FOOTNOTES

[1]See Woods, Frederick Adams, "Laws of Diminishing Environmental Influences,"Popular Science Monthly, April, 1910, pp. 313-336; Huxley, J. S.,The Individual in the Animal Kingdom, Cambridge and New York, 1912. Pike, F. H., and Scott, E. L., "The Significance of Certain Internal Conditions of the Organism in Organic Evolution,"American Naturalist, Vol. XLIX, pp. 321-359, June, 1915.[2]There is one line of experiment which is simple and striking enough to deserve mention—namely, ovarian transplantation. A description of this is given in Appendix A.[3]Galton, Francis,Inquiries into Human Faculty, 1907 edition, pp. 153-173. This volume of Galton's, which was first published in 1883, has been reissued in Everyman's Library, and should be read by all eugenists.[4]What is said here refers to positive correlations, which are the only kind involved in this problem. Correlations may also be negative, lying between 0 and -1; for instance, if we measured the correlation between a man's lack of appetite and the time that had elapsed since his last meal, we would have to express it by a negative fraction, the minus sign showing that the greater his satiety, the less would be the time since his repast. The best introduction to correlations is Elderton'sPrimer of Statistics(London, 1912).[5]Dr. Thorndike's careful measurements showed that it is impossible to draw a hard and fast line between identical twins and ordinary twins. There is no question as to the existence of the two kinds, but the ordinary twins may happen to be so nearly alike as to resemble identical twins. Accordingly, mere appearance is not a safe criterion of the identity of twins. His researches were published in theArchives of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods, No. 1, New York, 1905.[6]A First Study of the Inheritance of Vision and the Relative Influence of Heredity and Environment on Sight.By Amy Barrington and Karl Pearson. Eugenics Laboratory (London), Memoir Series V.[7]Dr. James Alexander Wilson, assistant surgeon of the Opthalmic Institute, Glasgow, published an analysis of 1,500 cases of myopia in theBritish Medical Journal, p. 395, August 29, 1914. His methods are not above criticism, and too much importance should not be attached to his results, which show that in 58% of the cases heredity can be credited with the myopia of the patient. In 12% of the cases it was due to inflammation of the cornea (keratitis) while in the remaining 30% no hereditary influence could be proved, but various reasons made him feel certain that in many cases it existed. The distribution of myopia by trades and professions among his patients is suggestive: 65% of the cases among school children showed myopic heredity; 63% among housewives and domestic servants; 68% among shop and factory works; 60% among clerks and typists; 60% among laborers and miners. If environment really played an active part, one would not expect to find this similarity in percentages between laborers and clerks, between housewives and schoolteachers, etc.[8]The Influence of Unfavourable Home Environment and Defective Physique on the Intelligence of School Children.By David Heron. Eugenics Laboratory (London), Memoir Series No. VIII.[9]Hereditary Genius; an Inquiry into its Laws and Consequences.London, 1869.[10]Woods, Frederick Adams, "Heredity and the Hall of Fame,"Popular Science Monthly, May, 1913.[11]Woods, Frederick Adams,Mental and Moral Heredity in Royalty, New York, 1906. See also "Sovereigns and the Supposed Influence of Opportunity,"Science, n. s., XXXIX, No. 1016, pp. 902-905, June 19, 1914, where Dr. Woods answers some criticisms of his work.[12]Educational Psychology, Vol. III, p. 306. Starch's results are also quoted from Thorndike.[13]Jean Baptiste Lamarck, a French naturalist, born in 1744, was one of the pioneers in the philosophical study of evolution. The theory (published in 1809) for which he is best known is as follows: "Changes in the animal's surroundings are responded to by changes in its habits." "Any particular habit involves the regular use of some organs and the disuse of others. Those organs which are used will be developed and strengthened, those not used diminished and weakened, and the changes so produced will be transmitted to the offspring, and thus progressive development of particular organs will go on from generation to generation." His classical example is the neck of the giraffe, which he supposes to be long because, for generation after generation, the animals stretched their necks in order to get the highest leaves from the trees.[14]Boas, F.,Changes in Body Form of Descendants of Immigrants, 1911.[15]Civilization and Climate.By Ellsworth Huntington, Yale University Press, 1916.[16]American Naturalist, L., pp. 65-89, 144-178, Feb. and Mar., 1916.[17]Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.LV, pp. 243-259, 1916.[18]Dr. Reid is the author who has most effectively called attention to this relation between alcohol and natural selection. Those interested will find a full treatment in his books,The Present Evolution of Man,The Laws of Heredity, andThe Principles of Heredity.[19]Principles of Psychology, ii, p. 543.[20]Leon J. Cole points out that this may be due in considerable part to less voluntary restriction of offspring on the part of those who are often under the influence of alcohol.[21]For a review of the statistical problems involved, see Karl Pearson. An attempt to correct some of the misstatements made by Sir Victor Horsley, F. R. S., F. R. C. S., and Mary D. Sturge, M. D., in their criticisms of the Galton Laboratory Memoir:First Study of the Influence of Parental Alcoholism, etc.; and Professor Pearson's various popular lectures, alsoA Second Study of the Influence of Parental Alcoholism on the Physique and Intelligence of Offspring. By Karl Pearson and Ethel M. Elderton. Eugenics Laboratory Memoir Series XIII.[22]A First Study of the Influence of Parental Alcoholism on the Physique and Intelligence of Offspring.By Ethel M. Elderton and Karl Pearson. Eugenics Laboratory Memoir Series X. Harald Westergaard, who reëxamined the Elderton-Pearson data, concludes that considerable importance is to be attached to the selective action of alcohol, the weaklings in the alcoholic families having been weeded out early in life.[23]Prohibition would have someindirecteugenic effects, which will be discussed in Chapter XVIII.[24]Chapter XXX, verses 31-43. A knowledge of the pedigree of Laban's cattle would undoubtedly explain where the stripes came from. It is interesting to note how this idea persists: a correspondent has recently sent an account of seven striped lambs born after their mothers had seen a striped skunk. The actual explanation is doubtless that suggested by Heller in theJournal of Heredity, VI, 480 (October, 1915), that a stripe is part of the ancestral coat pattern of the sheep, and appears from time to time because of reversion.[25]Such a skin affection, known as icthyosis, xerosis or xeroderma, is usually due to heredity. Davenport says it "is especially apt to be found in families in which consanguineous marriages occur and this fact, together with the pedigrees [which he studied], suggests that it is due to the absence of some factor that controls the process of cornification of the skin. On this hypothesis a normal person who belongs to an affected family may marry into a normal family with impunity, but cousin marriages are to be avoided." See Davenport, C. B.,Heredity in Relation to Eugenics, p. 134. New York, 1911.[26]Its eugenics is to be effected through the mental exertion of mothers. And we have lately been in correspondence with a western attorney who is endeavoring to form an association of persons who will agree to be the parents of "willed" children. By this means, he has calculated (and sends a chart to prove it) that it will require only four generations to produce the Superman.[27]Life and Letters of Charles Darwin, Vol. I, p. 302, New York, 1897. The letter is dated 1844.[28]Goddard, H. H.,Feeble-mindedness, p. 359. New York, the Macmillan Company, 1914.[29]For a review of the evidence consult an article on "Telegony" by Dr. Etienne Rabaud in theJournal of Heredity, Vol. V, No. 9, pp. 389-400; September, 1914.[30]It will be recalled that the coefficient of correlation measures the resemblance between two variables on a scale between 0 and-1 or +1. If the correlation is zero, there is no constant relation; if it is unity, any change in one must result in a determinate change in the other; if it is 0.5, it means that when one of the variables deviates from the mean of its class by a given amount, the other variable will deviate from the mean of its class by 50% of that amount (each deviation being measured in terms of the variability of its own class, in order that they may be properly comparable.)[31]Sidis, Boris, M.A., Ph.D., M.D., "Neurosis and Eugenics,"Medical Review ofReviews, Vol. XXI, No. 10, pp. 587-594, New York, October, 1915. A psychologist who writes of "some miraculous germ-plasm (chromatin) with wonderful dominant 'units' (Chromosomes)" is hardly a competent critic of the facts of heredity.[32]In a letter to theJournal of Heredity, under date of August 4, 1916.[33]Galton, Francis,Inquiries into Human Faculty, p. 167, London, 1907.[34]Woods, Frederick Adams,Heredity in Royalty, New York, 1906.[35]Op. cit., pp. 170-171.[36]Thorndike, E. L., "Measurements of Twins,"Arch. of Philos., Psych. and Sci. Methods, No. 1, New York, 1905; summarized in hisEducational Psychology, Vol. III, pp. 247-251, New York, 1914. Measured on a scale where 1 = identity, he found that twins showed a resemblance to each other of about .75, while ordinary brothers of about the same age resembled each other to the extent of about .50 only. The resemblance was approximately the same in both physical and mental traits.[37]The quotations in this and the following paragraph are fromThorndike's Educational Psychology, pp. 304-305, Vol. III.[38]Biometrika, Vol. III, p. 156.[39]"William of Occam's Razor" is the canon of logic which declares that it is unwise to seek for several causes of an effect, if a single cause is adequate to account for it.[40]Schuster, Edgar,Eugenics, pp. 150-163, London, 1913.[41]Educational Psychology(1914), Vol. III, p. 235.[42]Cobb, Margaret V.,Journal of Educational Psychology, viii, pp. 1-20, Jan., 1917.[43]This is not true of the small English school of biometrists, founded by Sir Francis Galton, W. F. R. Weldon and Karl Pearson, and now led by the latter. It has throughout denied or minified Mendelian results, and depended on the treatment of inheritance by a study of correlations. With the progress of Mendelian research, biometric methods must be supplemented with pedigree studies. In human heredity, on the other hand, because of the great difficulties attendant upon an application of Mendelian methods, the biometric mode of attack is still the most useful, and has been largely used in the present book. It has been often supposed that the methods of the two schools (biometry and Mendelism) are antagonistic. They are rather supplementary, each being valuable in cases where the other is less applicable. See Pearl, Raymond,Modes of Research in Genetics, p. 182, New York, 1915[44]Few people realize what large numbers of plants and animals have been bred for experimental purposes during the last decade; W. E. Castle of Bussey Institution, Forest Hills, Mass., has bred not less than 45,000 rats. In the study of a single character, the endosperm of maize, nearly 100,000 pedigreed seeds have been examined by different students. Workers at the University of California have tabulated more than 10,000 measurements on flower size alone, in tobacco hybrids. T. H. Morgan and his associates at Columbia University have bred and studied more than half a million fruit flies, and J. Arthur Harris has handled more than 600,000 bean-plants at the Carnegie Institution's Station for Experimental Evolution, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I. While facts of human heredity, and of inheritance in large mammals generally, are often grounded on scanty evidence, it must not be thought that the fundamental generalizations of heredity are based on insufficient data.[45]For a brief account of Mendelism, see Appendix D.[46]Of course these factors are not of equal importance; some of them produce large changes and some, as far as can be told, are of minor significance. The factors, moreover, undergo large changes from time to time, thus producing mutations; and it is probable small changes as well, the evidence for which requires greater refinements of method than is usual among those using the pedigree method.[47]A Critique of the Theory of Evolution, by Thomas Hunt Morgan, professor of experimental zoölogy in Columbia University. Princeton University Press, 1916. This book gives the best popular account of the studies of heredity in Drosophila. The advanced student will findThe Mechanism of Mendelian Heredity(New York, 1915), by Morgan, Sturtevant, Müller, and Bridges, indispensable, but it is beyond the comprehension of most beginners.[48]"On the Inheritance of Some Characters in Wheat," A. and G. Howard,Mem. Dep. of Agr. India, V: 1-46, 1912. This careful and important work has never received the recognition it deserves, apparently because few geneticists have seen it. While the multiple factors in wheat seem to be different, those reported by East and Shull appear to be merely duplicates.[49]"The Nature of Mendelian Units." By G. N. Collins,Journal of Heredity, V: 425 ff., Oct., 1914.[50]Dr. Castle, reviewing Dr. Goddard's work (Journal of Abnormal Psychology, Aug.-Sept., 1915) concludes that feeble-mindedness is to be explained as a case of multiple allelomorphs. The evidence is inadequate to prove this, and proof would be, in fact, almost impossible, because of the difficulty of determining just what the segregation ratios are.[51]In strict accuracy, the law of ancestral inheritance must be described as giving means of determining the probable deviation of any individual from the mean of his own generation, when the deviations of some or all of his ancestry from the types of their respective generations are known. It presupposes (1) no assortative mating, (2) no inbreeding and (3) no selection. Galton's own formula, which supposed that the parents contributed ½, the grandparents ¼, the great-grandparents ⅛, the next generation ⅟16, and so on, is of value now only historically, or to illustrate to a layman the fact that he inherits from his whole ancestry, not from his parents alone.[52]Johnson, Roswell H., "The Malthusian Principle and Natural Selection,"American Naturalist, XLVI (1912), pp. 372-376.[53]Karl Pearson,The Groundwork of Eugenics, p. 25, London, 1912.[54]"Letpbe the chance of death from a random, not a constitutional source, then 1-pis the chance of a selective death in a parent and 1-pagain of a selective death in the case of an offspring, then(1-p)2must equal about ⅓, = .36, more exactly ∴ 1-p= .6 andp= .40. In other words, 60% of the deathsare selective."[55]Archiv f. Rassen-u. Gesellschafts Biologie, VI (1909), pp. 33-43.[56]Snow, E. C.,On the Intensity of Natural Selection in Man, London, 1911.[57]Biometrika, Vol. X, pp. 488-506, London, May, 1915.[58]Pearson, Karl,Tuberculosis, Heredity and Environment, London, 1912. Among the most careful contributions to the problem of tuberculosis are those of Charles Goring (On the Inheritance of the Diathesis of Phthisis and Insanity, London, 1910), Ernest G. Pope (A Second Study of the Statistics of Pulmonary Tuberculosis, London, Dulau & Co.), and W. P. Elderton and S. J. Perry (A Third Study of the Statistics of Pulmonary Tuberculosis. The Mortality of the Tuberculous and Sanatorium Treatment), London, 1909. See also our discussion in Chapter I.[59]While most physicians lay too great stress on the factor of infection, this mistake is by no means universal. Maurice Fishberg, for example (quoted in theMedical Review of Reviews, XXII, 8, August, 1916) states: "For many years the writer was physician to a charitable society, having under his care annually 800 to 1,000 consumptives who lived in poverty and want, in overcrowded tenements, having all opportunities to infect their consorts; in fact most of the consumptives shared their bed with their healthy consorts. Still, very few cases were met with in which tuberculosis was found in both the husband and wife. Widows, whose husbands died from phthisis, were only rarely seen to develop the disease."[60]In 9th Trans. ofAmerican Association for the Study and Prevention of Tuberculosis, p. 117.[61]Geographical and Historical Pathology(New Sydenham Society, 1883), Vol. III, p. 266.[62]Reid, G. Archdall,The Present Evolution of Man, andThe Laws of Heredity.[63]In the South Seas,p. 27; quoted by G. Archdall Reid,The Principles of Heredity(New York, 1905), p. 183. Dr. Reid has discussed the rôle of disease and alcohol on the modern evolution of man more fully than any other writer.[64]See, for example, John West'sHistory of Tasmania, Vol. II, Launceston, Tasmania, 1852.[65]See Hollingworth, H. L.,Vocational Psychology, p. 170, New York, 1916.[66]Net increase here refers only to the first year of life, and was computed by deducting the deaths under one year, in a ward, from the number of births in the same ward for the same year. For details of this study of the Pittsburgh vital statistics, see theJournal of Heredity, Vol. VIII, pp. 178-183 (April, 1917).[67]Quoted from Newsholme and Stevenson,The Decline of Human Fertility, London, 1906.[68]Heron, David,On the Relation of Fertility in Man to Social Status, London, 1906. The account is quoted from Schuster, Edgar,Eugenics, pp. 220-221, London, 1913.[69]Ztschft. f. Sozialwissenschaft,VII (1904), pp. 1 ff.[70]Two of the best known of these tribes are the "Jukes" and "Nams." "An analysis of the figures of the Jukes in regard to the birth-rate shows that of a total of 403 married Juke women, 330 reproduced one or more children and 73 were barren. The average fecundity, counting those who are barren, is 3.526 children per female. The 330 women having children have an average fecundity of 4.306 as compared with that of 4.025, based on 120 reproducing women in the Nam family."—Estabrook, A. H.,The Jukes in 1915, p. 51, Washington, Carnegie Institution, 1916.[71]Woods, Frederick Adams,Heredity in Royalty, New York, 1906.[72]Beeton, Miss M., Yule, G.U., and Pearson, Karl,On the Correlation between Duration of Life and the Number of Offspring, Proc. R. S. London, 67 (1900), pp. 159-171. The material consisted of English and American Quaker families. Dr. Bell's work is based on old American families, and has not yet been published.[73]The entire field of race betterment and social improvement is divided betweeneugenics, which considers only germinal or heritable changes in the race; andeuthenics, which deals with improvement in the individual, and in his environment. Of course, no sharp line can be drawn between the two spheres, each one having many indirect effects on the other. It is important to note, however, that any change in the individual during his prenatal life is euthenic, not eugenic. Therefore, contrary to the popular idea of the case, the "Better Babies" movement, the agitation for proper care of expectant mothers, and the like, are notdirectlya part of eugenics. The moment of conception is the point at which eugenics gives place to euthenics. Eugenics is therefore thefundamentalmethod of human progress, euthenics thesecondaryone; their relations will be further considered in the last chapter of this book.[74]The clan has now reached its ninth generation and its present status has been exhaustively studied by A. H. Estabrook (The Jukes in 1915: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1916). He enumerates 2,820 individuals, of whom half are still living. In the early 80's they left their original home and are now scattered all over the country. The change in environment has enabled some of them to rise to a higher level, but on the whole, says C. B. Davenport in a preface to Estabrook's book, they "still show the same feeble-mindedness, indolence, licentiousness and dishonesty, even when not handicapped by the associations of their bad family name and despite the fact of being surrounded by better social conditions." Estabrook says the clan might have been exterminated by preventing the reproduction of its members, and that the nation would thereby have saved about $2,500,000. It is interesting to note that "out of approximately 600 living feeble-minded and epileptic Jukes, there are only three now in custodial care."[75]Key, Dr. Wilhelmina E.,Feeble-minded Citizens in Pennsylvania, pp. 11, 12, Philadelphia, Public Charities Assn., 1915.[76]The most recent extensive study of this point is A. H. Estabrook'sThe Jukes in 1915(Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1916). The Jukes migrated from their original home, in the mountains of New York, a generation ago, and are now scattered all over the country. Estabrook tried to learn, at first hand, whether they had improved as the result of new environments, and free from the handicap of their name, which for their new neighbors had no bad associations. In general, his findings seem to warrant the conclusion that a changed environment in itself was of little benefit. Such improvement as occurred in the tribe was rather due to marriage with better stock; marriages of this kind were made more possible by the new environment, but the tendency to assortative mating restricted them. It is further to be noted that while such marriages may be good for the Juke family, they are bad for the nation as a whole, because they tend to scatter anti-social traits.[77]Key,op. cit., p. 7.[78]Figures furnished (September, 1917) by the National Committee for Mental Hygiene, 50 Union Square, New York City.[79]This applies even to such an acute thinker as John Stuart Mill, whose ideas were formed in the pre-Darwinian epoch, and whose works must now be accepted with great reserve. Darwin was quite right in saying, "The ignoring of all transmitted mental qualities will, as it seems to me, be hereafter judged as a most serious blemish in the works of Mr. Mill." (Descent of Man, p.98.) A quotation from thePrinciples of Political Economy(Vol. 1, p. 389) will give an idea of Mr. Mill's point of view: "Of all the vulgar methods of escaping from the effects of social and moral influences on the mind, the most vulgar is that of attributing diversities of conduct and character to inherent natural differences"![80]Feeble-mindedness, its Causes and Consequences.By H. H. Goddard, director of the Research Laboratory of the Training School at Vineland, New Jersey, for feeble-minded boys and girls. New York, The Macmillan Co., 1914.[81]Probably the word now covers a congeries of defects, some of which may be non-germinal. Epilepsy is so very generally found associated with various other congenital defects, that action should not be delayed.[82]Goddard, H. H.,Feeble-Mindedness, pp. 14-16.[83]See the recent studies of C. B. Davenport, particularlyThe Feebly Inhibited, Washington, Carnegie Institution, 1915.[84]In this connection diagnosis is naturally of the utmost importance. The recent action of Chicago, New York, Boston, and other cities, in establishing psychological clinics for the examination of offenders is a great step in advance. These clinics should be attached to the police department, as in New York, not merely to the courts, and should pass on offenders before, not after, trial and commitment.[85]As a result of psychiatric study of the inmates of Sing Sing in 1916, it was said that two-thirds of them showed some mental defect. Examination of 100 convicts selected at random in the Massachusetts State Prison showed that 29% were feeble-minded and 11% borderline cases. The highest percentage of mental defectives was found among criminals serving sentence for murder in the second degree, manslaughter, burglary and robbery. (Rossy, C. S., inState Board of Insanity Bull., Boston, Nov., 1915). Paul M. Bowers told the 1916 meeting of the American Prison Association of his study of 100 recidivists, each of whom had been convicted not fewer than four times. Of these 12 were insane, 23 feeble-minded and 10 epileptic, and in each case Dr. Bowers said the mental defect bore a direct causal relation to the crime committed. Such studies argue for the need of a little elementary biology in the administration of justice.[86]For a sane and cautious discussion of the subject see Wallin, J. E. W., "A Program for the State Care of the Feeble-Minded and Epileptic,"School and Society, IV, pp. 724-731, New York, Nov. 11, 1916.[87]Johnstone, E. R., "Waste Land Plus Waste Humanity,"Training School Bulletin, XI, pp. 60-63, Vineland, N. J., June, 1914.[88]"Report of the Committee on the Sterilization of Criminals,"Journal of the Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology, September, 1916. Of the operations mentioned, 634 are said to have been performed on insane persons and one on a criminal.[89]Guyer, M. F., Wisconsin Eugenics Legislation. Trans. Amer. Asso. Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality, 1917, pp. 92-97.[90]Eugenics Record Office, Bulletin No. 10 A,The Scope of the Committee's Work, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I., Feb., 1914; No. 10 B,The Legal, Legislative and Administrative Aspects of Sterilization, same date.[91]Eugenics Record Office Bulletin No. 9:State Laws Limiting Marriage Selection Examined in the Light of Eugenics. Cold Spring Harbor, L. I., June, 1913.[92]Penrose, Clement A.,Sanitary Conditions in the Bahama Islands, Geographical Society of Baltimore, 1905.[93]See von. Gruber and Rüdin,Fortpflanzung, Vererbung, Rassenhygiene, p. 169, München, 1911.[94]Davenport, Charles B.,Heredity in Relation to Eugenics, pp. 184 ff., New York, 1911.[95]Harris, J. Arthur, "Assortative Mating in Man,"Popular Science Monthly, LXXX, pp. 476-493, May, 1912. The most important studies on the subject are cited by Dr. Harris.[96]An interesting and critical treatment of sexual selection is given by Vernon L. Kellogg inDarwinism To-day, pp. 106-128 (New York, 1908). Darwin's own discussion (The Descent of Man) is still very well worth reading, if the reader is on his guard. The best general treatment of the theory of sexual selection, especially as it applies to man, is in chapter XI of Karl Pearson'sGrammar of Science(2d ed., London, 1900).[97]Diffloth, Paul,Le Fin de L'Enigme, Paris, 1907.[98]The best popular yet scientific treatment of the subject we have seen isThe Dynamic of Manhood, a book recently written by Luther H. Gulick for the Young Men's Christian Association (New York, The Association Press, 1917).[99]The sympathy which we mentioned as the beginning of the hypothetical love affair does lead to a partial identity of will, it is true; but there is often too little in common between the man and woman to make this identity at all complete. As Karl Pearson points out, it is almost essential to a successful marriage that two people have sympathy with each other's aims and a considerable degree of similarity in habits. If such a bond is lacking, the bond of sympathy aroused by some trivial circumstance will not be sufficient to keep the marriage from shipwreck. The occasional altruism of young men who marry inferior girls because they "feel sorry for them" is not praiseworthy.[100]Ellis, Havelock,The Task of Social Hygiene, pp. 208-209, Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1912.[101]G. Stanley Hall (Adolescence, II, 113) found the following points, in order, specified as most admired in the other sex by young men and women in their teens: eyes, hair, stature and size, feet, eyebrows, complexion, cheeks, form of head, throat, ears, chin, hands, neck, nose. The voice was highly specialized and much preferred. The principal dislikes, in order, were: prominent or deep-set eyes, fullness of neck, ears that stand out, eyebrows that meet, broad and long feet, high cheek-bones, light eyes, large nose, small stature, long neck or teeth, bushy brows, pimples, red hair. An interesting study of some of the trivial traits of manner which may be handicaps in sexual selection is published by Iva Lowther Peters in thePedagogical Seminary, XXIII, No. 4, pp. 550-570, Dec., 1916.[102]It has been suggested that the same goal would be reached if a young man before marriage would take out a life insurance policy in the name of his bride. The suggestion has many good points.[103]The correlation between fecundity and longevity which Karl Pearson has demonstrated gives longevity another great advantage as a standard in sexual selection. SeeProc. Royal Soc. London, Vol. 67, p. 159.[104]It is objected that if the long-lived marry each other, the short-lived will also marry each other and thus the race will gain no more than it loses. The reply to this is that the short-lived will marry in fewer numbers, as some of them die prematurely; that they will have fewer children; and that these children in turn will tend to die young. Thus the short-lived strains will gradually run out, while the long-lived strains are disseminated.[105]Hankins, F. H., "The Declining Birth-Rate,"Journal of Heredity, V, pp. 36-39, August, 1914.[106]Smith, Mary Roberts, "Statistics of College and Non-college Women," Quarterly Pubs. of theAmerican Statistical Assn., VII, p. 1 ff., 1900.[107]"Statistics of Eminent Women,"Pop. Sci. Mo., June, 1913.[108]"Marriage of College Women,"Century Magazine, Oct., 1895.[109]Blumer, J. O., inJournal of Heredity, VIII, p. 217, May, 1917.[110]The statistics of this and the following middle west universities were presented by Paul Popenoe in theJournal of Heredity, VIII, pp. 43-45.[111]Harvard Graduates' Magazine, XXV, No. 97, pp. 25-34, September, 1916.[112]Popenoe, Paul, "Stanford's Marriage-Rate,"Journal of Heredity, VIII, p. 170-173.[113]Banker, Howard J., "Co-education and Eugenics,"Journal of Heredity, VIII, pp. 208-214, May, 1917.[114]Eugenics: Twelve University Lectures, p. 9, New York, 1914.[115]Cf. Gould, Miriam C., "The Psychological Influence upon Adolescent Girls of the Knowledge of Prostitution and Venereal Disease,"Social Hygiene, Vol. II, pp. 191-207, April, 1916. This interesting and important study of the reactions of 50 girls reveals that present methods or indifference to the need of reasonable methods of teaching sex-hygiene are responsible for "a large percentage of harmful results, such as conditions bordering on neurasthenia, melancholia, pessimism and sex antagonism."[116]Gallichan, Walter M.,The Great Unmarried, New York, 1916.[117]Sprague, Robert J., "Education and Race Suicide,"Journal of Heredity, Vol. VI, pp. 158 ff., April, 1915. Many of the statistics of women's colleges, cited in the first part of this chapter, are from Dr. Sprague's paper.[118]Odin calculated that 16% of the eminent men of France had at least one relative who was in some way eminent; that 22% of the men of real talent had such relation; and that among the geniuses the percentage rose to 40. There are thus two chances out of five that a man of genius will have an eminent relative; for a man picked at random from the population the chance is one in several thousand. See Odin, A.,La Genése des Grands Hommes, Vol. I, p. 432 and Vol. II, Tableau xii, Lausanne, 1895.[119]Crum, Frederick S., "The Decadence of the Native American Stock,"Quarterly Pubs. Am. Statistical Assn., XIV, n. s. 107, pp. 215-223, Sept., 1914.[120]Kuczynski, R. R.,Quarterly Journ. of Economics, Nov. 1901, and Feb., 1902.[121]Nearing, Scott, "The Younger Generation of American Genius,"The Scientific Monthly, II, pp. 48-61, Jan., 1916. "Geographical Distribution of American Genius,"Popular Science Monthly, II, August, 1914.[122]In the chapter on Sexual Selection it was shown that the Normal School girls who stood highest in their classes married earliest. This may seem a contradiction of the Wellesley marriage rates in this table. The explanation probably is that while mental superiority is itself attractive in a mate, there are interferences built up in the collegiate life.[123]Banker, Howard J., "Co-education and Eugenics,"Journal of Heredity, VIII, pp. 208-214, May, 1917.[124]Hill, Joseph A., "Comparative Fecundity of Women of Native and Foreign Parentage,"Quarterly Pubs. Amer. Statistical Assn., XIII, 583-604.[125]See Willcox, W. F., "Fewer Births and Deaths: What Do They Mean?"Journal of Heredity, VII, pp. 119-128, March, 1916.[126]The data are published in full by Paul Popenoe in theJournal of Heredity, October, 1917. It must be noted that, in spite of their small salaries, the Methodist clergymen marry earlier and have more children than do other men of equal education and social status, such as the Harvard and Yale graduates. This difference in marriage and birth-rate is doubtless to be credited in part to their inherent nature and in part to the action of religious idealism. It confirms the belief of eugenists that even under present economic circumstances the birth-rate of the superior classes might be raised appreciably by a campaign of eugenic education.[127]For an official statement of the attitude of the birth-rate of the Mormon church, seeJournal of Heredity, VII, pp. 450-451, Oct., 1916.[128]Mecklin, John M.,Democracy and Race Friction, a Study in Social Ethics, New York, 1914. p. 147.[129]It would be more accurate to say the Nordic race. Other white races have not uniformly shown this discrimination. The Mediterranean race in particular has never manifested the same amount of race feeling. The Arabs have tended to receive the Negro almost on terms of equality, partly on religious grounds; it seems probable that the decadence of the Arabs is largely due to their miscegenation.[130]Mecklin,op. cit., p. 147.[131]Blascoer, Frances,Colored School Children in New York, Public Education Association of the City of New York, 1915. The preface, from which the quotation is taken, is by Eleanor Hope Johnson, chairman of the committee on hygiene of school children.[132]Mecklin,op. cit., p. 32.[133]The Negro's contribution has perhaps been most noteworthy in music. This does not necessarily show advanced evolution; August Weismann long ago pointed out that music is a primitive accomplishment. For an outline of what the Negro race has achieved, particularly in America, see theNegro Year Book, Tuskegee Institute, Ala.[134]Social Problems; Their Treatment, Past, Present and Future, p. 8, London, 1912.[135]Stetson, G. R., "Memory Tests on Black and White Children,"Psych. Rev., 1897, p. 285. See also MacDonald, A., inRep. U. S. Comm. of Educ.,1897-98.[136]Mayo, M. J., "The Mental Capacity of the American Negro,"Arch. of Psych., No. 28.[137]Phillips, B. A., "Retardation in the Elementary Schools of Philadelphia,"Psych. Clinic, VI, pp. 79-90; "The Binet Tests Applied to Colored Children,"ibid., VIII, pp. 190-196.[138]Strong, A. C.,Ped. Sem., XX, pp. 485-515.[139]Pyle, W. H., "The Mind of the Negro Child,"School and Society, I, pp. 357-360.[140]Ferguson, G. O., Jr., "The Psychology of the Negro,"Arch. of Psych.No. 36, April, 1916.[141]Though the Negro is not assimilable, he is here to stay; he should therefore be helped to develop along his own lines. It is desirable not to subject him to too severe a competition with whites; yet such competition, acting as a stimulus, is probably responsible for part of his rapid progress during the last century, a progress which would not have been possible in a country where Negroes competed only with each other. The best way to temper competition is by differentiation of function, but this principle should not be carried to the extent of pocketing the Negro in blind-alley occupations where development is impossible. As mental tests show him to be less suited to literary education than are the whites, it seems likely that agriculture offers the best field for him.[142]This letter, and much of the data regarding the legal status of Negro-white amalgamation, are from an article by Albert Ernest Jenks in theAm. Journ. Sociology, XXI, 5, pp. 666-679, March, 1916.[143]A recent readable account of the races of the world is Madison Grant'sThe Passing of the Great Race(New York, 1916).[144]The Old World in the New.By E. A. Ross, professor of Sociology in the University of Wisconsin, New York, 1914.[145]Cf. Stevenson, Robert Louis,The Amateur Emigrant.[146]Interview with W. Williams, former commissioner of immigration, in theNew York Herald, April 13, 1912.[147]Of the total number of inmates of insane asylums of the entire U. S. of Jan. 1, 1910, 28.8% were whites of foreign birth, and of the persons admitted to such institutions during the year 1910, 25.5% were of this class. Of the total population of the United States in 1910 the foreign-born whites constituted 14.5%. Special report on the insane, Census of 1910 (pub. 1914).[148]The Tide of Immigration.By Frank Julian Warne, special expert on foreign-born population, 13th U. S. Census, New York, 1916.[149]Essays in Social Justice.By Thomas Nixon Carver, professor of Political Economy in Harvard University, Cambridge, 1915.[150]Fairchild's and Jenks' opinions are quoted from Warne, Chapter XVI.[151]America and the Orient: A Constructive Policy, by Rev. Sidney L. Gulick, Methodist Book Concern. TheAmerican Japanese Problem: a Study of the Racial Relations of the East and West, New York, Scribner's.[152]Oriental Immigration.By W. C. Billings, surgeon, U. S. Public Health Service; Chief Medical Officer, Immigration Service; Angel Island (San Francisco), Calif.,Journal of Heredity, Vol. VI (1915), pp. 462-467.[153]Assimilation in the Philippines, etc.By Albert Ernest Jenks, professor of anthropology in the University of Minnesota.American Journal of Sociology, Vol. XIX (1914), p. 783.[154]Students of the inheritance of mental and moral traits may be interested to note that while the ordinary Chinese mestizo in the Philippines is a man of probity, who has the high regard of his European business associates, the Ilocanos, supposed descendants of pirates, are considered rather tricky and dishonest.[155]An important study of this subject was published by Professor Vernon L. Kellogg inSocial Hygiene(New York), Dec, 1914.[156]Nasmyth, George,Social Progress and the Darwinian Theory, p. 146, New York, 1916. While his book is too partisan, his Chapter III is well worth reading by those who want to avoid the gross blunders which militarists and many biologists have made in applying Darwinism to social progress; it is based on the work of Professor J. Novikov of the University of Odessa. See alsoHeadquarters Nightsby Vernon Kellogg.[157]Jordan, D. S., and Jordan, H. E.,War's Aftermath, Boston, 1915.[158]Jordan, David Starr,War and the Breed, p. 164. Boston, 1915. Chancellor Jordan has long been the foremost exponent of the dysgenic significance of war, and this book gives an excellent summary of the problem from his point of view.[159]See Woods, Frederick Adams, and Baltzly, Alexander,Is War Diminishing? New York, 1916.[160]See an interesting series of five articles inThe American Hebrew, Jan and Feb., 1917.[161]Journal of Heredity, VIII, pp. 277-283, June, 1917.[162]The Early Life of Abraham Lincoln, New York, 1896. For the Emancipator's maternal line seeNancy Hanks, by Caroline Hanks Hitchcock. New York, 1899.[163]The Life of Pasteurby his son-in-law, René Vallery Radot, should be read by every student of biology.[164]Hollingworth, H. L.,Vocational Psychology, pp. 212-213, New York, 1916.[165]Sir Francis Galton and C. B. Davenport have called attention to the probable inheritance of artistic ability and lately H. Drinkwater (Journal of Genetics, July, 1916), has attempted to prove that it is due to a Mendelian unit. The evidence alleged is inadequate to prove that the trait is inherited in any particular way, but the pedigrees cited by these three investigators, and the boyhood histories of such artists as Benjamin West, Giotto, Ruskin and Turner, indicate that an hereditary basis exists.[166]The difficulty about accepting such traits as this is that they are almost impossible of exact definition. The long teaching experience of Mrs. Evelyn Fletcher-Copp (Journal of Heredity, VII, 297-305, July, 1916) suggests that any child of ordinary ability can and will compose music if properly taught, but of course in different degree.[167]Seashore, C. E., inPsychol. Monogs,XIII, No. 1, pp. 21-60, Dec., 1910. See also Fletcher-Copp,ubi sup.Mrs. Copp declares that the gift of "positive pitch" or "absolute pitch," i. e., the ability to name any sound that is heard, "may be acquired, speaking very conservatively, by 80% of normal children," if they begin at an early age. It may be that this discrepancy with Seashore's careful laboratory tests is due to the fact that the pupils and teachers trained by Mrs. Copp are a selected lot, to start with.[168]The contributions on this subject are very widely scattered through periodical literature. The most important is Karl Pearson's memoir (1914), reviewed in theJournal of Heredity, VI, pp. 332-336, July, 1915. See also Gini, Corrado, "The Superiority of the Eldest,"Journal of Heredity, VI, 37-39, Jan., 1915.[169]Journal of Heredity, VIII, pp. 299-302, July, 1917.[170]Biometrika, IV, pp. 233-286, London, 1905.[171]See, for example,Journal of Heredity, VIII, pp. 394-396, September, 1917. A large body of evidence from European sources, bearing on the relation between various characters of the offspring, and the age of the parents, was brought together by Corrado Gini in Vol. II,Problems in Eugenics(London, 1913).[172]Davenport, Charles B., "The Personality, Heredity and Work of Charles Otis Whitman,"American Naturalist, LI, pp. 5-30, Jan., 1917.[173]Gillette, John M.,Constructive Rural Sociology, p. 89, New York, 1916.[174]Cook, O. F., "Eugenics and Agriculture,"Journal of Heredity, VII, pp. 249-254, June, 1916.[175]Gillette, John M., "A Study in Social Dynamics: A Statistical Determination of the Rate of Natural Increase and of the Factors Accounting for the Increase of Population in the United States,"Quarterly Publications of the American Statistical Association,n. s. 116, Vol. XV, pp. 345-380, December, 1916.[176]The popular demand for "equality of opportunity" is, if taken literally, absurd, in the light of the provable inequality of abilities. What is wanted is more correctly defined as an equal consideration of all with anappropriateopportunity for each based on his demonstrated capacities.[177]Essays in Social Justice.By Thomas Nixon Carver, Harvard University Press, 1915, pp. 168-169.[178]Answering the question "How Much is a Man Worth?" Professor Carver states the following axioms:"The value of a man equals his production minus his consumption.""His economic success equals his acquisition minus his consumption.""When his acquisition equals his production then his economic success equals his value.""It is the duty of the state to make each man's acquisition equal his production. That is justice."Of course, "production" is here used in a broad sense, to mean the real social value of the services rendered, and not merely the present exchange value of the services, or the goods produced.[179]Kornhauser, A. W., "Economic Standing of Parents and the Intelligence of their Children,"Jour. of Educ. Psychology, Vol. IX., pp. 159-164, March, 1918.[180]The coefficient of contingency is similar in significance to the coefficient of correlation, with which readers have already become familiar. Miss Perrin's study is inBiometrika, III (1904), pp. 467-469.[181]"The Social Waste of Unguided Personal Ability." By Erville B. Woods,American Journal of Sociology, XIX (1913), pp. 358-369.[182]See also "Eugenics: With Special Reference to Intellect and Character," by E. L. Thorndike. InEugenics: Twelve University Lectures, pp. 319-342, New York, 1914.[183]See U. S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau Publication, No. 7, "Laws Relating to Mothers' Pensions in the United States, Denmark and New Zealand," Washington, 1914.[184]American Journal of Sociology, Vol. XX, No. 1, pp. 96-103, July, 1914.[185]According to Captain (now Lt. Col.) E. B. Vedder of the Medical Corps, U. S. A., 50% of the Negroes of the class applying for enlistment in the army are syphilitic. He believes that the amount of infection among Negro women is about the same. (Therapeutic Gazette, May 15, 1916.) Venereal disease must, then, play a much more important part than is generally supposed, in cutting down the birth-rate of the Negro race, but it would of course be a mistake to suppose that an abnormally low birth-rate among Negroes is always to be explained on this ground. Professor Kelly Miller points out (Scientific Monthly, June, 1917) that the birth-rate among college professors at Howard University, the leading Negro institution for higher education, is only 0.7 of a child and that the completed families will hardly have more than two children. He attributes this to (1) the long period of education required of Negro "intellectuals", (2) the high standard of living required of them, and (3) the unwillingness of some of them to bring children into the world, because of the feeling that these children would suffer from race prejudice.[186]One can not draw a hard and fast distinction between reason and instinct in this way, nor deny to animals all ability to reason. We have simplified the case to make it more graphic. The fact that higher animals may have mental processes corresponding to some of those we call reason in man does not impair the validity of our generalization, for the present purpose.[187]SeeJewish Eugenics and Other Essays, By Rabbi Max Reichler, New York, Bloch Publishing Co., 1916.[188]Dublin, Louis I., "Significance of the Declining Birth Rate,"Congressional Record, Jan. 11, 1918.[189]At the request of Alexander Graham Bell, founder and director of the Genealogical Record Office, Paul Popenoe made an examination and report on these records in the fall of 1916. Thanks are due to Dr. Bell for permitting the use in this chapter of two portions of the investigation.[190]Beeton, Mary, and Karl Pearson,BiometrikaI, p. 60. The actual correlation varies with the age and sex: the following are the results:Collateral InheritanceElder adult brother and younger adult brother.2290 ± .0194Adult brother and adult brother.2853 ± .0196Minor brother and minor brother.1026 ± .0294Adult brother and minor brother-.0262 ± .0246Elder adult sister and younger adult sister.3464 ± .0183Adult sister and adult sister.3322 ± .0185Minor sister and minor sister.1748 ± .0307Adult sister and minor sister-.0260 ± .0291Adult brother and adult sister.2319 ± .0145Minor brother and minor sister.1435 ± .0251Adult brother and minor sister-.0062 ± .0349Adult sister and minor brother-.0274 ± .0238[191]The method used is the ingenious one devised by J. Arthur Harris (BiometrikaIX, p. 461). The probable error is based on n=100.[192]A. Plœtz, "Lebensdauer der Eltern und Kindersterblichkeit,"Archiv für Rassen-u Gesellschafts-Biologie, VI (1909), pp. 33-43.[193]Or it may be supposed that the environment is so good as to make a non-selective death less likely, and therefore such deaths as do occur must more frequently be selective.[194]Hibbs, Henry H., Jr.,Infant Mortality: Its Relation to Social and Industrial Conditions, New York, 1916.[195]See Castle, W. E.,Heredity, pp. 30-32, New York, 1911.[196]Doll, E. A., "Education and Inheritance,"Journal of Education, Feb. 1, 1917.[197]Atwater's celebrated experiments proved that all the energy (food) which goes into an animal can be accounted for in the output of heat or work. They are conveniently summarized in Abderhalden'sText-book of Physiological Chemistry, p. 335.[198]In this connection see farther Raymond Pearl's review of Mr. Redfield's "Dynamic Evolution" (Journal of Heredity) VI, p. 254, and Paul Popenoe's review, "The Parents of Great Men,"Journal of Heredity, VIII, pp. 400-408.[199]See Dr. Hrdlička's communication to the XIXth International Congress of Americanists, Dec. 28, 1915 (the proceedings were published at Washington, in March, 1917); or an account in theJournal of Heredity, VIII, pp. 98 ff., March, 1917.[200]Cf. Grant, Madison,The Passing of the Great Racep. 74 (New York, 1916): "One often hears the statement made that native Americans of Colonial ancestry are of mixed ethnic origin. This is not true. At the time of the Revolutionary War the settlers in the 13 colonies were not only purely Nordic, but also purely Teutonic, a very large majority being Anglo-Saxon in the most limited meaning of that term. The New England settlers in particular came from those counties in England where the blood was almost purely Saxon, Anglian, and Dane."[201]Comprising Armenians, Croatians, English, Greeks, Russian Jews, Irish, South Italians, North Italians, Magyars, Poles, Rumanians and Russians, 500 individuals in all.[202]English data from K. Pearson,BiometrikaV, p. 124.[203]Pearson (ubi supra) measured 12-year-old English school children, and found the average cephalic index for 2298 boys to be 78.88, with σ = 3.2, for 2188 girls 78.43, with σ = 3.9. It is not proper to compare adolescents with adults, however.[204]Sewall Wright has pointed out (Journal of Heredity, VIII, p. 376) that the white blaze in the hair can not be finally classed as dominant or recessive until the progeny oftwoaffected persons have been seen. All matings so far studied have been between an affected person and a normal. It may be that the white blaze (or piebaldism) represents merely a heterozygous condition, and that the trait is really a recessive. The same argument applies to brachydactyly.

[2]There is one line of experiment which is simple and striking enough to deserve mention—namely, ovarian transplantation. A description of this is given in Appendix A.

[3]Galton, Francis,Inquiries into Human Faculty, 1907 edition, pp. 153-173. This volume of Galton's, which was first published in 1883, has been reissued in Everyman's Library, and should be read by all eugenists.

[4]What is said here refers to positive correlations, which are the only kind involved in this problem. Correlations may also be negative, lying between 0 and -1; for instance, if we measured the correlation between a man's lack of appetite and the time that had elapsed since his last meal, we would have to express it by a negative fraction, the minus sign showing that the greater his satiety, the less would be the time since his repast. The best introduction to correlations is Elderton'sPrimer of Statistics(London, 1912).

[5]Dr. Thorndike's careful measurements showed that it is impossible to draw a hard and fast line between identical twins and ordinary twins. There is no question as to the existence of the two kinds, but the ordinary twins may happen to be so nearly alike as to resemble identical twins. Accordingly, mere appearance is not a safe criterion of the identity of twins. His researches were published in theArchives of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods, No. 1, New York, 1905.

[6]A First Study of the Inheritance of Vision and the Relative Influence of Heredity and Environment on Sight.By Amy Barrington and Karl Pearson. Eugenics Laboratory (London), Memoir Series V.

[7]Dr. James Alexander Wilson, assistant surgeon of the Opthalmic Institute, Glasgow, published an analysis of 1,500 cases of myopia in theBritish Medical Journal, p. 395, August 29, 1914. His methods are not above criticism, and too much importance should not be attached to his results, which show that in 58% of the cases heredity can be credited with the myopia of the patient. In 12% of the cases it was due to inflammation of the cornea (keratitis) while in the remaining 30% no hereditary influence could be proved, but various reasons made him feel certain that in many cases it existed. The distribution of myopia by trades and professions among his patients is suggestive: 65% of the cases among school children showed myopic heredity; 63% among housewives and domestic servants; 68% among shop and factory works; 60% among clerks and typists; 60% among laborers and miners. If environment really played an active part, one would not expect to find this similarity in percentages between laborers and clerks, between housewives and schoolteachers, etc.

[8]The Influence of Unfavourable Home Environment and Defective Physique on the Intelligence of School Children.By David Heron. Eugenics Laboratory (London), Memoir Series No. VIII.

[9]Hereditary Genius; an Inquiry into its Laws and Consequences.London, 1869.

[10]Woods, Frederick Adams, "Heredity and the Hall of Fame,"Popular Science Monthly, May, 1913.

[11]Woods, Frederick Adams,Mental and Moral Heredity in Royalty, New York, 1906. See also "Sovereigns and the Supposed Influence of Opportunity,"Science, n. s., XXXIX, No. 1016, pp. 902-905, June 19, 1914, where Dr. Woods answers some criticisms of his work.

[12]Educational Psychology, Vol. III, p. 306. Starch's results are also quoted from Thorndike.

[13]Jean Baptiste Lamarck, a French naturalist, born in 1744, was one of the pioneers in the philosophical study of evolution. The theory (published in 1809) for which he is best known is as follows: "Changes in the animal's surroundings are responded to by changes in its habits." "Any particular habit involves the regular use of some organs and the disuse of others. Those organs which are used will be developed and strengthened, those not used diminished and weakened, and the changes so produced will be transmitted to the offspring, and thus progressive development of particular organs will go on from generation to generation." His classical example is the neck of the giraffe, which he supposes to be long because, for generation after generation, the animals stretched their necks in order to get the highest leaves from the trees.

[14]Boas, F.,Changes in Body Form of Descendants of Immigrants, 1911.

[15]Civilization and Climate.By Ellsworth Huntington, Yale University Press, 1916.

[16]American Naturalist, L., pp. 65-89, 144-178, Feb. and Mar., 1916.

[17]Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.LV, pp. 243-259, 1916.

[18]Dr. Reid is the author who has most effectively called attention to this relation between alcohol and natural selection. Those interested will find a full treatment in his books,The Present Evolution of Man,The Laws of Heredity, andThe Principles of Heredity.

[19]Principles of Psychology, ii, p. 543.

[20]Leon J. Cole points out that this may be due in considerable part to less voluntary restriction of offspring on the part of those who are often under the influence of alcohol.

[21]For a review of the statistical problems involved, see Karl Pearson. An attempt to correct some of the misstatements made by Sir Victor Horsley, F. R. S., F. R. C. S., and Mary D. Sturge, M. D., in their criticisms of the Galton Laboratory Memoir:First Study of the Influence of Parental Alcoholism, etc.; and Professor Pearson's various popular lectures, alsoA Second Study of the Influence of Parental Alcoholism on the Physique and Intelligence of Offspring. By Karl Pearson and Ethel M. Elderton. Eugenics Laboratory Memoir Series XIII.

[22]A First Study of the Influence of Parental Alcoholism on the Physique and Intelligence of Offspring.By Ethel M. Elderton and Karl Pearson. Eugenics Laboratory Memoir Series X. Harald Westergaard, who reëxamined the Elderton-Pearson data, concludes that considerable importance is to be attached to the selective action of alcohol, the weaklings in the alcoholic families having been weeded out early in life.

[23]Prohibition would have someindirecteugenic effects, which will be discussed in Chapter XVIII.

[24]Chapter XXX, verses 31-43. A knowledge of the pedigree of Laban's cattle would undoubtedly explain where the stripes came from. It is interesting to note how this idea persists: a correspondent has recently sent an account of seven striped lambs born after their mothers had seen a striped skunk. The actual explanation is doubtless that suggested by Heller in theJournal of Heredity, VI, 480 (October, 1915), that a stripe is part of the ancestral coat pattern of the sheep, and appears from time to time because of reversion.

[25]Such a skin affection, known as icthyosis, xerosis or xeroderma, is usually due to heredity. Davenport says it "is especially apt to be found in families in which consanguineous marriages occur and this fact, together with the pedigrees [which he studied], suggests that it is due to the absence of some factor that controls the process of cornification of the skin. On this hypothesis a normal person who belongs to an affected family may marry into a normal family with impunity, but cousin marriages are to be avoided." See Davenport, C. B.,Heredity in Relation to Eugenics, p. 134. New York, 1911.

[26]Its eugenics is to be effected through the mental exertion of mothers. And we have lately been in correspondence with a western attorney who is endeavoring to form an association of persons who will agree to be the parents of "willed" children. By this means, he has calculated (and sends a chart to prove it) that it will require only four generations to produce the Superman.

[27]Life and Letters of Charles Darwin, Vol. I, p. 302, New York, 1897. The letter is dated 1844.

[28]Goddard, H. H.,Feeble-mindedness, p. 359. New York, the Macmillan Company, 1914.

[29]For a review of the evidence consult an article on "Telegony" by Dr. Etienne Rabaud in theJournal of Heredity, Vol. V, No. 9, pp. 389-400; September, 1914.

[30]It will be recalled that the coefficient of correlation measures the resemblance between two variables on a scale between 0 and-1 or +1. If the correlation is zero, there is no constant relation; if it is unity, any change in one must result in a determinate change in the other; if it is 0.5, it means that when one of the variables deviates from the mean of its class by a given amount, the other variable will deviate from the mean of its class by 50% of that amount (each deviation being measured in terms of the variability of its own class, in order that they may be properly comparable.)

[31]Sidis, Boris, M.A., Ph.D., M.D., "Neurosis and Eugenics,"Medical Review ofReviews, Vol. XXI, No. 10, pp. 587-594, New York, October, 1915. A psychologist who writes of "some miraculous germ-plasm (chromatin) with wonderful dominant 'units' (Chromosomes)" is hardly a competent critic of the facts of heredity.

[32]In a letter to theJournal of Heredity, under date of August 4, 1916.

[33]Galton, Francis,Inquiries into Human Faculty, p. 167, London, 1907.

[34]Woods, Frederick Adams,Heredity in Royalty, New York, 1906.

[35]Op. cit., pp. 170-171.

[36]Thorndike, E. L., "Measurements of Twins,"Arch. of Philos., Psych. and Sci. Methods, No. 1, New York, 1905; summarized in hisEducational Psychology, Vol. III, pp. 247-251, New York, 1914. Measured on a scale where 1 = identity, he found that twins showed a resemblance to each other of about .75, while ordinary brothers of about the same age resembled each other to the extent of about .50 only. The resemblance was approximately the same in both physical and mental traits.

[37]The quotations in this and the following paragraph are fromThorndike's Educational Psychology, pp. 304-305, Vol. III.

[38]Biometrika, Vol. III, p. 156.

[39]"William of Occam's Razor" is the canon of logic which declares that it is unwise to seek for several causes of an effect, if a single cause is adequate to account for it.

[40]Schuster, Edgar,Eugenics, pp. 150-163, London, 1913.

[41]Educational Psychology(1914), Vol. III, p. 235.

[42]Cobb, Margaret V.,Journal of Educational Psychology, viii, pp. 1-20, Jan., 1917.

[43]This is not true of the small English school of biometrists, founded by Sir Francis Galton, W. F. R. Weldon and Karl Pearson, and now led by the latter. It has throughout denied or minified Mendelian results, and depended on the treatment of inheritance by a study of correlations. With the progress of Mendelian research, biometric methods must be supplemented with pedigree studies. In human heredity, on the other hand, because of the great difficulties attendant upon an application of Mendelian methods, the biometric mode of attack is still the most useful, and has been largely used in the present book. It has been often supposed that the methods of the two schools (biometry and Mendelism) are antagonistic. They are rather supplementary, each being valuable in cases where the other is less applicable. See Pearl, Raymond,Modes of Research in Genetics, p. 182, New York, 1915

[44]Few people realize what large numbers of plants and animals have been bred for experimental purposes during the last decade; W. E. Castle of Bussey Institution, Forest Hills, Mass., has bred not less than 45,000 rats. In the study of a single character, the endosperm of maize, nearly 100,000 pedigreed seeds have been examined by different students. Workers at the University of California have tabulated more than 10,000 measurements on flower size alone, in tobacco hybrids. T. H. Morgan and his associates at Columbia University have bred and studied more than half a million fruit flies, and J. Arthur Harris has handled more than 600,000 bean-plants at the Carnegie Institution's Station for Experimental Evolution, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I. While facts of human heredity, and of inheritance in large mammals generally, are often grounded on scanty evidence, it must not be thought that the fundamental generalizations of heredity are based on insufficient data.

[45]For a brief account of Mendelism, see Appendix D.

[46]Of course these factors are not of equal importance; some of them produce large changes and some, as far as can be told, are of minor significance. The factors, moreover, undergo large changes from time to time, thus producing mutations; and it is probable small changes as well, the evidence for which requires greater refinements of method than is usual among those using the pedigree method.

[47]A Critique of the Theory of Evolution, by Thomas Hunt Morgan, professor of experimental zoölogy in Columbia University. Princeton University Press, 1916. This book gives the best popular account of the studies of heredity in Drosophila. The advanced student will findThe Mechanism of Mendelian Heredity(New York, 1915), by Morgan, Sturtevant, Müller, and Bridges, indispensable, but it is beyond the comprehension of most beginners.

[48]"On the Inheritance of Some Characters in Wheat," A. and G. Howard,Mem. Dep. of Agr. India, V: 1-46, 1912. This careful and important work has never received the recognition it deserves, apparently because few geneticists have seen it. While the multiple factors in wheat seem to be different, those reported by East and Shull appear to be merely duplicates.

[49]"The Nature of Mendelian Units." By G. N. Collins,Journal of Heredity, V: 425 ff., Oct., 1914.

[50]Dr. Castle, reviewing Dr. Goddard's work (Journal of Abnormal Psychology, Aug.-Sept., 1915) concludes that feeble-mindedness is to be explained as a case of multiple allelomorphs. The evidence is inadequate to prove this, and proof would be, in fact, almost impossible, because of the difficulty of determining just what the segregation ratios are.

[51]In strict accuracy, the law of ancestral inheritance must be described as giving means of determining the probable deviation of any individual from the mean of his own generation, when the deviations of some or all of his ancestry from the types of their respective generations are known. It presupposes (1) no assortative mating, (2) no inbreeding and (3) no selection. Galton's own formula, which supposed that the parents contributed ½, the grandparents ¼, the great-grandparents ⅛, the next generation ⅟16, and so on, is of value now only historically, or to illustrate to a layman the fact that he inherits from his whole ancestry, not from his parents alone.

[52]Johnson, Roswell H., "The Malthusian Principle and Natural Selection,"American Naturalist, XLVI (1912), pp. 372-376.

[53]Karl Pearson,The Groundwork of Eugenics, p. 25, London, 1912.

[54]"Letpbe the chance of death from a random, not a constitutional source, then 1-pis the chance of a selective death in a parent and 1-pagain of a selective death in the case of an offspring, then(1-p)2must equal about ⅓, = .36, more exactly ∴ 1-p= .6 andp= .40. In other words, 60% of the deathsare selective."

[54]"Letpbe the chance of death from a random, not a constitutional source, then 1-pis the chance of a selective death in a parent and 1-pagain of a selective death in the case of an offspring, then

(1-p)2must equal about ⅓, = .36, more exactly ∴ 1-p= .6 andp= .40. In other words, 60% of the deathsare selective."

[55]Archiv f. Rassen-u. Gesellschafts Biologie, VI (1909), pp. 33-43.

[56]Snow, E. C.,On the Intensity of Natural Selection in Man, London, 1911.

[57]Biometrika, Vol. X, pp. 488-506, London, May, 1915.

[58]Pearson, Karl,Tuberculosis, Heredity and Environment, London, 1912. Among the most careful contributions to the problem of tuberculosis are those of Charles Goring (On the Inheritance of the Diathesis of Phthisis and Insanity, London, 1910), Ernest G. Pope (A Second Study of the Statistics of Pulmonary Tuberculosis, London, Dulau & Co.), and W. P. Elderton and S. J. Perry (A Third Study of the Statistics of Pulmonary Tuberculosis. The Mortality of the Tuberculous and Sanatorium Treatment), London, 1909. See also our discussion in Chapter I.

[59]While most physicians lay too great stress on the factor of infection, this mistake is by no means universal. Maurice Fishberg, for example (quoted in theMedical Review of Reviews, XXII, 8, August, 1916) states: "For many years the writer was physician to a charitable society, having under his care annually 800 to 1,000 consumptives who lived in poverty and want, in overcrowded tenements, having all opportunities to infect their consorts; in fact most of the consumptives shared their bed with their healthy consorts. Still, very few cases were met with in which tuberculosis was found in both the husband and wife. Widows, whose husbands died from phthisis, were only rarely seen to develop the disease."

[60]In 9th Trans. ofAmerican Association for the Study and Prevention of Tuberculosis, p. 117.

[61]Geographical and Historical Pathology(New Sydenham Society, 1883), Vol. III, p. 266.

[62]Reid, G. Archdall,The Present Evolution of Man, andThe Laws of Heredity.

[63]In the South Seas,p. 27; quoted by G. Archdall Reid,The Principles of Heredity(New York, 1905), p. 183. Dr. Reid has discussed the rôle of disease and alcohol on the modern evolution of man more fully than any other writer.

[64]See, for example, John West'sHistory of Tasmania, Vol. II, Launceston, Tasmania, 1852.

[65]See Hollingworth, H. L.,Vocational Psychology, p. 170, New York, 1916.

[66]Net increase here refers only to the first year of life, and was computed by deducting the deaths under one year, in a ward, from the number of births in the same ward for the same year. For details of this study of the Pittsburgh vital statistics, see theJournal of Heredity, Vol. VIII, pp. 178-183 (April, 1917).

[67]Quoted from Newsholme and Stevenson,The Decline of Human Fertility, London, 1906.

[68]Heron, David,On the Relation of Fertility in Man to Social Status, London, 1906. The account is quoted from Schuster, Edgar,Eugenics, pp. 220-221, London, 1913.

[69]Ztschft. f. Sozialwissenschaft,VII (1904), pp. 1 ff.

[70]Two of the best known of these tribes are the "Jukes" and "Nams." "An analysis of the figures of the Jukes in regard to the birth-rate shows that of a total of 403 married Juke women, 330 reproduced one or more children and 73 were barren. The average fecundity, counting those who are barren, is 3.526 children per female. The 330 women having children have an average fecundity of 4.306 as compared with that of 4.025, based on 120 reproducing women in the Nam family."—Estabrook, A. H.,The Jukes in 1915, p. 51, Washington, Carnegie Institution, 1916.

[71]Woods, Frederick Adams,Heredity in Royalty, New York, 1906.

[72]Beeton, Miss M., Yule, G.U., and Pearson, Karl,On the Correlation between Duration of Life and the Number of Offspring, Proc. R. S. London, 67 (1900), pp. 159-171. The material consisted of English and American Quaker families. Dr. Bell's work is based on old American families, and has not yet been published.

[73]The entire field of race betterment and social improvement is divided betweeneugenics, which considers only germinal or heritable changes in the race; andeuthenics, which deals with improvement in the individual, and in his environment. Of course, no sharp line can be drawn between the two spheres, each one having many indirect effects on the other. It is important to note, however, that any change in the individual during his prenatal life is euthenic, not eugenic. Therefore, contrary to the popular idea of the case, the "Better Babies" movement, the agitation for proper care of expectant mothers, and the like, are notdirectlya part of eugenics. The moment of conception is the point at which eugenics gives place to euthenics. Eugenics is therefore thefundamentalmethod of human progress, euthenics thesecondaryone; their relations will be further considered in the last chapter of this book.

[74]The clan has now reached its ninth generation and its present status has been exhaustively studied by A. H. Estabrook (The Jukes in 1915: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1916). He enumerates 2,820 individuals, of whom half are still living. In the early 80's they left their original home and are now scattered all over the country. The change in environment has enabled some of them to rise to a higher level, but on the whole, says C. B. Davenport in a preface to Estabrook's book, they "still show the same feeble-mindedness, indolence, licentiousness and dishonesty, even when not handicapped by the associations of their bad family name and despite the fact of being surrounded by better social conditions." Estabrook says the clan might have been exterminated by preventing the reproduction of its members, and that the nation would thereby have saved about $2,500,000. It is interesting to note that "out of approximately 600 living feeble-minded and epileptic Jukes, there are only three now in custodial care."

[75]Key, Dr. Wilhelmina E.,Feeble-minded Citizens in Pennsylvania, pp. 11, 12, Philadelphia, Public Charities Assn., 1915.

[76]The most recent extensive study of this point is A. H. Estabrook'sThe Jukes in 1915(Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1916). The Jukes migrated from their original home, in the mountains of New York, a generation ago, and are now scattered all over the country. Estabrook tried to learn, at first hand, whether they had improved as the result of new environments, and free from the handicap of their name, which for their new neighbors had no bad associations. In general, his findings seem to warrant the conclusion that a changed environment in itself was of little benefit. Such improvement as occurred in the tribe was rather due to marriage with better stock; marriages of this kind were made more possible by the new environment, but the tendency to assortative mating restricted them. It is further to be noted that while such marriages may be good for the Juke family, they are bad for the nation as a whole, because they tend to scatter anti-social traits.

[77]Key,op. cit., p. 7.

[78]Figures furnished (September, 1917) by the National Committee for Mental Hygiene, 50 Union Square, New York City.

[79]This applies even to such an acute thinker as John Stuart Mill, whose ideas were formed in the pre-Darwinian epoch, and whose works must now be accepted with great reserve. Darwin was quite right in saying, "The ignoring of all transmitted mental qualities will, as it seems to me, be hereafter judged as a most serious blemish in the works of Mr. Mill." (Descent of Man, p.98.) A quotation from thePrinciples of Political Economy(Vol. 1, p. 389) will give an idea of Mr. Mill's point of view: "Of all the vulgar methods of escaping from the effects of social and moral influences on the mind, the most vulgar is that of attributing diversities of conduct and character to inherent natural differences"!

[80]Feeble-mindedness, its Causes and Consequences.By H. H. Goddard, director of the Research Laboratory of the Training School at Vineland, New Jersey, for feeble-minded boys and girls. New York, The Macmillan Co., 1914.

[81]Probably the word now covers a congeries of defects, some of which may be non-germinal. Epilepsy is so very generally found associated with various other congenital defects, that action should not be delayed.

[82]Goddard, H. H.,Feeble-Mindedness, pp. 14-16.

[83]See the recent studies of C. B. Davenport, particularlyThe Feebly Inhibited, Washington, Carnegie Institution, 1915.

[84]In this connection diagnosis is naturally of the utmost importance. The recent action of Chicago, New York, Boston, and other cities, in establishing psychological clinics for the examination of offenders is a great step in advance. These clinics should be attached to the police department, as in New York, not merely to the courts, and should pass on offenders before, not after, trial and commitment.

[85]As a result of psychiatric study of the inmates of Sing Sing in 1916, it was said that two-thirds of them showed some mental defect. Examination of 100 convicts selected at random in the Massachusetts State Prison showed that 29% were feeble-minded and 11% borderline cases. The highest percentage of mental defectives was found among criminals serving sentence for murder in the second degree, manslaughter, burglary and robbery. (Rossy, C. S., inState Board of Insanity Bull., Boston, Nov., 1915). Paul M. Bowers told the 1916 meeting of the American Prison Association of his study of 100 recidivists, each of whom had been convicted not fewer than four times. Of these 12 were insane, 23 feeble-minded and 10 epileptic, and in each case Dr. Bowers said the mental defect bore a direct causal relation to the crime committed. Such studies argue for the need of a little elementary biology in the administration of justice.

[86]For a sane and cautious discussion of the subject see Wallin, J. E. W., "A Program for the State Care of the Feeble-Minded and Epileptic,"School and Society, IV, pp. 724-731, New York, Nov. 11, 1916.

[87]Johnstone, E. R., "Waste Land Plus Waste Humanity,"Training School Bulletin, XI, pp. 60-63, Vineland, N. J., June, 1914.

[88]"Report of the Committee on the Sterilization of Criminals,"Journal of the Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology, September, 1916. Of the operations mentioned, 634 are said to have been performed on insane persons and one on a criminal.

[89]Guyer, M. F., Wisconsin Eugenics Legislation. Trans. Amer. Asso. Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality, 1917, pp. 92-97.

[90]Eugenics Record Office, Bulletin No. 10 A,The Scope of the Committee's Work, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I., Feb., 1914; No. 10 B,The Legal, Legislative and Administrative Aspects of Sterilization, same date.

[91]Eugenics Record Office Bulletin No. 9:State Laws Limiting Marriage Selection Examined in the Light of Eugenics. Cold Spring Harbor, L. I., June, 1913.

[92]Penrose, Clement A.,Sanitary Conditions in the Bahama Islands, Geographical Society of Baltimore, 1905.

[93]See von. Gruber and Rüdin,Fortpflanzung, Vererbung, Rassenhygiene, p. 169, München, 1911.

[94]Davenport, Charles B.,Heredity in Relation to Eugenics, pp. 184 ff., New York, 1911.

[95]Harris, J. Arthur, "Assortative Mating in Man,"Popular Science Monthly, LXXX, pp. 476-493, May, 1912. The most important studies on the subject are cited by Dr. Harris.

[96]An interesting and critical treatment of sexual selection is given by Vernon L. Kellogg inDarwinism To-day, pp. 106-128 (New York, 1908). Darwin's own discussion (The Descent of Man) is still very well worth reading, if the reader is on his guard. The best general treatment of the theory of sexual selection, especially as it applies to man, is in chapter XI of Karl Pearson'sGrammar of Science(2d ed., London, 1900).

[97]Diffloth, Paul,Le Fin de L'Enigme, Paris, 1907.

[98]The best popular yet scientific treatment of the subject we have seen isThe Dynamic of Manhood, a book recently written by Luther H. Gulick for the Young Men's Christian Association (New York, The Association Press, 1917).

[99]The sympathy which we mentioned as the beginning of the hypothetical love affair does lead to a partial identity of will, it is true; but there is often too little in common between the man and woman to make this identity at all complete. As Karl Pearson points out, it is almost essential to a successful marriage that two people have sympathy with each other's aims and a considerable degree of similarity in habits. If such a bond is lacking, the bond of sympathy aroused by some trivial circumstance will not be sufficient to keep the marriage from shipwreck. The occasional altruism of young men who marry inferior girls because they "feel sorry for them" is not praiseworthy.

[100]Ellis, Havelock,The Task of Social Hygiene, pp. 208-209, Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1912.

[101]G. Stanley Hall (Adolescence, II, 113) found the following points, in order, specified as most admired in the other sex by young men and women in their teens: eyes, hair, stature and size, feet, eyebrows, complexion, cheeks, form of head, throat, ears, chin, hands, neck, nose. The voice was highly specialized and much preferred. The principal dislikes, in order, were: prominent or deep-set eyes, fullness of neck, ears that stand out, eyebrows that meet, broad and long feet, high cheek-bones, light eyes, large nose, small stature, long neck or teeth, bushy brows, pimples, red hair. An interesting study of some of the trivial traits of manner which may be handicaps in sexual selection is published by Iva Lowther Peters in thePedagogical Seminary, XXIII, No. 4, pp. 550-570, Dec., 1916.

[102]It has been suggested that the same goal would be reached if a young man before marriage would take out a life insurance policy in the name of his bride. The suggestion has many good points.

[103]The correlation between fecundity and longevity which Karl Pearson has demonstrated gives longevity another great advantage as a standard in sexual selection. SeeProc. Royal Soc. London, Vol. 67, p. 159.

[104]It is objected that if the long-lived marry each other, the short-lived will also marry each other and thus the race will gain no more than it loses. The reply to this is that the short-lived will marry in fewer numbers, as some of them die prematurely; that they will have fewer children; and that these children in turn will tend to die young. Thus the short-lived strains will gradually run out, while the long-lived strains are disseminated.

[105]Hankins, F. H., "The Declining Birth-Rate,"Journal of Heredity, V, pp. 36-39, August, 1914.

[106]Smith, Mary Roberts, "Statistics of College and Non-college Women," Quarterly Pubs. of theAmerican Statistical Assn., VII, p. 1 ff., 1900.

[107]"Statistics of Eminent Women,"Pop. Sci. Mo., June, 1913.

[108]"Marriage of College Women,"Century Magazine, Oct., 1895.

[109]Blumer, J. O., inJournal of Heredity, VIII, p. 217, May, 1917.

[110]The statistics of this and the following middle west universities were presented by Paul Popenoe in theJournal of Heredity, VIII, pp. 43-45.

[111]Harvard Graduates' Magazine, XXV, No. 97, pp. 25-34, September, 1916.

[112]Popenoe, Paul, "Stanford's Marriage-Rate,"Journal of Heredity, VIII, p. 170-173.

[113]Banker, Howard J., "Co-education and Eugenics,"Journal of Heredity, VIII, pp. 208-214, May, 1917.

[114]Eugenics: Twelve University Lectures, p. 9, New York, 1914.

[115]Cf. Gould, Miriam C., "The Psychological Influence upon Adolescent Girls of the Knowledge of Prostitution and Venereal Disease,"Social Hygiene, Vol. II, pp. 191-207, April, 1916. This interesting and important study of the reactions of 50 girls reveals that present methods or indifference to the need of reasonable methods of teaching sex-hygiene are responsible for "a large percentage of harmful results, such as conditions bordering on neurasthenia, melancholia, pessimism and sex antagonism."

[116]Gallichan, Walter M.,The Great Unmarried, New York, 1916.

[117]Sprague, Robert J., "Education and Race Suicide,"Journal of Heredity, Vol. VI, pp. 158 ff., April, 1915. Many of the statistics of women's colleges, cited in the first part of this chapter, are from Dr. Sprague's paper.

[118]Odin calculated that 16% of the eminent men of France had at least one relative who was in some way eminent; that 22% of the men of real talent had such relation; and that among the geniuses the percentage rose to 40. There are thus two chances out of five that a man of genius will have an eminent relative; for a man picked at random from the population the chance is one in several thousand. See Odin, A.,La Genése des Grands Hommes, Vol. I, p. 432 and Vol. II, Tableau xii, Lausanne, 1895.

[119]Crum, Frederick S., "The Decadence of the Native American Stock,"Quarterly Pubs. Am. Statistical Assn., XIV, n. s. 107, pp. 215-223, Sept., 1914.

[120]Kuczynski, R. R.,Quarterly Journ. of Economics, Nov. 1901, and Feb., 1902.

[121]Nearing, Scott, "The Younger Generation of American Genius,"The Scientific Monthly, II, pp. 48-61, Jan., 1916. "Geographical Distribution of American Genius,"Popular Science Monthly, II, August, 1914.

[122]In the chapter on Sexual Selection it was shown that the Normal School girls who stood highest in their classes married earliest. This may seem a contradiction of the Wellesley marriage rates in this table. The explanation probably is that while mental superiority is itself attractive in a mate, there are interferences built up in the collegiate life.

[123]Banker, Howard J., "Co-education and Eugenics,"Journal of Heredity, VIII, pp. 208-214, May, 1917.

[124]Hill, Joseph A., "Comparative Fecundity of Women of Native and Foreign Parentage,"Quarterly Pubs. Amer. Statistical Assn., XIII, 583-604.

[125]See Willcox, W. F., "Fewer Births and Deaths: What Do They Mean?"Journal of Heredity, VII, pp. 119-128, March, 1916.

[126]The data are published in full by Paul Popenoe in theJournal of Heredity, October, 1917. It must be noted that, in spite of their small salaries, the Methodist clergymen marry earlier and have more children than do other men of equal education and social status, such as the Harvard and Yale graduates. This difference in marriage and birth-rate is doubtless to be credited in part to their inherent nature and in part to the action of religious idealism. It confirms the belief of eugenists that even under present economic circumstances the birth-rate of the superior classes might be raised appreciably by a campaign of eugenic education.

[127]For an official statement of the attitude of the birth-rate of the Mormon church, seeJournal of Heredity, VII, pp. 450-451, Oct., 1916.

[128]Mecklin, John M.,Democracy and Race Friction, a Study in Social Ethics, New York, 1914. p. 147.

[129]It would be more accurate to say the Nordic race. Other white races have not uniformly shown this discrimination. The Mediterranean race in particular has never manifested the same amount of race feeling. The Arabs have tended to receive the Negro almost on terms of equality, partly on religious grounds; it seems probable that the decadence of the Arabs is largely due to their miscegenation.

[130]Mecklin,op. cit., p. 147.

[131]Blascoer, Frances,Colored School Children in New York, Public Education Association of the City of New York, 1915. The preface, from which the quotation is taken, is by Eleanor Hope Johnson, chairman of the committee on hygiene of school children.

[132]Mecklin,op. cit., p. 32.

[133]The Negro's contribution has perhaps been most noteworthy in music. This does not necessarily show advanced evolution; August Weismann long ago pointed out that music is a primitive accomplishment. For an outline of what the Negro race has achieved, particularly in America, see theNegro Year Book, Tuskegee Institute, Ala.

[134]Social Problems; Their Treatment, Past, Present and Future, p. 8, London, 1912.

[135]Stetson, G. R., "Memory Tests on Black and White Children,"Psych. Rev., 1897, p. 285. See also MacDonald, A., inRep. U. S. Comm. of Educ.,1897-98.

[136]Mayo, M. J., "The Mental Capacity of the American Negro,"Arch. of Psych., No. 28.

[137]Phillips, B. A., "Retardation in the Elementary Schools of Philadelphia,"Psych. Clinic, VI, pp. 79-90; "The Binet Tests Applied to Colored Children,"ibid., VIII, pp. 190-196.

[138]Strong, A. C.,Ped. Sem., XX, pp. 485-515.

[139]Pyle, W. H., "The Mind of the Negro Child,"School and Society, I, pp. 357-360.

[140]Ferguson, G. O., Jr., "The Psychology of the Negro,"Arch. of Psych.No. 36, April, 1916.

[141]Though the Negro is not assimilable, he is here to stay; he should therefore be helped to develop along his own lines. It is desirable not to subject him to too severe a competition with whites; yet such competition, acting as a stimulus, is probably responsible for part of his rapid progress during the last century, a progress which would not have been possible in a country where Negroes competed only with each other. The best way to temper competition is by differentiation of function, but this principle should not be carried to the extent of pocketing the Negro in blind-alley occupations where development is impossible. As mental tests show him to be less suited to literary education than are the whites, it seems likely that agriculture offers the best field for him.

[142]This letter, and much of the data regarding the legal status of Negro-white amalgamation, are from an article by Albert Ernest Jenks in theAm. Journ. Sociology, XXI, 5, pp. 666-679, March, 1916.

[143]A recent readable account of the races of the world is Madison Grant'sThe Passing of the Great Race(New York, 1916).

[144]The Old World in the New.By E. A. Ross, professor of Sociology in the University of Wisconsin, New York, 1914.

[145]Cf. Stevenson, Robert Louis,The Amateur Emigrant.

[146]Interview with W. Williams, former commissioner of immigration, in theNew York Herald, April 13, 1912.

[147]Of the total number of inmates of insane asylums of the entire U. S. of Jan. 1, 1910, 28.8% were whites of foreign birth, and of the persons admitted to such institutions during the year 1910, 25.5% were of this class. Of the total population of the United States in 1910 the foreign-born whites constituted 14.5%. Special report on the insane, Census of 1910 (pub. 1914).

[148]The Tide of Immigration.By Frank Julian Warne, special expert on foreign-born population, 13th U. S. Census, New York, 1916.

[149]Essays in Social Justice.By Thomas Nixon Carver, professor of Political Economy in Harvard University, Cambridge, 1915.

[150]Fairchild's and Jenks' opinions are quoted from Warne, Chapter XVI.

[151]America and the Orient: A Constructive Policy, by Rev. Sidney L. Gulick, Methodist Book Concern. TheAmerican Japanese Problem: a Study of the Racial Relations of the East and West, New York, Scribner's.

[152]Oriental Immigration.By W. C. Billings, surgeon, U. S. Public Health Service; Chief Medical Officer, Immigration Service; Angel Island (San Francisco), Calif.,Journal of Heredity, Vol. VI (1915), pp. 462-467.

[153]Assimilation in the Philippines, etc.By Albert Ernest Jenks, professor of anthropology in the University of Minnesota.American Journal of Sociology, Vol. XIX (1914), p. 783.

[154]Students of the inheritance of mental and moral traits may be interested to note that while the ordinary Chinese mestizo in the Philippines is a man of probity, who has the high regard of his European business associates, the Ilocanos, supposed descendants of pirates, are considered rather tricky and dishonest.

[155]An important study of this subject was published by Professor Vernon L. Kellogg inSocial Hygiene(New York), Dec, 1914.

[156]Nasmyth, George,Social Progress and the Darwinian Theory, p. 146, New York, 1916. While his book is too partisan, his Chapter III is well worth reading by those who want to avoid the gross blunders which militarists and many biologists have made in applying Darwinism to social progress; it is based on the work of Professor J. Novikov of the University of Odessa. See alsoHeadquarters Nightsby Vernon Kellogg.

[157]Jordan, D. S., and Jordan, H. E.,War's Aftermath, Boston, 1915.

[158]Jordan, David Starr,War and the Breed, p. 164. Boston, 1915. Chancellor Jordan has long been the foremost exponent of the dysgenic significance of war, and this book gives an excellent summary of the problem from his point of view.

[159]See Woods, Frederick Adams, and Baltzly, Alexander,Is War Diminishing? New York, 1916.

[160]See an interesting series of five articles inThe American Hebrew, Jan and Feb., 1917.

[161]Journal of Heredity, VIII, pp. 277-283, June, 1917.

[162]The Early Life of Abraham Lincoln, New York, 1896. For the Emancipator's maternal line seeNancy Hanks, by Caroline Hanks Hitchcock. New York, 1899.

[163]The Life of Pasteurby his son-in-law, René Vallery Radot, should be read by every student of biology.

[164]Hollingworth, H. L.,Vocational Psychology, pp. 212-213, New York, 1916.

[165]Sir Francis Galton and C. B. Davenport have called attention to the probable inheritance of artistic ability and lately H. Drinkwater (Journal of Genetics, July, 1916), has attempted to prove that it is due to a Mendelian unit. The evidence alleged is inadequate to prove that the trait is inherited in any particular way, but the pedigrees cited by these three investigators, and the boyhood histories of such artists as Benjamin West, Giotto, Ruskin and Turner, indicate that an hereditary basis exists.

[166]The difficulty about accepting such traits as this is that they are almost impossible of exact definition. The long teaching experience of Mrs. Evelyn Fletcher-Copp (Journal of Heredity, VII, 297-305, July, 1916) suggests that any child of ordinary ability can and will compose music if properly taught, but of course in different degree.

[167]Seashore, C. E., inPsychol. Monogs,XIII, No. 1, pp. 21-60, Dec., 1910. See also Fletcher-Copp,ubi sup.Mrs. Copp declares that the gift of "positive pitch" or "absolute pitch," i. e., the ability to name any sound that is heard, "may be acquired, speaking very conservatively, by 80% of normal children," if they begin at an early age. It may be that this discrepancy with Seashore's careful laboratory tests is due to the fact that the pupils and teachers trained by Mrs. Copp are a selected lot, to start with.

[168]The contributions on this subject are very widely scattered through periodical literature. The most important is Karl Pearson's memoir (1914), reviewed in theJournal of Heredity, VI, pp. 332-336, July, 1915. See also Gini, Corrado, "The Superiority of the Eldest,"Journal of Heredity, VI, 37-39, Jan., 1915.

[169]Journal of Heredity, VIII, pp. 299-302, July, 1917.

[170]Biometrika, IV, pp. 233-286, London, 1905.

[171]See, for example,Journal of Heredity, VIII, pp. 394-396, September, 1917. A large body of evidence from European sources, bearing on the relation between various characters of the offspring, and the age of the parents, was brought together by Corrado Gini in Vol. II,Problems in Eugenics(London, 1913).

[172]Davenport, Charles B., "The Personality, Heredity and Work of Charles Otis Whitman,"American Naturalist, LI, pp. 5-30, Jan., 1917.

[173]Gillette, John M.,Constructive Rural Sociology, p. 89, New York, 1916.

[174]Cook, O. F., "Eugenics and Agriculture,"Journal of Heredity, VII, pp. 249-254, June, 1916.

[175]Gillette, John M., "A Study in Social Dynamics: A Statistical Determination of the Rate of Natural Increase and of the Factors Accounting for the Increase of Population in the United States,"Quarterly Publications of the American Statistical Association,n. s. 116, Vol. XV, pp. 345-380, December, 1916.

[176]The popular demand for "equality of opportunity" is, if taken literally, absurd, in the light of the provable inequality of abilities. What is wanted is more correctly defined as an equal consideration of all with anappropriateopportunity for each based on his demonstrated capacities.

[177]Essays in Social Justice.By Thomas Nixon Carver, Harvard University Press, 1915, pp. 168-169.

[178]Answering the question "How Much is a Man Worth?" Professor Carver states the following axioms:"The value of a man equals his production minus his consumption.""His economic success equals his acquisition minus his consumption.""When his acquisition equals his production then his economic success equals his value.""It is the duty of the state to make each man's acquisition equal his production. That is justice."Of course, "production" is here used in a broad sense, to mean the real social value of the services rendered, and not merely the present exchange value of the services, or the goods produced.

[178]Answering the question "How Much is a Man Worth?" Professor Carver states the following axioms:

"The value of a man equals his production minus his consumption."

"His economic success equals his acquisition minus his consumption."

"When his acquisition equals his production then his economic success equals his value."

"It is the duty of the state to make each man's acquisition equal his production. That is justice."

Of course, "production" is here used in a broad sense, to mean the real social value of the services rendered, and not merely the present exchange value of the services, or the goods produced.

[179]Kornhauser, A. W., "Economic Standing of Parents and the Intelligence of their Children,"Jour. of Educ. Psychology, Vol. IX., pp. 159-164, March, 1918.

[180]The coefficient of contingency is similar in significance to the coefficient of correlation, with which readers have already become familiar. Miss Perrin's study is inBiometrika, III (1904), pp. 467-469.

[181]"The Social Waste of Unguided Personal Ability." By Erville B. Woods,American Journal of Sociology, XIX (1913), pp. 358-369.

[182]See also "Eugenics: With Special Reference to Intellect and Character," by E. L. Thorndike. InEugenics: Twelve University Lectures, pp. 319-342, New York, 1914.

[183]See U. S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau Publication, No. 7, "Laws Relating to Mothers' Pensions in the United States, Denmark and New Zealand," Washington, 1914.

[184]American Journal of Sociology, Vol. XX, No. 1, pp. 96-103, July, 1914.

[185]According to Captain (now Lt. Col.) E. B. Vedder of the Medical Corps, U. S. A., 50% of the Negroes of the class applying for enlistment in the army are syphilitic. He believes that the amount of infection among Negro women is about the same. (Therapeutic Gazette, May 15, 1916.) Venereal disease must, then, play a much more important part than is generally supposed, in cutting down the birth-rate of the Negro race, but it would of course be a mistake to suppose that an abnormally low birth-rate among Negroes is always to be explained on this ground. Professor Kelly Miller points out (Scientific Monthly, June, 1917) that the birth-rate among college professors at Howard University, the leading Negro institution for higher education, is only 0.7 of a child and that the completed families will hardly have more than two children. He attributes this to (1) the long period of education required of Negro "intellectuals", (2) the high standard of living required of them, and (3) the unwillingness of some of them to bring children into the world, because of the feeling that these children would suffer from race prejudice.

[186]One can not draw a hard and fast distinction between reason and instinct in this way, nor deny to animals all ability to reason. We have simplified the case to make it more graphic. The fact that higher animals may have mental processes corresponding to some of those we call reason in man does not impair the validity of our generalization, for the present purpose.

[187]SeeJewish Eugenics and Other Essays, By Rabbi Max Reichler, New York, Bloch Publishing Co., 1916.

[188]Dublin, Louis I., "Significance of the Declining Birth Rate,"Congressional Record, Jan. 11, 1918.

[189]At the request of Alexander Graham Bell, founder and director of the Genealogical Record Office, Paul Popenoe made an examination and report on these records in the fall of 1916. Thanks are due to Dr. Bell for permitting the use in this chapter of two portions of the investigation.

[190]Beeton, Mary, and Karl Pearson,BiometrikaI, p. 60. The actual correlation varies with the age and sex: the following are the results:Collateral InheritanceElder adult brother and younger adult brother.2290 ± .0194Adult brother and adult brother.2853 ± .0196Minor brother and minor brother.1026 ± .0294Adult brother and minor brother-.0262 ± .0246Elder adult sister and younger adult sister.3464 ± .0183Adult sister and adult sister.3322 ± .0185Minor sister and minor sister.1748 ± .0307Adult sister and minor sister-.0260 ± .0291Adult brother and adult sister.2319 ± .0145Minor brother and minor sister.1435 ± .0251Adult brother and minor sister-.0062 ± .0349Adult sister and minor brother-.0274 ± .0238

[190]Beeton, Mary, and Karl Pearson,BiometrikaI, p. 60. The actual correlation varies with the age and sex: the following are the results:

[191]The method used is the ingenious one devised by J. Arthur Harris (BiometrikaIX, p. 461). The probable error is based on n=100.

[192]A. Plœtz, "Lebensdauer der Eltern und Kindersterblichkeit,"Archiv für Rassen-u Gesellschafts-Biologie, VI (1909), pp. 33-43.

[193]Or it may be supposed that the environment is so good as to make a non-selective death less likely, and therefore such deaths as do occur must more frequently be selective.

[194]Hibbs, Henry H., Jr.,Infant Mortality: Its Relation to Social and Industrial Conditions, New York, 1916.

[195]See Castle, W. E.,Heredity, pp. 30-32, New York, 1911.

[196]Doll, E. A., "Education and Inheritance,"Journal of Education, Feb. 1, 1917.

[197]Atwater's celebrated experiments proved that all the energy (food) which goes into an animal can be accounted for in the output of heat or work. They are conveniently summarized in Abderhalden'sText-book of Physiological Chemistry, p. 335.

[198]In this connection see farther Raymond Pearl's review of Mr. Redfield's "Dynamic Evolution" (Journal of Heredity) VI, p. 254, and Paul Popenoe's review, "The Parents of Great Men,"Journal of Heredity, VIII, pp. 400-408.

[199]See Dr. Hrdlička's communication to the XIXth International Congress of Americanists, Dec. 28, 1915 (the proceedings were published at Washington, in March, 1917); or an account in theJournal of Heredity, VIII, pp. 98 ff., March, 1917.

[200]Cf. Grant, Madison,The Passing of the Great Racep. 74 (New York, 1916): "One often hears the statement made that native Americans of Colonial ancestry are of mixed ethnic origin. This is not true. At the time of the Revolutionary War the settlers in the 13 colonies were not only purely Nordic, but also purely Teutonic, a very large majority being Anglo-Saxon in the most limited meaning of that term. The New England settlers in particular came from those counties in England where the blood was almost purely Saxon, Anglian, and Dane."

[201]Comprising Armenians, Croatians, English, Greeks, Russian Jews, Irish, South Italians, North Italians, Magyars, Poles, Rumanians and Russians, 500 individuals in all.

[202]English data from K. Pearson,BiometrikaV, p. 124.

[203]Pearson (ubi supra) measured 12-year-old English school children, and found the average cephalic index for 2298 boys to be 78.88, with σ = 3.2, for 2188 girls 78.43, with σ = 3.9. It is not proper to compare adolescents with adults, however.

[204]Sewall Wright has pointed out (Journal of Heredity, VIII, p. 376) that the white blaze in the hair can not be finally classed as dominant or recessive until the progeny oftwoaffected persons have been seen. All matings so far studied have been between an affected person and a normal. It may be that the white blaze (or piebaldism) represents merely a heterozygous condition, and that the trait is really a recessive. The same argument applies to brachydactyly.

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