The author expressly says that "Mathematica quadrivium continet"; but he plainly does not include theTriviumunder Philosophy. This, however, was done the following century. In theItinerarium Mentis in Deumof St. Bonaventura (1221-74) we find the following arrangements:—
Here we have theTrivium, under the division "Rational," while theQuadriviummust still be included under "Mathematics." In both cases we get nine sciences or disciplines, and the number was apparently chosen, because it is the square of three, the number of the Holy Trinity. In the latter case this was certainly true. Speaking of the primary divisions of Philosophy, the Saint says: "The first treats of the cause of being, and therefore leads to the Power of the Father; the second of the ground of understanding, and therefore leads to the Wisdom of the Word; the third of the order of living, and therefore leads to the goodness of the Holy Spirit."
Dante, in hisConvivio(II, 14, 15), gives the following scheme, based upon the "ten heavens," nine of which are moved by angels or intelligences, while the last rests in God.
In Dante are summed up the ancient and mediæval systems of education.
Itis not intended here to give a complete Bibliography of Greek Education, but merely to point the readers of this book, who may desire to pursue the subject further, to the chief sources of information.
1. ANCIENT WORKS
For the first part of the Hellenic Period, that of the "Old Education," our authorities are fragmentary, and often vague. They are theIliadandOdysseyof Homer, theWorks and Daysof Hesiod, the fragments of the pre-Socratic philosophers (collected by Mullach, in hisFragmenta Philosophorum Græcorum, Paris, Didot, 1860-81, 3 vols. 4to), and the comedies of Aristophanes, especially theClouds. For the second part of the same period, that of the "New Education," the chief authorities are the tragedies of Euripides, theCloudsof Aristophanes, the dialogues of Plato, especially theProtagoras,Lysis,Republic, andLaws, and theCyropædia,Œconomics, andConstitution of Lacedæmonof Xenophon.
For Aristotle's educational doctrines, we are confined for information to his own works, and, among these, to theEthicsandPolitics. Of the latter, the closing chapters of the seventh, and the whole of the eighth, book deal professedly with education. Some information may also be gleaned from the recently discoveredConstitution of Athens.
For the Hellenistic Period, our information is derived chiefly from inscriptions, from the writings of Philo Judæus, Sextus Empiricus, Plutarch (On the Nurture of Children), Ælian (Miscellanies),Lucian (Anacharsischiefly), Stobæus, Plotinus, Varro, Cicero, Seneca, Quintilian (Education of the Orator), Martianus Capella (Nuptials of Mercury and Philology), and Cassiodorus, and from stray notices in other poets, historians, and philosophers.
Of the works referred to, these deserve special mention:—
1. Aristophanes,Clouds. Translations by John Hookham Frere, Thomas Mitchell, and W.J. Hickie (in Bohn's Library).2. Xenophon,Cyropædia. Translation, inWhole Works translated by Ashley Cooper and Others, Philadelphia, 1842, and by J.S. Watson and H. Dale (in Bohn's Library).3. Plato,Republic. Translations by J. Ll. Davies and D.J. Vaughan, by B. Jowett, and by Henry Davis (in Bohn's Library).4. Plato,Laws. Translations by B. Jowett, and by G. Burges (in Bohn's Library).5. Aristotle,Politics(Books VII, VIII). Translations by B. Jowett, J.E.C. Weldon, and E. Walford (in Bohn's Library).6. Plutarch,On the Nurture of Children. Translation inMorals, translated from the Greek by several hands, corrected and revised by W.W. Goodwin, Boston, 1878.7. Quintilian,Education of an Orator. Translation by J.S. Watson (in Bohn's Library).
1. Aristophanes,Clouds. Translations by John Hookham Frere, Thomas Mitchell, and W.J. Hickie (in Bohn's Library).
2. Xenophon,Cyropædia. Translation, inWhole Works translated by Ashley Cooper and Others, Philadelphia, 1842, and by J.S. Watson and H. Dale (in Bohn's Library).
3. Plato,Republic. Translations by J. Ll. Davies and D.J. Vaughan, by B. Jowett, and by Henry Davis (in Bohn's Library).
4. Plato,Laws. Translations by B. Jowett, and by G. Burges (in Bohn's Library).
5. Aristotle,Politics(Books VII, VIII). Translations by B. Jowett, J.E.C. Weldon, and E. Walford (in Bohn's Library).
6. Plutarch,On the Nurture of Children. Translation inMorals, translated from the Greek by several hands, corrected and revised by W.W. Goodwin, Boston, 1878.
7. Quintilian,Education of an Orator. Translation by J.S. Watson (in Bohn's Library).
2. MODERN WORKS
These are very numerous; but the most comprehensive is Lorenz Grasberger'sErziehung und Unterricht im klassischen Alterthum, mit besonderer Rücksicht auf die Bedürfnisse der Gegenwart, Würzburg, 1864-81, 3 vols. The first volume deals with the physical training of boys, the second with their intellectual training, and the third with the education imparted by the State to young men (ἔφηβοι). A volume of plates is promised. The work is badly constructed, but is a mine of information and of references.
Along with this may be named O.H. Jäger,Die Gymnastik der Hellenen, in ihrem Einfluss auf's gesammte Alterthum und ihrer Bedeutung für die deutsche Gegenwart, Esslingen, 1850; Fournier,Sur l'Education et l'Instruction Publiques chez les Grecs, Berlin, 1833; Becq de Fouquière,Les Jeux des Anciens, Paris, 1869; De Pauw,Recherches Philosophiques sur les Grecs; Fr. Jacobs,Ueber die Erziehung der Hellenen zur Sittlichkeit, Vermischte Schr. Pt. III.; Albert Dumont,Essai sur l'Ephébie Attique, Paris, 1876-6; Dittenberger,De Ephebis Atticis; Chr. Petersen,Das Gymnasium der Griechen nach seiner baulichen Einrichtung beschrieben, Hamburg, 1858; Alexander Kapp,Platon's Erziehungslehre, Minden, 1833, andAristotle's Staatspædagogik, Hamm, 1837; J.H. Krause,Geschichte der Erziehung des Unterrichts und der Bildung bei den Griechen, Etruskern und Römern, Halle, 1851.
Chapters on Greek Education may be found in W.A. Becker'sChariclesandGallus; in Guhl and Koner'sLife of the Greeks and Romans—all three translated into English. InHellenicais an essay, by R.S. Nettleship, on theTheory of Education in the Republic of Plato, Rivington, 1880, and in Edwin Hatch'sInfluence of Greek Ideas upon the Christian Church(Hibbert Lectures) is a chapter on Greek Education (Lecture II).
FOOTNOTES:[1]It is worth while to note that it was a passage from Philolaus that suggested to Copernicus the revolution of the earth round a centre.[2]This is represented in the charming Apoxyomenos of the Vatican.[3]So says Aristotle, who tells us further that in his time on this occasion they were presented with spear and shieldby the people(seep. 97).[4]I am here using the terms "objective" and "subjective" in their modern acceptation, which almost exactly inverts the ancient usage. See Martineau,Study of Religion, vol. i, p. 385, n. 2.[5]Like "Peter Piper," etc., and the German "Messwechsel Wachsmaske."[6]It must be borne in mind that the Greek τέχνη, art, corresponds almost exactly to what we mean by "science." It is defined by Aristotle,Metaph., A. 1; 981 a 5 sqq. Schwegler, in his translation of theMetaphysics, renders it byWissenschaft. Ἐπιστήμη is our "philosophy."[7]See Jebb,Homer, pp. 110 sqq.[8]It is a pity that we cannot fix the date of the so-calledPictureof Cebes (Κέβητος Πίναξ). In this we find enumerated the votaries of False Learning, (1) Poets, (2) Rhetoricians, (3) Dialecticians, (4) Musicians, (5) Arithmeticians, (6) Geometricians, (7) Astrologers (if we count Poets = Grammarians, we have exactly the Seven Liberal Arts), (8) Hedonists, (9) Peripatetics, (10) Critics, "and such others as are like to these." The "Hedonists" (ἡδονικοί) are the Cyrenaics; the "Critics" (κριτικοί) can hardly be the grammarians, though that is usually the meaning of the term in later times. Should we not read κυνικοί?[9]"Liberal" means fit, "illiberal" unfit, for freemen. The sum of the liberal arts was called Ἐγκυκλιοπαιδεία, which we have corrupted intoEncyclopædia.[10]Bonn, 1845.[11]See Boissier,Étude sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de M.T. Varron, pp. 332, sqq.[12]See Bekker'sAnecdota Græca, ii., 655.[13]I am indebted for a number of these facts to an article by Professor A.F. West, in thePrinceton College Bulletin, November, 1890.[14]These terms, which we still find in Isidore and Hrabanus Maurus, are afterwards, in the thirteenth century, replaced by their Latin equivalents: Natural, Rational, and Moral. In the case of the second, this caused considerable confusion, inasmuch as when it ceased to be used as "rational," it took the place of "dialectic."[15]In the XXVIIIth Canto of the Paradise, these angelic powers are arranged somewhat differently, in deference to Dionysius Areopagita and St. Bernard.
[1]It is worth while to note that it was a passage from Philolaus that suggested to Copernicus the revolution of the earth round a centre.
[1]It is worth while to note that it was a passage from Philolaus that suggested to Copernicus the revolution of the earth round a centre.
[2]This is represented in the charming Apoxyomenos of the Vatican.
[2]This is represented in the charming Apoxyomenos of the Vatican.
[3]So says Aristotle, who tells us further that in his time on this occasion they were presented with spear and shieldby the people(seep. 97).
[3]So says Aristotle, who tells us further that in his time on this occasion they were presented with spear and shieldby the people(seep. 97).
[4]I am here using the terms "objective" and "subjective" in their modern acceptation, which almost exactly inverts the ancient usage. See Martineau,Study of Religion, vol. i, p. 385, n. 2.
[4]I am here using the terms "objective" and "subjective" in their modern acceptation, which almost exactly inverts the ancient usage. See Martineau,Study of Religion, vol. i, p. 385, n. 2.
[5]Like "Peter Piper," etc., and the German "Messwechsel Wachsmaske."
[5]Like "Peter Piper," etc., and the German "Messwechsel Wachsmaske."
[6]It must be borne in mind that the Greek τέχνη, art, corresponds almost exactly to what we mean by "science." It is defined by Aristotle,Metaph., A. 1; 981 a 5 sqq. Schwegler, in his translation of theMetaphysics, renders it byWissenschaft. Ἐπιστήμη is our "philosophy."
[6]It must be borne in mind that the Greek τέχνη, art, corresponds almost exactly to what we mean by "science." It is defined by Aristotle,Metaph., A. 1; 981 a 5 sqq. Schwegler, in his translation of theMetaphysics, renders it byWissenschaft. Ἐπιστήμη is our "philosophy."
[7]See Jebb,Homer, pp. 110 sqq.
[7]See Jebb,Homer, pp. 110 sqq.
[8]It is a pity that we cannot fix the date of the so-calledPictureof Cebes (Κέβητος Πίναξ). In this we find enumerated the votaries of False Learning, (1) Poets, (2) Rhetoricians, (3) Dialecticians, (4) Musicians, (5) Arithmeticians, (6) Geometricians, (7) Astrologers (if we count Poets = Grammarians, we have exactly the Seven Liberal Arts), (8) Hedonists, (9) Peripatetics, (10) Critics, "and such others as are like to these." The "Hedonists" (ἡδονικοί) are the Cyrenaics; the "Critics" (κριτικοί) can hardly be the grammarians, though that is usually the meaning of the term in later times. Should we not read κυνικοί?
[8]It is a pity that we cannot fix the date of the so-calledPictureof Cebes (Κέβητος Πίναξ). In this we find enumerated the votaries of False Learning, (1) Poets, (2) Rhetoricians, (3) Dialecticians, (4) Musicians, (5) Arithmeticians, (6) Geometricians, (7) Astrologers (if we count Poets = Grammarians, we have exactly the Seven Liberal Arts), (8) Hedonists, (9) Peripatetics, (10) Critics, "and such others as are like to these." The "Hedonists" (ἡδονικοί) are the Cyrenaics; the "Critics" (κριτικοί) can hardly be the grammarians, though that is usually the meaning of the term in later times. Should we not read κυνικοί?
[9]"Liberal" means fit, "illiberal" unfit, for freemen. The sum of the liberal arts was called Ἐγκυκλιοπαιδεία, which we have corrupted intoEncyclopædia.
[9]"Liberal" means fit, "illiberal" unfit, for freemen. The sum of the liberal arts was called Ἐγκυκλιοπαιδεία, which we have corrupted intoEncyclopædia.
[10]Bonn, 1845.
[10]Bonn, 1845.
[11]See Boissier,Étude sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de M.T. Varron, pp. 332, sqq.
[11]See Boissier,Étude sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de M.T. Varron, pp. 332, sqq.
[12]See Bekker'sAnecdota Græca, ii., 655.
[12]See Bekker'sAnecdota Græca, ii., 655.
[13]I am indebted for a number of these facts to an article by Professor A.F. West, in thePrinceton College Bulletin, November, 1890.
[13]I am indebted for a number of these facts to an article by Professor A.F. West, in thePrinceton College Bulletin, November, 1890.
[14]These terms, which we still find in Isidore and Hrabanus Maurus, are afterwards, in the thirteenth century, replaced by their Latin equivalents: Natural, Rational, and Moral. In the case of the second, this caused considerable confusion, inasmuch as when it ceased to be used as "rational," it took the place of "dialectic."
[14]These terms, which we still find in Isidore and Hrabanus Maurus, are afterwards, in the thirteenth century, replaced by their Latin equivalents: Natural, Rational, and Moral. In the case of the second, this caused considerable confusion, inasmuch as when it ceased to be used as "rational," it took the place of "dialectic."
[15]In the XXVIIIth Canto of the Paradise, these angelic powers are arranged somewhat differently, in deference to Dionysius Areopagita and St. Bernard.
[15]In the XXVIIIth Canto of the Paradise, these angelic powers are arranged somewhat differently, in deference to Dionysius Areopagita and St. Bernard.
Typography by J.S. Cushing & Co., Boston, U.S.A.
Presswork by Berwick & Smith, Boston, U.S.A.