Chapter 52

Implements of Husbandry.—Where the soil is light, it will be concluded that the implements are simple. They have two kinds of plough, for one or two oxen, or for the camel, which animal is most in requisition. They tread out the grain with oxen, as in all parts of India, and not unfrequently they yoke the cattle to their hakerries,[7]or carts, and pass the whole over the grain.

Manufactures.—There is little scope for the ingenuity of the mechanic in this tract. They make coarse cotton cloths, but the raw material is almost all exported. Their grand article of manufacture is from the wool of the sheep pastured in the desert [282], which is fabricated intolois, or blankets, scarfs,[8]petticoats, turbans, of every quality. Cups and platters are made from a mineral calledabrak, a calcareous substance, of a dark chocolate ground, with light brown vermiculated stripes;[9]female ornaments of elephants’ teeth, and arms of an inferior quality. These comprehend the artificial productions of this desert capital.

Commerce.—Whatever celebrity Jaisalmer possesses, as a commercial mart, arises from its position as a place of transitbetween the eastern countries, the valley of the Indus, and those beyond that stream, the Kitars (the term for a caravan of camels) to and from Haidarabad, Rori-Bakhar, Shikarpur and Uchh, from the Gangetic provinces, and the Panjab, passing through it. The indigo of the Duab, the opium of Kotah and Malwa, the famed sugar-candy of Bikaner, iron implements from Jaipur, are exported to Shikarpur[10]and lower Sind; whence elephants’ teeth (from Africa), dates, coco-nuts, drugs, and chandan,[11]are imported, with pistachios and dried fruits from Bahawalpur.

Revenues and Taxes.—The personal revenue of the princes of Jaisalmer[12]is, or rather was, estimated at upwards of four lakhs of rupees, of which more than one lakh was from the land.[13]The transit duties were formerly the most certain and most prolific branch of the fiscal income; but the bad faith of the minister, the predatory habits of the Bhatti chiefs proceeding mainly from thence, and the general decrease of commerce, have conspired nearly to annihilate this source of income, said at one time to reach three lakhs of rupees. These imposts are termeddan, and the collectordani, who was stationed at convenient points of all the principal routes which diverge from the capital.

Land-tax.—From one-fifth to one-seventh of the gross produce of the land is set aside as the tax of the crown, never exceeding the first nor falling short of the last.[14]It is paid in kind, which is purchased on the spot by the Paliwal Brahmans, or Banias, and the value remitted to the treasury [283].

Dhuan.—The third and now the most certain branch of revenue is thedhuan, literally ‘smoke,’ and which we may render ‘chimney or hearth-tax,’ though they have neither the one nor the other in these regions. It is also termedthali, which is the brass or silver platter out of which they eat, and is tantamount to a table-allowance. It never realizes above twenty thousand rupees annually, which, however, would be abundant for the simple fare of Jaisalmer. No house is exempt from the payment of this tax.

Dand.—There is an arbitrary tax levied throughout these regions, universally known and detested under the name ofdand, the make-weight of all their budgets of ways and means. It was first imposed in Jaisalmer in S. 1830 (A.D.1774), under the less odious appellation of ‘additionaldhuanorthali,’ and the amount was only two thousand seven hundred rupees, to be levied from the monied interest of the capital. The Mahesris[15]agreed to pay their share, but the Oswals (the two chief mercantile classes) holding out, were forcibly sent up to the castle, and suffered the ignominious punishment of the bastinado. They paid the demand, but immediately on their release entered into a compact on oath, never again to look on the Rawal’s (Mulraj’s) face, which was religiously kept during their mutual lives. When he passed through the streets of his capital, the Oswals abandoned their shops and banking-houses, retiring to the interior of their habitations in order to avoid the sight of him. This was strenuously persevered in for many years, and had such an effect upon the prince, that he visited the principal persons of this class, and ‘spreading his scarf’ (pala pasarna),[16]intreated forgiveness, giving a writing on oath never again to imposedand, if they would make thedhuana permanent tax. The Oswals accepted the repentance of their prince, and agreed to his terms. In S. 1841 and 1852, his necessities compelling him to raise money, he obtained by loan, in the first period, twenty-seven thousand, and in the latter, forty thousand rupees, which he faithfullyrepaid. When the father of the present minister came into power, he endeavoured to get back the bond of his sovereign abrogating the obnoxiousdand, and offered, as a bait, to renounce thedhuan. The Oswals placed more value on the virtue of this instrument than it merited, for in spite of the bond, he in S. 1857 levied sixty thousand, and in 1863, eighty thousand rupees. A visit of the Rawal to the Ganges was seized upon as a fit opportunity by his subjects to get this oppression redressed, and fresh oaths were made by the prince, and broken by the minister, who has bequeathed his rapacious spirit to his son [284].

Since the accession of Gaj Singh, only two years ago,[17]Salim Singh has extorted fourteen lakhs (£140,000). Bardhman, a merchant of great wealth and respectability, and whose ancestors are known and respected throughout Rajwara as Sahukars, has been at various times stripped of all his riches by the minister and his father, who, to use the phraseology of the sufferers, “will never be satisfied while a rupee remains in Jaisalmer.”

Establishments, Expenditure.—We subjoin a rough estimate of the household establishment, etc., of this desert king:

The ministers and officers of government receive assignments on the transit-duties, and some have lands. The whole of this State-expenditure was more than covered, in some years, by the transit-duties alone; which have, it is asserted, amounted to the almost incredible sum of three lakhs, or £30,000.

Tribes.—We shall conclude our account of Jaisalmer with a few remarks on the [285] tribes peculiar to it; though we reserve the general enumeration for a sketch of the desert.

Of its Rajput population, the Bhattis, we have already given an outline in the general essay on the tribes.[22]Those which occupy the present limits of Jaisalmer retain their Hindu notions, though with some degree of laxity from their intercourse with the Muhammadans on the northern and western frontiers; while those which long occupied the north-east tracts, towards Phulra and the Gara, on becoming proselytes to Islam ceased to have either interest in or connexion with the parent State. The Bhatti has not, at present, the same martial reputation as the Rathor, Chauhan, or Sesodia, but he is deemed at least to equal if not surpass the Kachhwaha, or any of its kindred branches, Naruka or Shaikhavat. There are occasional instances of Bhatti intrepidity as daring as may be found amongst any other tribe; witness the feud between the chiefs of Pugal and Mandor. But this changes not the national characteristic as conventionally established; though were we to go back to the days of chivalryand Prithiraj, we should select Achalesa Bhatti, one of the bravest of his champions, for the portrait of his race. The Bhatti Rajput, as to physical power, is not perhaps so athletic as the Rathor, or so tall as the Kachhwaha, but generally fairer than either, and possessing those Jewish features which Mr. Elphinstone remarked as characteristic of the Bikaner Rajputs. The Bhatti intermarries with all the families of Rajwara, though seldom with the Ranas of Mewar. The late Jagat Singh of Jaipur had five wives of this stock, and his posthumous son, real or reputed, has a Bhattiani for his mother.[23]

Dress.—The dress of the Bhattis consists of ajama, or tunic of white cloth or chintz reaching to the knee; thekamarband, or ceinture, tied so high as to present no appearance of waist; trousers very loose, and in many folds, drawn tight at the ankle, and a turban, generally of a scarlet colour, rising conically full a foot from the head. A dagger is stuck in the waistband; a shield is suspended by a thong of deer-skin from the left shoulder, and the sword is girt by a belt of the same material. The dress of the common people is thedhoti, or loin-robe, generally of woollen stuff, with a piece of the same material as a turban. The dress of the Bhattianis, which discriminates the sex, consists of aghaghra, or petticoat, extending to thirty feet in width, made generally of the finer woollen, dyed a brilliant red, with a scarf of the same material. The grand ornament of rich and poor, though varying in the materials, is thechuri, or rings of ivory or bone, with which they cover their arms from the shoulder to [286] the wrist.[24]They are in value from sixteen to thirty-fiverupees a set, and imported from Maskat-Mandavi, though they also manufacture them at Jaisalmer. Silverkaris(massive rings or anklets) are worn by all classes, who deny themselves the necessaries of life until they attain this ornament. The poorer Rajputnis are very masculine, and assist in all the details of husbandry.

Use of Opium.—The Bhatti is to the full as addicted as any of his brethren to the immoderate use of opium. To theamalpani, or ‘infusion,’ succeeds the pipe, and they continue inhaling mechanically the smoke long after they are insensible to all that is passing around them; nay, it is said, you may scratch or pinch them while in this condition without exciting sensation. Thehukkais the dessert to theamalpani; the panacea for all the ills which can overtake a Rajput, and with which he can at any time enjoy a paradise of his own creation. To ask a Bhatti for a whiff of his pipe would be deemed a direct insult.

Pāliwāls.—Next to the lordly Rajputs, equalling them in numbers and far surpassing them in wealth, are the Paliwals. They are Brahmans, and denominated Paliwal from having been temporal proprietors of Pali, and all its lands, long before the Rathors colonized Marwar. Tradition is silent as to the manner in which they became possessed of this domain; but it is connected with the history of the Pali, or pastoral tribes, who from the town of Pali to Palitana, in Saurashtra, have left traces of their existence;[25]and I am much mistaken if it will not one day be demonstrated, that all the ramifications of the races figuratively denominated Agnikula, were Pali in origin; more especially the Chauhans, whose princes and chiefs for ages retained the distinctive affix ofpal.

These Brahmans, the Paliwals, as appears by the Annals of Marwar, held the domain of Pali when Siahji, at the end of the twelfth century, invaded that land from Kanauj, and by an act of treachery first established his power.[26]It is evident, however, that he did not extirpate them, for the cause of their migration tothe desert of Jaisalmer [287] is attributed to a period of a Muhammadan invasion of Marwar, when a general war-contribution (dand) being imposed on the inhabitants, the Paliwals pleaded caste, and refused. This exasperated the Raja; for as their habits were almost exclusively mercantile, their stake was greater than that of the rest of the community, and he threw their principal men into prison. In order to avenge this, they had recourse to a grandchandni, or ‘act of suicide’; but instead of gaining their object, he issued a manifesto of banishment to every Paliwal in his dominions. The greater part took refuge in Jaisalmer, though many settled in Bikaner, Dhat, and the valley of Sind. At one time their number in Jaisalmer was calculated to equal that of the Rajputs. Almost all the internal trade of the country passes through their hands, and it is chiefly with their capital that its merchants trade in foreign parts. They are the Metayers of the desert, advancing money to the cultivators, taking the security of the crop; and they buy up all the wool andghi(clarified butter), which they transport to foreign parts. They also rear and keep flocks. The minister, Salim Singh, has contrived to diminish their wealth, and consequently to lose the main support of the country’s prosperity. They are also subject to the visits of the Maldots, Tejmallots, and other plunderers; but they find it difficult to leave the country owing to the restrictive cordon of the Mehta. The Paliwals never marry out of their own tribe; and, directly contrary to the laws of Manu,[27]the bridegroom gives a sum of money to the father of the bride. It will be deemed a curious incident in the history of superstition, that a tribe, Brahman by name, at least, should worship the bridle of a horse. When to this is added the fact that the most ancient coins discovered in these regions bear the Pali character and the effigies of the horse, it aids to prove the Scythic character of the early colonists of these regions, who, although nomadic (Pali), were equestrian. There is little doubt that the Paliwal Brahmans are the remains of the priests of the Pali race, who, in their pastoral and commercial pursuits, have lost their spiritual power.[28]

Pokharna Brāhmans.— Another singular tribe, also Brahmanical, is the Pokharna, of whom it is calculated there are fifteenhundred to two thousand families in Jaisalmer. They are also numerous in Marwar and Bikaner, and are scattered over the desert and valley of the Indus. They follow agricultural and pastoral pursuits chiefly, having little or no concern in trade. The tradition of their origin is singular; it is said that they were Beldars, and excavated the sacred lake of Pushkar or Pokhar, for which act they obtained the favour of the deity and the grade of Brahmans, with the title of Pokharna. Their chief object of emblematic worship, thekudala, a kind of pick-axe used in digging, seems to favour this tradition [288].[29]

Jats or Jāts.—The Jats here, as elsewhere, form a great part of the agricultural population; there are also various other tribes, which will be better described in a general account of the desert.

Castle of Jaisalmer.—The castle of this desert king is erected on an almost insulated peak, from two hundred to two hundred and fifty feet in height, a strong wall running round the crest of the hill. It has four gates, but very few cannon mounted. The city is to the north, and is surrounded by ashahrpanah, or circumvallation, encompassing a space of nearly three miles, having three gates and two wickets. In the city are some good houses belonging to rich merchants, but the greater part consists of huts. The Raja’s palace is said to possess some pretension to grandeur, perhaps comparative.[30]Were he on good terms with his vassalage, he could collect for its defence five thousand infantry and one thousand horse, besides his camel-corps; but it may be doubted whether, under the oppressive system of the monster who has so long continued to desolate that region, one half of this force could be brought together [289].[31]

1. [The State, according to later surveys, lies between 26° 4´ and 28° 23´ N. lat. and 69° 30´ and 72° 42´ E. long., with an area of 16,062 square miles. In 1911 the population amounted to 80,891, that of the capital, Jaisalmer, being 7420. There were 471 villages in the State, the average population of which was even lower than of those in Bikaner.]

2. [Rocks of Jurassic age, such as sandstone, shales, and limestone, crop up beneath the sand, and a large area of Nummulitic rock occurs to the N.W. of the capital (IGI, xiv. 1).]

3. [Cenchrus catharticus.]

4. So Mr. Elphinstone describes the tract about Pugal, one of the earliest possessions of the Bhattis, and one of the Naukotī Maru-ki, or ‘nine castles of the desert,’ around whose sand-hills as brave a colony was reared and maintained as ever carried lance. Rao Raning was lord of Pugal, whose son originated that episode given on p. 733. Even these sand-hills which in November appeared to Mr. Elphinstone without a sign of vegetation, could be made to yield good crops of bajra.

5. [About 20 miles N.W. of Jaisalmer city.]

6. About a hundredweight for two shillings.

7. [Hindustānichhakra, ‘a cart’ (Yule,Hobson-Jobson, 2nd ed. 407 f.).]

8. I brought home several pairs of these, with crimson borders, sufficiently fine to be worn as a winter shawl in this country.

9. [Commonly known as soapstone or potstone, a soft magnesian or talcose mineral (Watt,Comm. Prod.1049 f.).]

10. Shikarpur, the great commercial mart of the valley of Sind, west of the Indus.

11. Chandan is a scented wood formalas, or ‘chaplets.’ [Sandalwood,Pterocarpus santalinus(Watt,Comm. Prod.909).]

12. I have no correct data for estimating the revenues of the chieftains. They are generally almost double the land-revenue of the princes in the other States of Rajwara; perhaps about two lakhs, which ought to bring into the field seven hundred horse.

13. [The normal revenue at present is about one lakh of rupees. The transit duties have been largely reduced.]

14. This, if strictly true and followed, is according to ancient principles; Manu ordains the sixth. I could have wished Colonel Briggs to have known this fact, when he was occupied on his excellent work onThe Land-tax of India; but it had entirely escaped my recollection. In this most remote corner of Hindustan, in spite of oppression, it is curious to observe the adherence to primitive custom. These notes on the sources of revenue in Jaisalmer were communicated to me so far back as 1811, and I laid them before the Bengal Government in 1814-15.

15. [The Mahesri trading class, which derive their name from that of their caste deity, Mahesh, ‘the great lord,’ a title of Siva or Mahādeo, claim descent from Chauhān, Parihār, or Solanki Rājputs (Census Report, Mārwār, 1891, ii. 131).]

16.Pala pasārna, or ‘to spread the cloth or scarf,’ is the figurative language of entreaty, arising from the act of spreading the garment, preparatory to bowing the head thereon in token of perfect submission.

17. This was written in 1821-22.

18. TheBarincludes the whole household or personal attendants, the guards, and slaves. They receive rations of food, and make up the rest of their subsistence by labour in the town. TheBarconsists of about 1000 people, and is estimated to cost 20,000 rupees annually.

19. Rozgar-Sardar is an allowance termedkansa, or ‘dinner,’ to the feudal chieftains who attend the Presence. Formerly they had an order upon the Danis, or collectors of the transit-duties; but being vexatious, Pansa Sah, minister to Rawal Chaitra, commuted it for a daily allowance, varying, with the rank of the person, from half a silver rupee to seven rupees each, daily. This disbursement is calculated at 40,000 rupees annually.

20. Sihbandis are mercenary soldiers in the fort, of whom 1000 are estimated to cost 75,000 rupees annually. [The word seems to mean ‘persons paid quarterly’ (Yule,Hobson-Jobson, 2nd ed. 805).]

21. [A man riding his own horse was called Silahdār, ‘equipment-holder’; one riding a horse belonging to the State or to some one else was Bārgīr, ‘burden-taker’ (Irvine,Army of the Indian Moghuls, 37).]

22. Vol. I. p.102.

23. [Bhatti women have a reputation for strength and beauty. One of them was the mother of Fīroz Shāh Tughlak (Elliot-Dowson iii. 272).]

24. The churi of ivory, bone, or shell is the most ancient ornament of the Indo-Scythic dames, and appears in old sculpture and painting. [For bangles made of conch-shell, see J. Hornell,The Sacred Chank of India, Madras, 1914.] I was much struck with some ancient sculptures in a very old Gothic church at Moissac, in Languedoc. The porch is the only part left of this most antique fane, attributed to the age of Dagobert. It represents the conversion of Clovis, and when the subject was still a matter of novelty. But interesting as this is, it is as nothing when compared to some sculptured figures below, of a totally distinct age; in execution as far superior as they are dissimilar in character, which is decidedly Asiatic; the scarf, thechampakalior necklace, representing the buds of the jessamine (champa), andchuris, such as I have been describing. To whom but the Visigoths can we ascribe them?—and does not this supply the connecting link of this Asiatic race, destined to change the moral aspect of Europe? [?] I recommend all travellers, who are interested in tracing such analogies, to visit the church at Moissac, though it is not known as an object of curiosity in the neighbourhood.

25. [There is no evidence in support of this suggestion.]

26. See p.942.

27. [Laws, iii. 31.]

28. [For the Pāliwāl Brāhmans see J. Wilson,Indian Caste, ii. 119;Census Report, Mārwār, 1891, ii. 79 f.]

29. [SeeCensus Report, Mārwār, 1891, ii. 61 ff.]

30. [The Mahārāvali palace, the top of which is 987 feet above sea-level, surmounts the main entrance of the fort, and is “an imposing pile crowned by a huge umbrella of metal, a solid emblem of dignity of which the Bhatti chiefs are justly proud; but the interior is ill-arranged, and space is frittered away in numberless small apartments” (Erskine iii. A. 38).]

31. It has been reported that the dagger has since rid the land of its tyrant. The means matter little, if the end is accomplished. Even assassination loses much of its odious character when resorted to for such a purpose. [Gaj Singh died in his bed in 1846.]

Printed byR. & R. Clark, Limited,Edinburgh.

Transcriber’s NoteThere are references to Genealogical Tables in Volume I, which were not reprinted in this Crooke edition.The spelling of names and places is variable, as noted in the Editor’s introduction to Volume I, as the system of transliteration underwent many changes in the intervening century. The use of macrons was not yet introduced in James Tod’s day. This text, with very few exceptions, follows the text as printed.Hyphenation of compound words follows the text, with the rare exception of when it occurs on a line break and the preponderance of other instances provides clear guidance.On p. 703, Tod’s note28gives the Persian character ﺙ as ‘p’. The character pe (پ) has the three points below, not above.Where punctuation is suspect, the correct solution was sought in the text of Tod’s original edition.Errors deemed most likely to be the printer’s have been corrected, and are noted here.This list contains issues in the main text. References are to the page and line in the original.618.25for the protection of the temple[.]Added.656.38may [i]nfluence the manners of a nation.Inserted.664.15the glorious [of memory/memory of] his ancestorWords transposed.672.2died a natural death[.]Added.682.20or split-ear ascetics[.]Added.709.18Leur sort est un[e] boussole sûr[e] pour le premier regardAdded.719.8[“]separated from his mateAdded.719.26asis(blessing[)]Added.726.14[“]The king sought the bardAdded.727.8[“]In vain she sought the rings of his corsletRemoved.755.16[‘/“]all’s well,”Replaced.860.20with thetikaand gifts, [and gifts, ]and other symbolsRemoved.866.23was father-in[ /-]law to his rivalReplaced.895.34which we do not fail to encourage[.]Added.898.19there occurs a ri[g/c]hly carved corbeilleReplaced.915.3Such is the Jit’h[a]Added.933.25see [Table I. Vol. I.]Not reprinted.959.22every part o[f] RajputanaAdded.964.2which would otherwise perish[.]Added.1035.10for the persecutor of Durgadas[.]Added.1060.13out of Maru[:/.]Replaced.1113.29or courts o[r/f] arbitrationReplaced.The following list contains issues corrected or noted in the footnote text. The reference is to the original page, the resequenced note number, and the line within the note.602.4.5that he m[i]raculouslyRestored.725.1.1History of the Late Revolution o[f] the EmpireRestored.750.1.24Rāsmāla, 557[)].Removed.819.3.3(Yule,Hobson-Jobson, 2nd ed. 15[)].Added.884.3.13‘city of the heavenly choristers.[’]Added.839.2.2(Erskine iii. A. 196[)].Added.934.1.1(IGI, xv. 398[)].Added.935.4.1classically Vijayapala, ‘Fosterer of Victory.[’]Added.948.2.12[“]Even in this, is there much vanity,”Added.1037.4.2rather Nāgapura[./,] capital of the Nāga septReplaced.1084.2.1[Nineteen miles S.W. of Bikaner city.[]]Added.1118.3.1see Watt,op. cit.112 ff.[).]Removed.1134.1.7see Sykes,Hist. of Persia, i. 257[)].Removed.1136.1.1Ferishta’s History of the Dek[h/k]anReplaced.1156.1.5(Bilimoria,Letters of Aurangzeb, 75.[)]Added.1186.3.9See Map, Vol. I.Actually, Vol. III.1194.1.70and many others[)].Added.1197.37Rae S[e/a]hra and his tribe of LangahaReplaced.1221.1.3[(]Rose,Glossary, ii. 353 f.;ASR, ii. 17).Added.

Transcriber’s Note

There are references to Genealogical Tables in Volume I, which were not reprinted in this Crooke edition.

The spelling of names and places is variable, as noted in the Editor’s introduction to Volume I, as the system of transliteration underwent many changes in the intervening century. The use of macrons was not yet introduced in James Tod’s day. This text, with very few exceptions, follows the text as printed.

Hyphenation of compound words follows the text, with the rare exception of when it occurs on a line break and the preponderance of other instances provides clear guidance.

On p. 703, Tod’s note28gives the Persian character ﺙ as ‘p’. The character pe (پ) has the three points below, not above.

Where punctuation is suspect, the correct solution was sought in the text of Tod’s original edition.

Errors deemed most likely to be the printer’s have been corrected, and are noted here.

This list contains issues in the main text. References are to the page and line in the original.

The following list contains issues corrected or noted in the footnote text. The reference is to the original page, the resequenced note number, and the line within the note.

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