XVIITHE REIGN OF THE YOUNG TURKS

After the deposal of Abdul Hamid, his brother, the third son of Sultan Medjid, was put upon the throne of the Ottoman Empire, as Mohammed V. He was born in 1844: he is now the head of a constitutional hereditary monarchy. A grand vizier is appointed by the sultan who forms a cabinet. According to the Mohammedan law and tradition, the sultan being the head of both the state and religion, he also, therefore, appoints a chief to act as the head of the Mohammedan religion—Islam. He is called Sheikh-ul-Islam.

“The constitution provides for a Parliament of two houses, the Senate, and the Chamber of Deputies.” For administrative purposes the empire is divided into Vilayets (states), Sanjaks (counties), Cazas (districts), and Naheyes (smaller districts).

The rulers of these divisions are respectfully called: Vali, Mutassarrif, Kaymakam and Mudeer.

Before the restoration of the Constitution, the Turkish army was entirely made up of the Mohammedans, but since (1908) non-Mohammedans also were drafted into the army.

From the beginning of the new régime, the YoungTurks have been having some troublesome times. The first of these troubles was Austria’s annexing Bosnia and Herzegovnia, two Turkish provinces.[153]The inhabitants of these provinces were mostly of Slavonian origin, mainly speaking the Servian language—excepting the Mohammedans, whose forefathers were Christians, but who after the Mohammedan occupation of the country in 1401, and in 1463, had abjured their faith on account of the Turkish oppression.

This oppression and extortionate taxation caused a revolution of the Christians in 1849, but this rebellion was suppressed by Omar Pasha. A more determined uprising against the unjust government took place in 1875. This the Turks failed to put down, and this failure led to the occupation of these provinces by Austria-Hungarians. The Treaty of Berlin entrusted the administration of these provinces to Austria-Hungary, and she has been governing since 1880, finally annexing them.

This annexation was not resented by the Young Turks so much as it was by the Bosnians and Servians. Their desire and hopes of uniting these co-religionists and members of the same Slavonian stock, were now ended. This resentment was intensified after the conquests of the Servians in both of the Balkan wars. Some of these Bosnians and Servians, who had been thus disappointed, formed a conspiracy and committed the awful crime of assassination of the Archduke Ferdinand of Austria, and his wife,while they were on a visit to Bosnia. The Servian government was accused by Austria of this conspiracy and assassination; then came Austria’s ultimatum to Servia and then the war.

The Powers did not consult the governed; the Bosnians wanted to unite with the Servians their kindred, both in religion and race. Why should not the people have the right to say who should rule over them? The refusal to allow this simple act of justice, like a spark set the world on fire.

The next trouble was Bulgaria’s declaration of independence.[154]Bulgaria had been a principality since 1878, and had been paying annual tribute to the Turkish government. Then came the resistless demand of the Greeks of Crete to unite with Greece. Then the war between Turkey and Italy in 1911-1912.

Still worse than the above incidents was the Balkan war between Turkey on one side and the Balkan States and Greece on the other side. The Balkan allies were Greece, Bulgaria, Servia, and Montenigro. The causes of this war were just the same: the Turkish oppression and massacres, and the ineffectual meddling of the European powers. “Macedonia was ceded by Turkey to Bulgaria in 1878 pursuant to the Treaty of San Stefano, but the Congress of Berlin in the same year revised (substituted) this treaty through the insistence of Great Britain and Austria, and restored the province to Turkey. In article XXIII of the Treaty of Berlin, the signatorypowers bound themselves to establish an organic law providing for good government in Macedonia and to see that it was applied. During thirty-four years that followed, this promise was unfulfilled, despite the frequent complaints of the Christian peoples—Bulgars, Greeks, and Serbs—of Turkish misgovernment and atrocities.”[155]

It is the same old story. The Great Powers who made the treaty, article by article, and signed the instrument, then turned and left the Turks to do the rest. That “rest” was for them to go on as usual until the four Balkan states formed an alliance and declared war against Turkey in October of 1912.

The war was fortunately of short duration, but it was the most decisive and humiliating defeat that the Turks had received for a long time. Macedonia was freed from the bloody reign of the Turks, who for nearly five hundred years had held that beautiful country under their iron heel. Nearly two millions of people, three-fourths of whom were Christians, were emancipated from a worse form of slavery. The defeat of the Turkish armies was not due to lack of courage of the Ottoman soldiers. It was solely due to the Turkish unpreparedness, their lack of organization and arrangements for food supply for the army, and to the inferiority of the Turkish artillery. The non-Moslem soldiers for the first time fought alongside of the Moslem soldiers. “The bravery and loyalty of the Armenian soldiers in the Turco-Balkanwar were commended by Nazim Pasha, then minister of war.” This Turco-Balkan war ended in May, 1913.

As the consequence of this war, many Mohammedans from Macedonia left their homes, unwilling to become subjects of their former “slaves.” They crowded into Constantinople and other places. The Young Turks tried to settle these refugees in Asiatic provinces of the empire where the Armenian populations made the majority. The object of the Young Turkey government was to reduce the Armenian majority so as to prevent them from asking or expecting any local reforms. The Armenians protested through their representative—the patriarch and the national council.

The second Balkan war, in July, 1913, was a very sad one. This war was between Bulgaria and her former allies, Turkey and Rumania. This war was occasioned by the unwillingness of the victors in the former war, to settle the division of the conquered territory by mutual concessions.

These successive reverses of the Young Turks, who so easily overthrew the despotic reign of Abdul Hamid, must have filled their enemies at home with indignation against and contempt for them. Well may they have said: “Less than half a dozen years, but thousands of square miles of land and millions of peoples have been lost to the empire both in Europe and Africa; and if these fools will rule a little longer the whole empire will be lost.” So shall it be. They made their best friends abroad, their enemies by theirwicked deeds. Their new friends abroad were anxious to help them in order to be helped by them. Who can doubt that the Young Turks, the present rulers of the Ottoman empire, longed for an opportunity to receive the approval of the fanatics at home and gladden the hearts of their new friends abroad?

The opportunity came. The European war broke out. Even before the war the Turkish rulers had planned a policy of unifying and Turkifying the Moslem State. Their experiences with the Balkan nations had taught a lesson that they would not soon forget. But they did not start their work at once when the war began. They had another scheme or use for the Armenians.

“Before declaring war upon Russia, the Government of the Young Turks which had long ago decided upon this course, sought to have the Armenians instigate a revolt among their co-nationalists in the Russian provinces of the Caucasus. This suggestion was presented to the Armenians at the very opening of the war by a deputation composed of Nadji Bey, Boukar-Eddin-Shakri Bey, and Hilmi Bey. Some Armenian notables were assembled in Erzerum to exchange views concerning the European war and its effects upon the interests of Armenia. The deputation from the government in Constantinople visited the assembly and revealed unreservedly the reason of their visit. It declared that Enver Pasha and his colleagues were ready to declare war upon Russia and expected from the Armenians invaluable assistance. The Armenians were requested to form volunteer legions that, with the Turkish propagandists, should cross the Russian frontier, and incite the population of the Caucasus to revolt. Nadji Beywas so sure of the success of the proposition that he had brought with him to Erzerum twenty-seven Persian, Turkish, and Circassian propagandists who with the assistance of Armenian volunteers would foment disaffection in the Caucasus.“Nadji Bey spoke in a tone of perfect cordiality and confidence. He described in glowing terms the compensation that would accrue to the Armenians if their services, solicited by him, were forthcoming. He endeavored to persuade the Armenians that a revolution in the Caucasus was inevitable.[156]After having contributed to the victory, the Armenians would be granted autonomy, under the protection of Turkey, thus reuniting all their dispersed compatriots on both sides of the frontier. Enver Pasha’s delegates were ready to remake the map of the Caucasus by a single stroke of the pen. The Georgians and the Tartars were allotted their share of the territory, and the Armenians would receive Kars, the province of Erivan, Van, and Bitlis. But the Armenians categorically refused these attractive propositions and entrusted Nadji Bey with their advice to Enver Pasha not to become embroiled in the European catastrophe, as it would lead to the downfall of Turkey.“‘This is treason,’ exclaimed Bouka-Eddin-Shakri Bey. ‘You refuse to succor the Empire, forgetting that you enjoy its hospitality.’“Notwithstanding the violent objurgations, the Armenians stood firm in their refusal.“However, these emissaries of the Young Turks still hoped to convert the Armenians to their views, and a few weeks later, on the eve of the declaration of war upon Russia, they convoked the assemblies of notables in all the vilayets, and once more presented their suggestions—thistime considerably modified. They no longer demanded that the Armenians take the initiative of an uprising in the Caucasus, but merely endeavored to convince them of the imminence of a revolution and of the advisability of their joining in it. For the second time the Armenians remained imperturbable in their refusal.“Finally war was declared between Russia and Turkey. Would the Armenians shirk performing their military duty? Not at all. They answered the call, reporting at the mobilization stations.”[157]

“Nadji Bey spoke in a tone of perfect cordiality and confidence. He described in glowing terms the compensation that would accrue to the Armenians if their services, solicited by him, were forthcoming. He endeavored to persuade the Armenians that a revolution in the Caucasus was inevitable.[156]After having contributed to the victory, the Armenians would be granted autonomy, under the protection of Turkey, thus reuniting all their dispersed compatriots on both sides of the frontier. Enver Pasha’s delegates were ready to remake the map of the Caucasus by a single stroke of the pen. The Georgians and the Tartars were allotted their share of the territory, and the Armenians would receive Kars, the province of Erivan, Van, and Bitlis. But the Armenians categorically refused these attractive propositions and entrusted Nadji Bey with their advice to Enver Pasha not to become embroiled in the European catastrophe, as it would lead to the downfall of Turkey.

“‘This is treason,’ exclaimed Bouka-Eddin-Shakri Bey. ‘You refuse to succor the Empire, forgetting that you enjoy its hospitality.’

“Notwithstanding the violent objurgations, the Armenians stood firm in their refusal.

“However, these emissaries of the Young Turks still hoped to convert the Armenians to their views, and a few weeks later, on the eve of the declaration of war upon Russia, they convoked the assemblies of notables in all the vilayets, and once more presented their suggestions—thistime considerably modified. They no longer demanded that the Armenians take the initiative of an uprising in the Caucasus, but merely endeavored to convince them of the imminence of a revolution and of the advisability of their joining in it. For the second time the Armenians remained imperturbable in their refusal.

“Finally war was declared between Russia and Turkey. Would the Armenians shirk performing their military duty? Not at all. They answered the call, reporting at the mobilization stations.”[157]

The Armenians’ reform movement in 1912-3, under the presidency of Boghos Nubar Pasha, who was appointed by the Catholicos, was a peaceful effort to solicit the signatories of Berlin Treaty (1878) to induce the Turkish government to put into execution the reforms guaranteed in that treaty for Armenia.

After the consent of all the Powers was obtained, then “the Russian draft [of reforms] was revised by the ambassadors of the Powers at Constantinople, accepted with modifications, by the Young Turkish Government, and actually promulgated by them on the 8th of February, 1914.”[158]

Could such a peaceful procedure have offered the Young Turks an excuse of provocation for their atrocities committed in the following year?

FOOTNOTES:[153]October, 1908.[154]On the 8th of Oct., 1908.[155]The New International Year Book for the Year 1912, p. 734. Dodd, Mead & Co., New York.[156]Expected by theHoly Warthat was to be declared by Sheikh-ul-Islam; as it has been done since Turkey joined the Central Powers.[157]The “Martyrdom of Armenia,” by Paul Perrin, inThe New Armenia, May 15, 1916, New York.[158]“The Treatment of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, 1915-16,” Documents presented to Viscount Grey by Viscount Bryce, p. 635, London.

[153]October, 1908.

[154]On the 8th of Oct., 1908.

[155]The New International Year Book for the Year 1912, p. 734. Dodd, Mead & Co., New York.

[156]Expected by theHoly Warthat was to be declared by Sheikh-ul-Islam; as it has been done since Turkey joined the Central Powers.

[157]The “Martyrdom of Armenia,” by Paul Perrin, inThe New Armenia, May 15, 1916, New York.

[158]“The Treatment of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, 1915-16,” Documents presented to Viscount Grey by Viscount Bryce, p. 635, London.

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