RAILWAY STATION, SANTA FÉ
RAILWAY STATION, SANTA FÉ
The purchase of the Buenos Aires and Rosario line gave the Central Argentine an entranceinto the rich province of Tucuman over a track of the same gauge as its own. After leaving Rosario this line passes through a rich agricultural section as far as Rafaela, and is intersected by several branch lines of the Santa Fé system. Shortly after leaving that place, which itself is only three hundred and fifteen feet above sea level, the country gradually becomes lower and swampy, being about at its lowest on the frontier between the provinces of Santa Fé and Santiago del Estero. After a considerable distance of this low, swampy land the level rises until it is over six hundred feet in elevation, where a branch four miles in length connects the main line with the city of Santiago del Estero, capital of the province of the same name. This city of fifteen thousand has nothing to distinguish it beyond the fact that it is the capital of a province. The line continues to reach higher elevation by easy grades. After crossing the frontier of the province of Tucuman it reaches a most fertile section and at last enters the pretty little city of the same name about which the Argentinian writers grow eloquent.
At Tucuman connection is made with the Central Northern Railway, a national railwayof more than twelve hundred miles in length. It starts at Santa Fé and almost parallels the Central Argentine to Tucuman, at no point being distant more than fifty miles. It is a narrow gauge track. Leaving Tucuman it runs in a general northerly direction, but with many twists and turns in order to avoid the more mountainous sections of the districts through which it passes. At Tala the frontier of Salta is crossed at an elevation of two thousand six hundred and seventy feet, and a short distance further the elevation has increased to over three thousand feet. It then descends to the little town of Rosario de la Frontera noted for its thermal springs. At Guenas, one hundred and eighty miles from Tucuman, a branch runs to Salta, the capital of the province. This is a neat, well-paved city of about thirty thousand people with the usual public buildings and churches of a provincial capital. San Francisco church has a tower over two hundred feet in height which is pointed to with pride by the inhabitants. This city is very old, having been founded as early as 1582 under the name of New Seville. Pampa Blanca (the white pampa), is the first station in the province of Jujuy. Near here another branch is headedfor the rather important town of Oran, but the main line soon reaches the capital. Jujuy for a long time was the northerly terminus of the Argentine railway system. This is the highest town in the republic, and, although near the tropics, the altitude gives this little city a fine and healthful climate. It has a population of ten thousand and is distant from Buenos Aires one thousand miles. The town has nothing to distinguish it, but the surrounding scenery is very beautiful. Hill and valley, wood and plain all contribute to make up a most enchanting landscape. The Rio Grande River runs through the town. It is the general bathing place as well as furnishing the power for the electric light and some mills located there. There are many thermal springs in the vicinity which are said to have splendid medicinal properties. The most noted are those of Los Reyes, the kings. There are four springs, one above another, the water being at a temperature of one hundred and twenty-five degrees Fahrenheit.
The Central Northern has recently been extended to La Quiaca, on the Bolivian frontier, where it will meet the railways of that republic when they are extended. At present the Bolivianlines reach Tupiza, and it is about a three days’ journey by coach or mule between the two points. The distance still to be covered is not very great and completion is promised in about one year from this writing. There will then be a continuous railway connection between La Paz, the capital of Bolivia, and Buenos Aires. Peru is promising a road from Cuzco to Lima, and there will then be continuous connection with the Peruvian capital, except on Lake Titicaca over which there is regular steamship service.
The national government also owns a line of railway running from Cordoba northwest through the mountainous provinces of Rioja and Catamarca, more than five hundred miles in length. These lines are known as the Argentino del Norte (Northern), and there is another which is being pushed up into the Gran Chaco. The government has pursued the beneficent policy of running its lines through the districts where private enterprise was afraid to venture because of the uncertainty of the investment. They are contributing greatly to the development of those regions.
The Central Cordoba Railway is quite an important system. One line runs to San Francisco,where it connects with the Cordoba and Rosario Railway which runs to Rosario. Its principal track, however, is a narrow gauge line which runs from Cordoba in a northerly direction to Tucuman, and, with its several branches, serves an extensive territory. A goodly part of the territory traversed is forest land, but a part of it is a salty waste. An independent entrance to Buenos Aires is now being constructed. The lines known as the Provincia de Santa Fé start at Rosario and run north, following the basin of the Paraná River as far as Resistencia, a town opposite to Corrientes, touching at Santa Fé and nearly all the important places in that district. They were built by French capital and now have more than a thousand miles of track. The company is gradually extending its railhead up into the Gran Chaco, and will probably eventually reach Asuncion. They are now only a neck behind the lines on the opposite side of the river and are far ahead from a financial point of view. They have always paid handsome dividends from the quebracho wood, which they bring down from the Chaco. It would not be surprising if this line would eventually be pushed clear up into the state of Matto-Grosso,Brazil, for development is looking up that way.
The district between the Paraná and Uruguay Rivers is served by two railway systems, the Entre Rios and Northeastern systems. These two systems were formerly isolated and had a stormy career for many years. At the present time they work under a traffic exchange agreement and their financial standing is now good. These are the only railroads in the republic, with one exception, of standard gauge, 4 feet 8½ inches width between the rails. The first mentioned road serves the province of the same name. It was originally a line that ran from nowhere to nowhere. The road was built through loans contributed by the government of the province of Entre Rios in 1885, and was completed three years later. The money was squandered so recklessly that it cost twice as much as was necessary, and was built of such poor material that it had to be rebuilt within a few years. The government soon found itself unable to meet its obligations and the road was turned over to the bondholders. It was not placed on a profitable basis until the branches were completed which connected it with important points in the two provinces throughwhich it now runs. The main line of the Entre Rios Railway cuts across this province from Paraná to Uruguay. One branch runs down to a point near Buenos Aires, and freight cars are now ferried across to that city. This is the only car ferry in operation in South America, and it is quite a novelty in that part of the world. Another branch runs to Concordia where connection is made with the Northeastern system. This road has one fork which leads up to and another which follows the Uruguay River. It was built there to carry the traffic around the rapids of that river where navigation was impossible. It will, however, soon be a much more important line, for it is gradually approaching Posadas, the commercial capital of the upper Paraná, and the most important town on the river north of Rosario. The Paraguay Central is also approaching Villa Encarnacion, on the opposite side of the Paraná, and within a short time there will be continuous communication by rail between Asuncion and Buenos Aires, with the exception of ferrying across two rivers.
South of the transcontinental line there are only two railway companies now operating.The Western Railway, or, as it is officially called, the Ferro Carril de Oeste, serves the southwestern part of the province of Buenos Aires and La Pampa. It reaches one of the richest agricultural districts of the republic and a section that is rapidly developing. The various extensions are being pushed out a few miles each year, and this company now owns fourteen hundred miles of track. The Western Railway has had a checkered career. In point of age it is the oldest line in the country, as about fifteen miles of track were built a half century ago. When this little railroad was inaugurated a great celebration was held, and the President delivered an address full of optimism and prophetic of future development. Fortune, however, refused to smile on the project, and money was scarce, so that the national government was obliged to take over the road. It was not a success until an English company took it over in 1890, and began pushing out the extensions over the pampas that are now bringing in the revenue-producing freight, which has placed the Western Railway on the road to prosperity.
The Ferro Carril del Sud, or Great Southern Railway, is the second largest railroad systemin Argentina,[1]and one of the best freight producers. It has a monopoly of the greater part of the rich province of Buenos Aires, and its main station at Plaza Constitucion in the city of Buenos Aires is a busy place, with trains continually running in and out loaded with passengers for the suburbs or more distant points. It was due to the enterprise of this company that the busy port of Bahia Blanca was opened, and the seaside resort of Mar del Plata made popular. The section traversed by the Great Southern is threaded here and there by the many branches and feeders of this system, and more are being built each year. Passenger and freight traffic have increased so rapidly that the earnings per mile have almost doubled inthe last ten years. It has built a strategic line several hundred miles long to Neuquen, almost directly west of Bahia Blanca, which will eventually become a transcontinental line. Engineers are now at work selecting the most feasible route across the Andes to connect with the Chilean state railways. This plan has already been approved by the directors and work will no doubt be begun before long.
The Southern has in construction a line south to the port of San Antonio, to open up the rich lands on the borders of Patagonia. It will connect with a government road which is now building from San Antonio, which is a new port on the Gulf of San Matias, westward to Nahuel Huapi, and which will be about three hundred miles long. The government is to be commended for its far-sightedness in planning this enterprise. Already a large part of the road-bed is graded and track has been laid for fifty miles or more, but service has not yet been begun. Work has also been begun on a railroad from Puerto Deseado, still farther south than San Antonio, which will run inland to Nahuel Huapi and open up an extensive country. This is but the beginning of extensive railroad development in this large southern sectionof Argentina, and plans have already been formulated to extend other lines into the very heart of Patagonia, and over to Lake Buenos Aires. In all the government now owns and operates a little more than two thousand miles of main track, which will be increased to fully three thousand by the new extensions of the old ones now being built.
The amount of traffic carried on these railroads is enormous and reaches big figures. I have before me the report of one of the greatest systems of Argentina for the year 1910. This states that the amount of grain carried by this line for that year, in tons of two thousand two hundred and five pounds, was as follows: linseed four hundred and two thousand one hundred and ninety-three, wheat nine hundred and ninety-one thousand one hundred and eighty-eight, corn one million one hundred and forty-two thousand four hundred. Other freight carried, not including its own supplies, amounted to five million nine hundred and eighty-three thousand one hundred and forty-three tons. Three hundred and forty-one thousand five hundred and seventy-seven head of live stock were transported. The number of passengers carried numbered almost fourteenmillions. The gross receipts were twenty-five million dollars. Its capital stock is one hundred and seventy-five million dollars. It has paid for many years a regular dividend of six per cent., besides devoting large sums each year to betterments and extensions. All of these roads have been conducted along conservative lines, and their stocks are nearly all quoted on the London stock exchange considerably above par.
At the time of the conquest Argentina did not possess a large indigenous population. Wandering tribes dwelt in all parts of the country from Tierra del Fuego to Brazil, but the proportion of these Indians was very small when compared with the extent of territory occupied. On the slopes of the Andes were found tribes that were very closely allied with and subject to the Incas, who ruled all along the Pacific coast from Ecuador to Chile, and there was continuous intercourse between them. No ruins of temples dedicated to the sun have been found in Argentina, although some reminders of the Inca civilization have been uncovered in the northwestern part of the republic. The principal strongholds of the native tribes were in the northeastern sections of the country, on the rich plains and low hills which border on the great rivers of the country. Indians whowere related to the Tupi-Guarani tribes who inhabited Brazil, had established themselves there in considerable numbers.
These Indians were not so bloodthirsty as those in the extreme south, although some of them were given to cannibalism. Their slaying of human beings, however, was for the purpose of food and not as a part of their religious worship. They were not especially hostile to the incoming Spaniards, until the members of the tribes began to be impressed into slavery, and they then resisted the advance of that race in a feeble way. Their religion was simple and consisted of a few good deities and a number of evil ones. The former they tried to honour in their simple way, but a great deal more attention was given to appeasing the latter, in order to avoid physical suffering, for which they believed these malevolent deities were responsible. Theirs was an ignorant belief and a simple faith, and they rather welcomed the teachings of the priests who first came among them. The new doctrines were accompanied by ceremonies which appealed to their childlike natures. The chanting in an unknown but sonorous tongue, the visible emblems and the incense cast a spell over these simple people,who did not attempt to grasp the abstract idea of a trinity or the sacrifice of a Saviour.
CHURCH IN CORRIENTES, BUILT IN 1588
CHURCH IN CORRIENTES, BUILT IN 1588
By far the most persistent and determined attempt to convert these aborigines was made by the Jesuit priesthood. As a result of its tireless and systematic efforts this order succeeded in establishing in Paraguay, and the country adjacent to it on the east and south, about the beginning of the sixteenth century, a seat of power which lasted for two centuries, and which has been referred to elsewhere in a general way. It developed into an ecclesiastical autocracy, with the heads of the Jesuit body as the actual as well as nominal rulers. This remarkable order subdued the Indians living between the Uruguay and Paraguay rivers, and brought all of them under its domination. This was done without resort to the sword. Although these pristine people were reduced to a condition of peonage, or serfdom, they remained loyal to the Jesuits and assisted them in repelling all invaders. So secure did the clerical rulers feel in their position, that all other white persons were forbidden to settle within the territory over which they claimed jurisdiction. It was perhaps well for the natives that they did take this position, for theSpanish adventurers would have enslaved the Indians, just as did the Portuguese “Paulistas” in Brazil.
When the Jesuits were expelled from Brazil they crossed over the Paraná River into Paraguay and Northern Argentina. Then was founded Misiones, a series of missions along the eastern shores of that river. Although these religious settlements have long since crumbled into ruins, the name still clings to one of the territories of Argentina. The Jesuit effort did not extend all over Argentina, but it was felt even to the foothills of the Andes. The Jesuit emissaries encountered the Spanish advance guard who had crossed the Cordilleras from Peru and met with a repulse. The lack of gold in the section occupied by the Jesuits was also in itself a protection, because it did not excite the cupidity of the gold-seekers. These settlements were engaged solely in agricultural pursuits. Their increasing wealth and prosperity, however, did finally excite this cupidity, and the arrogance of the order aroused an intense jealousy in the rulers of the province. As a result of these two influences this order was forcibly expelled in 1768, and their property was confiscated. Some ofit was bestowed on other religious orders, but the most of it was devoted to secular uses. The power and prestige of the Jesuits among the natives were not at once destroyed by the blow. For a long time their influence was paramount, because of the blind obedience of their followers who had been gathered together in little settlements and had been taught useful pursuits.
In other parts of the country the subjugation was not so peaceful. Those Spanish troops who crossed the Andes and entered Argentina from that direction pursued different tactics. Gold was sought and everything was sacrificed to that one ambition. The conquerors were determined to acquire wealth, or at least to secure a means of livelihood without the necessity of manual labour. The natives were maltreated if they resisted, and enslaved when once subdued. Where agriculture was attempted these Indians were compelled to do the work, with no compensation except the right to live. The priests were always ready to accompany the soldiers on the most arduous campaigns. Without raising a hand against indiscriminate slaughter they held up the crucifix to the survivors, and then turned about and risked theirown lives to spread the Christian faith into hitherto untrodden regions. Even the desolate interior of Patagonia was not too distant or too inaccessible for these indefatigable missionaries. Sword in one hand and the cross in the other these teachers of religion spread the doctrines of their church over the whole of the La Plata basin and the rest of South America, and gave Roman Catholicism such a grasp on the continent that it will probably never be broken. The one difficult thing to understand is how the Church of Rome could countenance the harsh and bloody methods of subjugation pursued under the very eyes of its commissioned representatives, and the violation of all the ethics of humanity as well as Christianity, unless it was simply the spirit of the age with which even the heads of the Church were also imbued. The Jesuits founded schools for the natives, in their settlements, but the other orders did not do this, although they aided in inculcating orderly ways among them.
The alliance of Church and State still exists in Argentina. The second article in the constitution reads as follows: “The federal government supports the Apostolic Roman Catholic Church.” This condition exists in all therepublics of South America, except Brazil. The president and vice-president must be members of that church. Religious liberty prevails and absolute freedom of worship is guaranteed to all persons of whatever belief. Protestant or Jew has the same right to erect a place of worship as the Roman Catholic. The alliance of Church and State, however, tends to weaken each. It oftentimes drags down the high office of the Church to the low level of politics and tends to cheapen its influence. It sometimes ties up the government in ways that work to its detriment. It will be better for the Church as well as government when this alliance is separated. It will probably not be many years before the final break will come in Argentina, and it is to be hoped that it will come peaceably and without a rupture of peaceful conditions.
Although the Church is a nominal partner of the State it seemed to the writer that its influence was not particularly strong. The day when the Archbishop could dictate government policies has evidently passed away. The bond between them is weak. It appears to be an age of remarkable indifference toward religion. The men openly avow their indifference and say that they “leave religion to the women.”A visit to the churches is a practical demonstration of that statement so often reiterated. The great Cathedral of Buenos Aires, which seats many thousands, will oftentimes have only a mere handful of men at the regular services within its walls. Some of the moral conditions in the republic show that the cardinal teachings of the Church are not being followed, although practically all are nominal adherents. How much of this condition might be improved by a better priesthood would be difficult to estimate. Any statement made might be construed as based upon an erroneous view, or given from a prejudiced standpoint. It is a fact, however, that there is great room for a religious awakening in Argentina, as well as the rest of South America, and the Roman Catholic Church appears to be the only one able to propagate this work aggressively among the many millions of inhabitants.
Protestantism has not gained much of a foothold among the Spanish-speaking population. There are a great many adherents of Protestant denominations among the British and German population. In Buenos Aires, Rosario and Bahia Blanca the Anglican and Scotch Presbyterian churches have edifices and supportministers. They are organized solely for the people of that faith, and do not make any effort to evangelize those speaking other languages, as their services are conducted only in English. Occasional services are held in other cities where a colony of English-speaking people resides.
The only church that is aggressively pushing its work in Argentina is the Methodist Episcopal Church. This church has about thirty missionaries at work in various parts of the republic, and a number of congregations have been successfully established. Buenos Aires is naturally the centre of their efforts, and in that city they have organized a half dozen churches. Of these the principal one is on Calle Cangallo, in the heart of the city. This is generally known as the American Church, for people who are members of the various non-Catholic bodies all unite in the services here, which are conducted wholly in English. The pastor, Rev. W. P. McLaughlin, has been in charge of this work for almost two decades and is very much beloved by all. This church is entirely self-supporting and contributes considerable sums to the work in the other churches. The other churches of this denomination in Buenos Airesare intended for work among the Spanish-speaking population, with the exception of an Italian mission. Congregations have likewise been formed in Rosario, Bahia Blanca, Cordoba, Santa Fé, La Plata, Mendoza, San Juan, Chacabuco, Junin and other cities. They claim a membership exceeding five thousand and seem to be very much encouraged in their work.
Educational work has received considerable attention from this body and a number of schools are conducted by it in which well-qualified teachers from the United States conduct the classes. These schools are recognized as worthy institutions, and many families send their children to them even though they do not accept that faith. Their influence cannot be other than beneficial and uplifting, for any effort that aims to spread enlightenment and moral ethics cannot fail to be of service in the general advancement of the country. Their work will likewise stimulate similar effort by others, and thus the general cause of education and morality is greatly furthered.
The Morris system of schools was founded by an Englishman as a missionary enterprise, but the scope of the work has since been broadened, until now it has become a great educationalenterprise with several thousand students under its tutelage. The schools receive government aid, and by that means those in charge have been enabled to branch out much more than was permitted by the limited means in the early years of their history.
The Young Men’s Christian Association has a very flourishing society in Buenos Aires which is doing a great work. At present they are hampered by poor quarters, but a campaign had just been ended at the time of the writer’s visit and two hundred thousand dollars had been secured for a new building. A site was purchased in a central location and work was to start at once on a fine new building. With these new quarters and enlarged equipment, the work of this great world-wide organization ought to be increased many fold, and there is room for all the effort it is able to put forth. The Young Men’s Christian Association forms a rallying place for young men who have broken away from home ties and started life in a foreign country. The extension of the work among the Spanish-speaking people also brings about a fraternizing between the two races which is exceedingly beneficial.
The reign of Ferdinand and Isabella is perhaps the most noteworthy epoch in Spanish history. It resounded with the clash of arms and with the thirst for discovery. It was also an era of intolerance. A distinctive tendency toward cruelty has ever been a prominent trait of the Spanish character. The driving out of the Moors and the elimination of the Moorish civilization, the harsh treatment of the Jews and, finally, the establishment of the Inquisition are all indicative of that tendency. These traits were carried with them into the New World in their worst forms. The Spanish expeditions to South America were marked by ferocious cruelty, unlimited bloodshed, and an unquenchable lust for treasure. A low standard of personal relations as well as a narrow conception of public morality prevailed. It was from the very worst of the population of Spain that the early colonists to Spanish SouthAmerica came. Most of them were adventurers who had nothing to lose, and who were quite willing to risk their lives for the possibility of treasure. It is not unnatural that the worst characteristics of the Spanish character should early be developed, and to an abnormal degree. One quality they had to aid them—there was no lack of personal courage. Ignorant they might be, but of personal bravery there was no question, as their deeds bear witness.
In South America there were two great racial divisions, besides the tribes dwelling in Patagonia, who were quite different to either of the others. On the Pacific slope the Incas had joined together the various tribes from north of Quito to Chile into a great community over which they exercised supreme power. The people lived under established conditions; they built towns and public works and were proficient in agriculture. On the Atlantic side of the Andes, from Venezuela to the La Plata, the Indians belonged to Tupi-Guarani stock. The features and habits of some of the tribes had become slightly modified, but they show enough similarities to leave small doubt as to their common origin. These tribes were all nomadic,and existed principally on the products of the chase or wild fruits which they gathered. The Araucanian and Tehuelche Indians of Patagonia were also nomadic, but they are of a different temperament.
For three centuries after its discovery no immigration was permitted to the South American colonies except of Spaniards. These Spaniards intermarried freely with native women. From this mixture grew up the greater part of the original population of Argentina, as well as the other colonies. The gradual development of population and wealth was little understood in the mother country. Trade with foreign countries was prohibited, all mineral wealth was heavily taxed and the Crown “milked” the colonies in every way. All of the officials were native Spaniards. A feeling of animosity gradually grew up among the colonists toward the Spaniards which finally led to the outbreak of hostilities at the commencement of the nineteenth century. South Americans perhaps give too little importance to the influence of the United States in the outcome of their struggles for liberty. The idea of America for the Americans existed long before the enunciation of the Monroe Doctrine in 1823. That idea was in theminds of Washington and his co-workers. Their success also fired the patriotism of Bolivar, San Martin and other South American liberators.
The story of Argentina is but another chapter in the history of the short-sighted attitude of Spain toward her colonies in the New World. The sole purpose of the colonial policy of Spain seemed to be to protect the trading monopoly which had been farmed out to the merchants of Cadiz, and to keep a record of the production of silver and gold, in order to insure the collection of the royal one-fifth. Every Atlantic port of South America was closed to traffic except Nombre de Dios, on the coast of Panama. Everything destined for that continent had to be taken there, transported across the isthmus and reloaded to vessels on the Pacific. Goods destined for Argentina also had to follow this route. They were carried by vessels to Callao, Peru, and from there were taken overland even as far as Buenos Aires. It was for this reason that the early settlers of Argentina mostly came in from the Andes side. To further enforce this monopoly of trade the governors of Buenos Aires were instructed to forbid all importation and exportationfrom that port under penalty of death and forfeiture of property to those engaged in it.
It is little wonder that a system of corruption and an evasion of such iniquitous laws was developed. The several governors recommended modifications, but the Cadiz merchants were obdurate. Smuggling and surreptitious trading grew popular, and the officials soon became silent partners in the traffic. Although the laws remained upon the statute books nothing could keep the people from trafficking with their own products. Buenos Aires became a community of smugglers. English and Dutch ships landed their goods under the very noses of officials, took their pay in hides or money and then continued their way around Cape Horn to the west coast, where the same process was repeated. Mule trains carried these goods thus illegally entered across the plains to Cordoba and Tucuman; the officials along the way winking at this evasion of unpopular laws. The profits were distributed among officials and the soldiers were hired to shut their eyes. The abstract right of the government to enact such restrictive regulations was never questioned. They broke the laws without any qualms of conscience,but contesting them was not even dreamed of. The idea that the right to trade or to practise a profession existed only by sufferance of the government has not been eradicated even to this day. It is a relic of this age. It is not surprising that office holding became the popular vocation and has remained so even to the twentieth century.
For a long period the whole of South America was under the viceroyalty of Peru. Some of the larger capitals had bodies of officials known as Audiencias. The viceroyalty was divided into provinces, each of which had a governor. Each new region occupied was organized into a municipality, which was the real unit of their political structure. The governing body of this municipality was termed the Cabildo, and was composed of from six to twelve members who were appointed and held office for life. This body exercised the civil and judicial administration. Most of these men secured their appointment through actual purchase. The territorial jurisdiction of these municipalities was generally poorly defined, and it was sometimes almost coextensive with the province. Although the colonial governor was supposed to give a full account of his administration,he often failed to do so and conducted his office as a despotic and irresponsible ruler.
The governors were always Spaniards, and only one exception appears in Argentina, Hernandarios Saavedra. This man appears as one of the brightest names during the seventeenth century. For several years he acted as governor of Buenos Aires, and he did a great deal of good in securing justice to the Indians and curbing the military power. He retained the confidence of both natives and Spaniards by his reputation for giving a square deal to all sides. Under his policy the colonies prospered and the pastoral pursuits were greatly extended. The sixteenth century contained very little of interest to the general reader. The inhabited portions were extended but little, and there were one or two uprisings of Indians against the white man’s rule. Only one was serious and that was of the tribes on the Andean slopes, who were stirred up by a leader who claimed to be the direct descendant of the old Inca princes. This disturbance lasted for fifty years, but it ended with the capture and execution of the leader, who was known to the Spaniards as Bohorquez.
Some struggles took place between the Portuguesesettlers of Brazil and the Spaniards, who had attempted to penetrate the regions watered by the upper Paraná. The “Paulistas,” inhabitants of the state of São Paulo, resisted the encroachments of the Spaniards, as they feared the Jesuit influences, which they both feared and hated. They raided the settlements of that order in Misiones and carried off several thousand of the poor natives as captives. The Iguassú River and the east bank of the Uruguay seemed to be adopted informally as the dividing line between the two races, although later differences arose over the territory now embraced in the republic of Uruguay. The Portuguese established a settlement, called Colonia, in 1680, almost opposite to Buenos Aires, which was ever a sore spot for the Spaniards and gave rise to much trouble. It became a harbouring place for smugglers and offenders against Spanish laws, but it remained under Portuguese control for a long period.
With the eighteenth century Spain adopted a little more liberal policy toward her colonies in regard to trade. The prestige which England and Holland had obtained practically forced certain concessions. Uruguay began to be settledby Spaniards. The increase in population and greater demand for wool and hides in Europe caused a remarkable advance in trade. In 1767 the Jesuits were expelled, as they had been in Brazil some time previous. This order had accumulated enormous wealth and ruled a large section of the country with an iron hand. The members of the order were forcibly driven out and their property sold at auction or divided among other orders.
In 1776, just a few days after the declaration of independence in the American colonies, Buenos Aires was established as a viceroyalty. Lake Titicaca on the north, and the Andes on the west, were established as the boundary lines. It included the territory now divided into the four republics of Uruguay, Bolivia, Argentina and Paraguay. South of the city of Buenos Aires, however, there was practically no development. The first viceroy was named Pedro de Zeballos, who came over with a large force of soldiers and sailors in order to drive out the Portuguese. Free commerce with Spain was now permitted and commerce greatly increased. Buenos Aires became the centre of all this trade, was greatly prospered and its population rapidly increased. Wines, brandies,hides, tobacco and maté (Paraguay tea) were the principal articles exported to Europe.
The beginning of the nineteenth century saw unrest all over South America. It began in Quito, Ecuador, and spread in every direction. It did not take long to reach the loosely cohered sections of the viceroyalty of Buenos Aires, in which the different elements had not coalesced. The Spaniards generally lived in the populated centres, while the gauchos, mostly half-breeds, had their homes on the broad pampas. It was essentially democratic as compared with more aristocratic Peru and Mexico. The only common bond was religion, and that was not strong. Spain’s selfish policy had destroyed her prestige, while the revolutions in France and North America had propagated the idea of democracy among the youth.
Perhaps no one incident had greater influence upon the final events than the attempt of England, encouraged by her successes in South Africa, to capture Buenos Aires. In June, 1806, a British fleet bearing on board fifteen hundred troops appeared in the La Plata. The Viceroy immediately fled, and the British flag soon floated over his late residence. For several weeks the people acquiesced in this change,but a Frenchman, named Jacques de Liniers, headed the opposition. He organized a force in Montevideo and advanced on Buenos Aires. The citizens, reanimated by his enthusiasm, flocked to his banner and, after some bloody street fighting, the English were compelled to surrender. Their flags were captured and are still exhibited as trophies of Argentine prowess in the Church of Santo Domingo in that city. The success of the Argentinos, who had accomplished this victory without help from the mother country, greatly encouraged the patriots and aroused in them a hope of separation from Spain. Reinforcements came from England, to renew the conflict. The troops marched confidently into the city. The flat roofs of the buildings and the parapet-like fronts, however, provided excellent shelter for the defenders, and the British general was finally compelled to ask for terms. He had lost a quarter of his force but was allowed to leave on honourable terms. The attempt of Napoleon to place his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, on the throne of Spain also fermented the spirit of revolution that was becoming rampant, for the people felt no loyalty or allegiance to this upstart. A new Viceroy was sent out by the mother country,but he did not remain in peace very long. In an effort to placate the Spanish-American colonies a royal decree was issued that the colonies were considered an integral part of the monarchy and should have representatives in the Cortes. “At last you are raised to the dignity of free men,” came the message to the colonists. It was too late.
A group of patriots had already risen who were holding meetings to decide what could be done in this crisis. The leader in this band was Manuel Belgrano. They decided to ask the resignation of the Viceroy and waited on him with this request. He knew that his position was untenable because of the disaffection among the troops. On the 25th of May, 1810,[2]an armed assembly met on the plaza in front of the government palace under the leadership of Belgrano, Moreno, Castelli and Valcarcel. The colours of blue and white were seen everywhere, for these were the colours adopted by the revolutionists. A provisional junta was selected who assumed the executive powers of government. For several years, however, theiracts all run in the name of Ferdinand VII, King of Castile and Leon. No attempt was made at this time to secure the adherence of the other provinces, but emissaries were later sent asking their coöperation. Troops were afterwards sent, and a number of encounters occurred. Both sides killed their prisoners as a general rule, and the combats were very sanguinary.
Manuel Belgrano was a native of Buenos Aires. He had been educated in Spain and had there imbibed republican ideas. His enthusiasm, his radicalism and his ability soon placed him at the head of the revolutionary forces. Though lacking in military training he proved himself an able general. He led an unsuccessful expedition into Paraguay, whither he went to induce the Paraguayans to join in the revolt. Another great defeat had been given the Argentine forces in Bolivia. Montevideo was evacuated, and the situation was becoming desperate. Belgrano was then placed in command and gathered together the scattered forces at Tucuman. The result was a decisive victory for the patriots. The gaucho cavalry followed the fleeing Spaniards clear to the boundaries of Bolivia, and inflicted great losses upon them. Belgrano foolishly followedup this real victory by another invasion of Bolivia, and met with an overwhelming defeat at Vilapugio, and again at Ayohuma. With the remnant of his army he returned to Argentine territory, and was succeeded in command by San Martin, who proved to be the real genius of the struggle for independence.
José de San Martin first saw the light on the 25th of February, 1778, in a little town on the Uruguay River, his father being an officer in the Spanish army. While still a small boy he was taken to Spain to be educated. Entering a military school, for his father had destined him for a military career, he finished that course, and at an early age enlisted in the army. He served in the many wars of that country against Napoleon, and rose to the rank of lieutenant-colonel. He also fought for a time under the great English general, Wellington, in his campaign in the Iberian peninsula. In these conflicts San Martin had imbibed liberal principles, and a hatred of all forms of oppression and injustice filled his soul. The success of the American republic inspired him as well as others, so that he joined with many in a secret society, pledged to the work of establishing a republic in Spain.
Man proposes, but God disposes. The struggle for independence in Argentina appealed to this patriot and he decided to return to his native land. He arrived at an opportune time, for the successes of the Spanish troops had plunged the patriots into despair. In March, 1812, San Martin landed in Buenos Aires. His first step was to organize and drill some effective regiments of infantry in that city, for men trained in military tactics were wanting. He selected the finest physical and moral specimens of manhood that could be found, and subjected them to a rigid discipline. The lazy and cowardly ones were weeded out, until he had only a small force, but this body was composed of real soldiers. With these men he gained some victories, but success did not seem possible to him along these lines. He therefore planned a new move with all the genius of a great commander, who cares not for temporary success but sees only ultimate victory.
To San Martin the only hopeful plan seemed to be to drive the Spaniards out of Chile, and then attack Peru, the stronghold of Spanish power in South America. He aimed not only for the independence of Argentina, but of all of that great continent; he vowed he would notbe satisfied until the last Spanish soldier had left the soil of South America, and every province was free. To this end he sought the appointment as governor of Cuyo, nestling up against the Andes on the direct route to Chile, and now known as the province of Mendoza, in Argentina. The inhabitants of that section, who breathed the free air of the mountains, were notoriously anti-Spanish, brave and enduring. Chilean patriots who had been exiled were numerous here, too, and it offered good recruiting ground. He brought with him as a nucleus a part of the troops he had drilled in Buenos Aires, and the government later sent him a corps of negro slaves, who had been freed from bondage. For three years San Martin laboured steadily building up a great war machine. Though civil war waged in and around the capital he kept aloof from all these disturbances, and busied himself in recruiting, drilling and instructing officers, as well as men, raising taxes, gathering provisions, making powder, casting guns, building portable bridges and making all arrangements for transport and commissariat on his contemplated march into Chile.
Dictator succeeded dictator, military chieffollowed military chief in Buenos Aires. A formal act of independence from Spain had been drawn up and proclaimed on the 9th of July, 1816, in Tucuman, where Congress had convened for that purpose. Pueyrredon was selected as supreme director. He was succeeded by Rordeau, and he again was defeated by Artigas. Then came Ramirez and other military leaders who gained more or less power and authority. San Martin paid no attention to these military or governmental affairs. One idea, one definite plan absorbed all his energy and attention. This plan he confided to no one. This taciturn general, however, was preparing a thunderbolt that would clear the Argentine sky of all these clouds, except internal dissensions. When summer came in 1817, which is our winter, and all the passes were freed from snow, he felt that he was ready to advance. Among his forces were the picked youth of Buenos Aires, reckless, enthusiastic and ambitious, who were willing to follow this leader anywhere; manumitted negroes, who were scarcely inferior to their white comrades; Chilean exiles, who preferred death to submission, and looked upon this as their only hope of again seeing their homes. All of these men hadbeen thoroughly drilled in the arts of war as practised by the armies of Europe in the Napoleonic era. No detail had been omitted. The last few months had been spent in preparing rations of dried beef and parched corn, in gathering mules for transport, and in making sledges to be used on the slopes which were too steep for cannon on wheels. Every possible route across the Andes had been examined, and the most careful calculation of distances made. Spies were placed in all the passes, and the Spaniards were kept in absolute ignorance as to which of many passes along hundreds of miles of frontier would be used for the impending attack. These men were sworn to remain “united in sentiment and courage, in order not to suffer for the future any tyrant in America; and like new Spartans never to bear the chains of slavery while the stars shone in the sky and blood ran in their veins.”
The precautions of this astute leader are shown by the fact that his real intentions were not revealed until on the very eve of the advance, through fear of treachery. In the middle of January General San Martin broke camp and left Mendoza. His army was divided into two divisions. The smaller force was sentthrough what is known as the Uspallata pass, which was the old Inca trail, and is now followed by the railway which has just been completed across the Andes. This trail runs across the Bridge of the Incas, one of the most famous natural bridges in the world. The other followed the more difficult pass of Las Platas, farther to the north. The solitude, barrenness and utter desolation of these Andean passes can only be fully appreciated by those who have traversed them as has the writer. Majestic Aconcagua looks down upon both routes, and all around are lofty peaks which seem like giant sentinels guarding these solitudes of nature from the invasion of man. Terrific wind and snow storms are common, and the dust blows in clouds that are almost stifling at times. It was an undertaking that would have appalled an ordinary man.