ:—blāwan (to blow), blǣwþ (bloweth); hāl (sound), hǣlan (heal).

u .. y:—burg (city),pl.byriġ; trum (strong), trymman (to strengthen).

o .. y:—gold, gylden (golden); coss (a kiss), cyssan (to kiss).

e .. i:—beran (to bear), bireþ (beareth); cweþan (speak), cwide (speech).

eo (= e) .. ie (= i):—heord (herd), hierde (shepherd); ċeorfan (cut), ċierfþ (cuts).

u .. o:—curon (they chose), ġe·coren (chosen).

ū .. ȳ:—cūþ (known), cȳþan (to make known); fūl (foul), ā·fȳlan (defile).

ō .. ē:—sōhte (soughtprt.), sēċan (to seek); fōda (food), fēdan (to feed).

ēa .. īe:—hēawan (to hew), hīewþ (hews); tēam (progeny), tīeman (teem).

ēo .. īe:—stēor (rudder), stīeran (steer); ġe·strēon (possession), ġes·trīenan (gain).

Before proceeding to gradation, it will be desirable to describe the other most important vowel-relations.

a, æ, ea.In O.E. originalais preserved before nasals, as inmann,lang,nama(name), and before a single consonant followed bya,u, oro, as indagas(days),dagum(to days),faran(go),gafol(profit), and in some words whenefollows, as inic fare(I go),faren(gone). Beforer,l,hfollowed by another consonant, and beforexit becomesea, as inheard(hard),eall(all),eald(old),eahta(eight),weaxan(to grow). Not inbærst(p.7). In most other cases it becomesæ:—dæġ, (day),dæġes(of a day),fæst(firm),wær(wary).

ebefore nasals always becomesi: comparebindan(to bind), pret.band, withberan(to bear), pret.bær.

ebeforer(generally followed by a consonant) becomeseo:—eorþe(earth),heorte(heart). Not inberstan(p.7). Also in other cases:—seolfor(silver),heofon(heaven).

ibeforer+ cons. becomesie:—bierþ(beareth) contr. frombireþ, hierde(shepherd) fromheord(herd),wiersa(worse).

ębeforer, orl+ cons. often becomesie:—fierd(army) fromfaran,bieldo(boldness) frombeald,ieldra(elder) fromeald.

Bygradationthe vowels are related as follows:—

e(i, eo) ..a(æ, ea) ..u(o):—

bindan(inf.),band(pret.),bundon(they bound).beran(inf.),bær(pret.),boren(past partic.).ċeorfan(cut),ċearf(pret.),curfon(they cut),corfen(past partic.).bęnd(bond) = mutation of band,byr-þen(burden) ofbor-en.

a(æ, ea) ..ǣ:—spræc(spoke),sprǣcon(they spoke),sprǣċ(speech).

a .. ō:—faran(to go),fōr(pret.),fōr(journey).ġe·fēra(companion) mutation offōr.

ī .. ā .. i:—wrītan, wrāt, writon, ġe·writ(writing,subst.).(be)·līfan(remain),lāf(remains), whence by mutationlǣfan(leave).

ēo(ū) ..ēa .. u(o):—ċēosan(choose),ċēas, curon, coren.cys-t(choice).(for)·lēosan(lose),lēas(loose),ā·līesan(release),losian(to be lost).būgan(bend),boga(bow).

We see that the laws of gradation are most clearly shown in the conjugation of the strong verbs. But they run through the whole language, and a knowledge of the laws of gradation and mutation is the main key to O.E. etymology.

It is often necessary to supply intermediate stages in connecting two words. Thuslęċġan(lay) cannot be directly referred toliċġan(lie), but only to a form *lag-, preserved in the preteritelæġ. So alsoblęndan(to blind) can be referred only indirectly to the adjectiveblindthrough an intermediate *bland-. Again, the root-vowel ofbyrþen(burden) cannot be explained by the infinitiveberan(bear), but only by the past participleġe·boren. In the same wayhryre(fallsb.) must be referred, not to the infinitivehrēosan, but to the preterite pluralhruron.The vowel-changes in the preterites of verbs of the 'fall'-conjugation (1)feallan,fēoll, &c., are due not to gradation, but to other causes.

The vowel-changes in the preterites of verbs of the 'fall'-conjugation (1)feallan,fēoll, &c., are due not to gradation, but to other causes.

CONSONANTS.

sbecomesrin the preterite plurals and past participles of strong verbs, as incuron,ġe·corenfromċēosan,wǣronpl. ofwæs(was), and in other formations, such ashryre(fall) fromhrēosan.

þbecomesdunder the same conditions, as inwurdon,ġe·wordenfromweorþan(become),cwæþ(quoth), pl.cwǣdon,cwide(speech) fromcweþan(infin.).

ris often transposed, as iniernan(run) from original *rinnan(cp. the subst.ryne),berstan(burst) from *brestan,bærst(burstpret.) frombræst,hors(horse) from *hross.

The combinationscæ-,gæ- becomeċea-,ġea-, as inċeaf(chaff) from *cæf,sċeal(shall) from *scæl,ġeaf(gave) = *gæffromġiefan(cp.cwæþfromcweþan),ġeat(gate)—cp.fæt(vessel).

gǣ-often becomesġēa-, as inġēafon(they gave), with which comparecwǣdon(they said).

ge-becomesġie, as inġiefan,ġieldan(pay) from *gefan, *geldan—cp.cweþan,delfan. Not in the prefixġe-andġē(ye).

Whengcomes before a consonant in inflection, it often becomesh, as inhē līehþ(he lies) fromlēogan(mentiri).

hafter a consonant is dropt when a vowel follows, the preceding vowel being lengthened, thusWealh(Welshman) has pluralWēalas.

NOUNS.

Gender.There are three genders in O.E.—masculine, neuter, and feminine. The gender is partly natural, partlygrammatical. By the natural gender names of male beings, such asse mann(the man), are masculine; of female beings, such assēo dohtor(the daughter), are feminine; and of young creatures, such asþæt ċild(the child), neuter. Note, however, thatþæt wīf(woman) is neuter.

Grammatical gender is known only by the gender of the article and other words connected with the noun, and, to some extent, by its form. Thus all nouns ending in-a, such asse mōna(moon), are masculine,sēo sunne(sun) being feminine. Those ending in-dōm,-hād, and-sċipeare also masculine:—se wīsdōm(wisdom),se ċildhād(childhood),se frēondsċipe(friendship). Those in-nes,-o(from adjectives)-rǣden, and-ungare feminine:—sēo rihtwīsnes(righteousness),sēo bieldo(boldness) frombeald,sēo mann-rǣden(allegiance),sēo scotung(shooting).

Compounds follow the gender of their last element, as inþæt burg-ġeat(city-gate), fromsēo burgandþæt ġeat. Hence alsose wīf-mann(woman) is masculine.

The gender of most words can be learnt only by practice, and the student should learn each noun with its proper definite article.

Strong and Weak.Weak nouns are those which form their inflections withn, such asse mōna, pluralmōnan;sēo sunne, genitive sing.þǣre sunnan. All the others, such asse dæġ, pl.dagas,þæt hūs(house), gen. sing.þæs hūses, are strong.

Cases.There are four cases, nominative, accusative, dative, and genitive. The acc. is the same as the nom. in all plurals, in the sing. of all neuter nouns, and of all strong masculines. Masculine and neuter nouns never differ in the plural except in the nom. and acc., and in the singular they differ only in the acc. of weak nouns, which in neuters is the same as the nom. The dative plural of nearly all nouns ends in-um.

STRONG MASCULINES.

(1)as-plurals.

So alsodǣl(part),cyning(king),ċildhād(childhood).

dæġ(day) changes its vowel in the pl. (p.5):—dæġ,dæġe,dæġes;dagas,dagum,daga.

Nouns in-ehave nom. and dat. sing. the same:—ęnde, (end),ęnde,ęndes;ęndas,ęndum,ęnda.

Nouns in-el,-ol,-um,-en,-on,-er,-oroften contract:—ęnġel(angel),ęnġle,ęnġles;ęnġlas,ęnġlum,ęnġla. So alsonæġel(nail),þeġen(thane),ealdor(prince). Others, such asæcer(field), do not contract.

hafter a consonant is dropped in inflection (p.7), as infeorh(life),fēore,fēores. So also inWealh(Welshman), plur.Wēalas.

There are other classes which are represented only by a few nouns each.

(2)e-plurals.

A few nouns which occur only in the plur.:—lēode(people),lēodum,lēoda. So also several names of nations:—Ęnġle(English),Dęne(Danes);Seaxe(Saxons),Mierċe(Mercians), have gen. plur.Seaxna,Mierċna.

(3) Mutation-plurals.

So alsotōþ(tooth).Mann(man),męnn,mannes;męnn,mannum,manna.

(4)u-nouns.

So alsowudu(wood).

(5)r-nouns (including feminines).

So alsobrōþor(brother);fæder(father),dohtor(daughter), have dat. sing.fæder,dehter.

(6)nd-nouns.

Formed from the present participle of verbs.

So alsofēond(enemy).

Those in-endinflect thus:—būend(dweller),būend,būendes;būend,būendum,būendra. So alsoHǣlend(saviour). The-rais an adjectival inflection.

STRONG NEUTERS.

(1)u-plurals.

So all neuters with short final syllable, such asġe·bed(prayer),ġe·writ(writing),ġeat(gate).

Fæt(vessel),fæte,fætes;fatu,fatum,fata(p.5).

Rīċe(kingdom),rīċe,rīċes;rīċu,rīċum,rīċa. So also all neuters ine, exceptēageandēare(p.13):ġe·þēode(language),styċċe(piece).

Those in-ol,-en,-or, &c. are generally contracted:—dēofol(devil),dēofles,dēoflu. So alsowǣpen(weapon),mynster(monastery),wundor(wonder).

(2) Unchanged plurals.

So all others with long final syllables (that is, containing a long vowel, or a short vowel followed by more than one consonant), such asbearn(child),folc(nation),wīf(woman).

Feoh(money) drops itshin inflection and lengthens theeo:—feoh,fēo,fēos. So alsobleoh(colour).

STRONG FEMININES.

(1)a-plurals.

So alsolufu(love),scamu(shame).Duru(door) is anu-noun: it has acc.duru, d., g.dura, g. pl.dura. Observe that all these nouns have a short syllable before the final vowel. When it is long, theuis dropped, and the noun falls under (b).

So alsostrǣt(street),sorg(sorrow). Some have the acc. sing. the same as the nom., such asdǣd,hand,miht.

Those in-ol,-er,-or, &c. contract:—sāwol(soul),sāwle,sāwla,sāwlum. So alsoċeaster(city),hlǣdder(ladder).

Some in-endouble thenin inflection:—byrþen(burden),byrþenne. So also those in-rǣden, such ashierdrǣden(guardianship). Those in-nesalso double thesin inflection:gōdnes(goodness),gōdnesse.

(2) Mutation-plurals.

Burg(city),byriġ,burge;byriġ,burgum,burga.

(3) Indeclinable.

So alsoieldo(age).

Forr-nouns, see under Masculines.

WEAK MASCULINES.

So also all nouns in-a:—ġe·fēra(companion),guma(man),ġe·lēafa(belief).Ieldran(elders) occurs only in the plural.

Ġe·fēa(joy) is contracted throughout:—ġefēa,ġefēan.

WEAK NEUTERS.

So alsoēare'ear.'

WEAK FEMININES.

So alsoċiriċe(church),fǣmne(virgin),heorte(heart).

Lēo(lion) has acc., &c.lēon.

PROPER NAMES.

Native names of persons are declined like other nouns:—Ælfred, gen.Ælfredes, dat.Ælfrede;Ēad-burg(fem.), gen.Ēadburge, &c.

Foreign names of persons sometimes follow the analogy of native names, thusCrīst,Salomonhave gen.Crīstes,Salomones, dat.Crīste,Salomone. Sometimes they are declined as in Latin, especially those in-us, but often with a mixture of English endings, and the Latin endings are usedsomewhat loosely, the accus. ending being often extended to the other oblique cases; thus we find nom.Cȳrus, gen.Cȳres, acc.Cȳrum, dat.Cȳrum(þǣm cyninge Cȳrum).

Almost the only names of countries and districts in Old English are those taken from Latin, such asBreten(Britain),Cęnt(Kent),Ġermānia(Germany), and those formed by composition, generally withland, such asĘnġla-land(land of the English, England),Isr·ahēla-þēod(Israel). In both of these cases the first element is in the gen. pl., but ordinary compounds, such asScot-land, also occur. In other cases the name of the inhabitants of a country is used for the country itself:—on Ēast-ęnġlum= in East-anglia, lit. 'among the East-anglians.' So alsoon Angel-cynne= in England, lit. 'among the English race,' more accurately expressed byAngelcynnes land.

Uncompounded names of countries are sometimes undeclined. Thus we findon Cęnt,tō Hierusalēm.

Ġermānia,Asia, and other foreign names in-atake-ein the oblique cases, thus gen.Ġermānie.

Adjectives have three genders, and the same cases as nouns, though with partly different endings, together with strong and weak inflection. In the masc. and neut. sing. they have aninstrumentalcase, for which in the fem. and plur., and in the weak inflection the dative is used.

STRONG ADJECTIVES.

Adjectives with a short syllable before the endings take-uin the fem. sing. nom. and neut. pl. nom., those with a long one drop it.

So alsosum(some),fǣrlic(dangerous).

Those withæ, such asglæd(glad), change it toain dat.gladum, &c.

Those in-e, such asblīþe(glad), drop it in all inflections:—blīþne,blīþu,blīþre.

Those in-ig,-el,-ol,-en,-er,-oroften contract before inflections beginning with a vowel, as inhāliġ(holy),hālges,hālgum;miċel(great),miċlu,miċle. Not, of course, before consonants:—hāliġne,miċelne,miċelra.

Those in-u, such asġearu(ready), change theuinto awbefore vowels:—ġearwes,ġearwe.

Adjectives with long syllable before the endings drop theuof the fem. and neuter:—

Fēa(few) has only the plural inflections, dat.fēam, gen.fēara.

Hēah(high) drops its secondhin inflection and contracts:—hēare, nom. pl.hēa, dat.hēam, acc. sing. masc.hēanne.

Fela(many) is indeclinable.

WEAK ADJECTIVES.

The weak inflections of adjectives agree exactly with the noun ones:-

The vowel- and consonant-changes are as in the strong declension.

COMPARISON.

The comparative is formed by adding-ra, and is declined like a weak adjective:—lēof(dear),lēoframasc.,lēofrefem.,lēofranplur., etc.;mǣre(famous),mǣrra. The superlative is formed by adding-ost, and may be either weak or strong:—lēofost(dearest).

The following form their comparisons with mutation, with superlative in-est(the forms in parentheses are adverbs):—

The following show different roots:—

The following are defective as well as irregular, being formed from adverbs:—

NUMERALS.

Ānis declined like other adjectives.

Twāis declined thus:—

So alsobēġen(both),bā,bǣm,bēġra.

Þrēois declined thus:—

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