FIREWORKS AND ILLUMINATED BATTLE-FLEET AT HUDSON-FULTON CELEBRATION
There are various kinds of daylight, two of which are fairly constant in spectral character. These are noon sunlight and north skylight. The former may be said to be white light and its spectrum indicates the presence of visible radiant energy of all wave-lengths in approximately equal proportions. North skylight contains an excess of violet, blue, and blue-green rays and as a consequence is a bluish white. Noon sunlight on a clear day is fairly constant in spectral character, but north skylight varies somewhat depending upon the absence or presence of clouds and upon the character of the clouds. If large areas of sunlit clouds are present, the light is largely reflected sunlight. If the sky is overcast, the north skylight is a result of a mixture of sunlight and blue skylight filtered through the clouds and is slightly bluish. If the sky is clear, the light varies from light blue to deep blue.
FIREWORKS EXHIBITION ON MAY DAY AT PANAMA-PACIFIC EXPOSITIONFIREWORKS EXHIBITION ON MAY DAY AT PANAMA-PACIFIC EXPOSITION
FIREWORKS EXHIBITION ON MAY DAY AT PANAMA-PACIFIC EXPOSITION
The daylight which enters buildings is often considerably altered in color by reflection from other buildings and from vegetation, and after it enters a room it is sometimes modified by reflection from colored surroundings. It may be commonly noted that the light reflected from green grass through a window to the upper part of a room is very much tinted with green and the light reflected from a yellow brick building is tinted yellow. Besides these alterations, sunlight varies in color from the yellow or red of dawn through white at noon to orange or red at sunset. Throughout the day the amount of light from the sky does not change nearlyas much as the amount of sunlight, so there is a continual variation in the proportion of direct sunlight and skylight reaching the earth. This is further varied by the changing position of the sun. For example, at a north window in which the direct sunlight may not enter throughout the day, the amount of sunlight which enters by reflection from adjacent buildings and other objects may vary greatly. Thus it is seen that daylight not only varies in quantity but also in quality, and an artificial daylight, which is based upon an extensive analysis, has the advantage of being constant in quantity and quality as well as correct in quality. Modern artificial-daylight units which have been scientifically developed not only make mankind independent of daylight in the discrimination of colors but they are superior to daylight.
Although there are many expert colorists who require an accurate artificial daylight, there are vast fields of lighting where a less accurate daylight quality is necessary. The average eyes are not sufficiently skilled for the finest discrimination of colors and therefore the Mazda "daylight" lamp supplies the less exacting requirements of color matching. It is a compromise between quality and efficiency of light and serves the purpose so well that millions of these lamps have found applications in stores, offices, and industries. In order to make an accurate artificial north skylight for color-work by means of colored glass, from 75 to 85 per cent. of the light from a tungsten lamp must be filtered out. This absorption in a broad sense increases the efficiency of the light, for the fraction that remains is now satisfactory, whereas the original lightis virtually useless for accurate color-discrimination. About one third of the original light is absorbed by the bulb of the tungsten "daylight" lamp, with a resultant light which is an approximation to average daylight.
Old illuminants such as that emitted by the candle and oil-lamp were used for centuries in interiors. All these illuminants were of a warm yellow color. Even the earlier modern illuminants were not very different in color, so it is not surprising that there is a deeply rooted desire for artificial light in the home and in similar interiors of a warm yellow color simulating that of old illuminants. The psychological effect of warmth and cheerfulness due to such illuminants or colors is well established. Artificial light in the home symbolizes independence of nature and protection from the elements and there is a firm desire to counteract the increasing whiteness of modern illuminants by means of shades of a warm tint. The white light is excellent for the kitchen, laundry, and bath-room, and for reading-lamps, but the warm yellow light is best suited for making cozy and cheerful the environment of the interiors in which mankind relaxes. An illuminant of this character can be obtained efficiently by using a properly tinted bulb on tungsten filament lamps. By absorbing about one fourth to one third of the light (depending upon the temperature of the filament) the color of the candle flame may be simulated by means of a tungsten filament lamp. Some persons are still using the carbon-filament lamp despite its low efficiency, because they desire to retain the warmth of tint of the older illuminants. However, light from a tungsten lamp may be filtered to obtainthe same quality of light as is emitted by the carbon filament lamp by absorbing from one fifth to one fourth of the light. The luminous efficiency of the tungsten lamp equipped with such a tinted bulb is still about twice as great as that of the carbon-filament lamp. Thus the high efficiency of the modern illuminants is utilized to advantage even though their color is maintained the same as the old illuminants.
All modern illuminants emit radiant energy, which does not affect the ordinary photographic plate. This superfluous visible energy merely contributes toward glare or a superabundance of light in photographic studios. A glass has been developed which transmits virtually all the rays that affect the ordinary photographic plate and greatly reduces the accompanying inactive rays. Such a glass is naturally blue in color, because it must transmit the blue, violet, and near ultra-violet rays. Its density has been so determined for use in bulbs for the high-efficiency tungsten lamps that the resultant light appears approximately the color of skylight without sacrificing an appreciable amount of the value of the radiant energy for ordinary photography. This glass, it is seen, transmits the so-called chemical rays and is useful in other activities where these rays alone are desired. It is used in light-therapy and in some other activities in which the chemical effects of these rays are utilized.
In the photographic dark-room a deep red light is safe for all emulsions excepting the panchromatic, and lamps of this character are standard products. An orange light is safe for many printing papers. Panchromatic plates and films are usually developed inthe dark where extreme safety is desired, but a very weak deep red light is not unsafe if used cautiously. However, many photographic emulsions of this character are not very sensitive to green rays, so a green light has been used for this purpose.
A variety of colored lights are in demand for theatrical effects, displays, spectacular lighting, signaling, etc., and there are many superficial colorings available for this purpose. Few of these show any appreciable degree of permanency. Permanent superficial colorings have recently been developed, but these are secret processes unavailable for the market. For this reason colored glass is the only medium generally available where permanency is desired. For permanent lighting effects, signal glasses, colored caps, and sheets of colored glass may be used. Tints may be obtained by means of colored reflectors. Other colored media are dyes in lacquers and in varnishes, colored inks, colored textiles, and colored pigments.
Inasmuch as colored glass enters into the development of permanent devices, it may be of interest to discuss briefly the effects of various metallic compounds which are used in glass. The exact color produced by these compounds, which are often oxides, varies slightly with the composition of the glass and method of manufacture, but this phase is only of technical interest. The coloring substances in glass may be divided into two groups. The first and largest group consists of those in which the coloring matter is in true solution; that is, the coloring is produced in the same manner as the coloring of water in which a chemical salt is dissolved. In the second group thecoloring substances are present in a finely divided or colloidal state; that is, the coloring is due to the presence of particles in mechanical suspension. In general, the lighter elements do not tend to produce colored glasses, but the heavier elements in so far as they can be incorporated into glass tend to produce intense colors. Of course, there are exceptions to this general statement.
The alkali metals, such as sodium, potassium, and lithium, do not color glass appreciably, but they have indirect effects upon the colors produced by manganese, nickel, selenium, and some other elements. Gold in sufficient amounts produces a red in glass and in low concentration a beautiful rose. It is present in the colloidal state. In the manufacture of "gold" red glass, the glass when first cooled shows no color, but on reheating the rich ruby color develops. The glass is then cooled slowly. The gold is left in a colloidal state. Copper when added to a glass produces two colors, blue-green and red. The blue-green color, which varies in different kinds of glasses, results when the copper is fully oxidized, and the red by preventing oxidation by the presence of a reducing agent. This red may be developed by reheating as in the case of making gold ruby glass. Selenium produces orange and red colors in glass.
Silver when applied to the surface of glass produces a beautiful yellow color and it has been widely used in this manner. It has little coloring effect in glass, because it is so readily reduced, resulting in a metallic black. Uranium produces a canary yellow in soda and potash-lime glasses, which fluoresce, and these glassesmay be used in the detection of ultra-violet rays. The color is topaz in lead glass. Both sulphur and carbon are used in the manufacture of pale yellow glasses. Antimony has a weak effect, but in the presence of much lead it is used for making opaque or translucent yellow glasses. Chromium produces a green color, which is reddish in lead glass, and yellowish in soda, and potash-lime glasses.
Iron imparts a green or bluish green color to glass. It is usually present as an impurity in the ingredients of glass and its color is neutralized by adding some manganese, which produces a purple color complementary to the bluish green. This accounts for the manganese purple which develops from colorless glass exposed to ultra-violet rays. Iron is used in "bottle green" glass. Its color is greenish blue in potash-lime glass, bluish green in soda-lime glass, and yellowish green in lead glass.
Cobalt is widely used in the production of blue glasses. It produces a violet-blue in potash-lime and soda-lime glasses and a blue in lead glasses. It appears blue, but it transmits deep red rays. For this reason when used in conjunction with a deep red glass, a filter for only the deepest red rays is obtained. Nickel produces an amethyst color in potash-lime glass, a reddish brown in soda-lime glass, and a purple in lead glass. Manganese is used largely as a "decolorizing" agent in counteracting the blue-green of iron. It produces an amethyst color in potash-lime glass and reddish violet in soda-lime and lead glasses.
These are the principal coloring ingredients used in the manufacture of colored glass. The staining ofglass is done under lower temperatures, so that a greater variety of chemical compounds may be used. The resulting colors of metals and metallic oxides dissolved in glass depend not only upon the nature of the metal used, but also partly upon the stage of oxidation, the composition of the glass and even upon the temperature of the fusion.
In developing a glass filter the effects of the various coloring elements are determined spectrally and the various elements are varied in proper proportions until the glass of desired spectral transmission is obtained. It is seen that the coloring elements are limited and the combination of these is further limited by chemical considerations. In combining various colored glasses or various coloring elements in the same glass the "subtractive" method of color-mixture is utilized. For example, if a green glass is desired, yellowish green chromium glass may be used as a basis. By the addition of some blue-green due to copper, the yellow rays may be further subdued so that the resulting color is green.
The primary colors for this method of color-mixture are the same as those of the painter in mixing pigments—namely, purple, yellow, and blue-green. Various colors may be obtained by superposing or intimately mixing the colors. The resulting transmission (reflection in the case of reflecting media such as pigments) are those colors commonly transmitted by all the components of a mixture. Thus,
Purple and yellow= redYellow and blue-green= greenBlue-green and purple= blue
The colors produced by adding lights are based not on the "subtractive" method but on the actual addition of colors. These primaries are red, green, and blue and it will be noted that they are the complementaries of the "subtractive" primaries. By the use of red, green, and blue lights in various proportions, all colors may be obtained in varying degrees of purity. The chief mixtures of two of the "additive" primaries produce the "subtractive" primaries. Thus,
Red and blue= purpleRed and green= yellowGreen and blue= blue-green
Although the coloring media which are permanent under the action of light, heat, and moisture are relatively few, by a knowledge of their spectral characteristics and other principles of color the expert is able to produce many permanent colors for lighting effects. The additive and subtractive methods are chiefly involved, but there is another method which is an "averaging" additive one. For example, if a warm tint of yellow is desired and only a dense yellow glass is available, the yellow glass may be cut into small pieces and arranged upon a colorless glass in checker-board fashion. Thus a great deal of uncolored light which is transmitted by the filter is slightly tinted by the yellow light passing through the pieces of yellow glass. If this light is properly mixed by a diffusing glass the effect is satisfactory. These are the principal means of obtaining colored light by means of filters and by mixing colored lights. By using these in conjunction with the array of light-sources available it is possibleto meet most of the growing demands. Of course, the ideal solution is to make the colored light directly at the light-source, and doubtless future developments which now appear remote or even impossible will supply such colored illuminants. In the meantime, much is being accomplished with the means available.
Artificial light is a natural agency for producing spectacular effects. It is readily controlled and altered in color and the brightness which it lends to displays outdoors at night renders them extremely conspicuous against the darkness of the sky. It surpasses other decorative media by the extreme range of values which may be obtained. The decorator and painter are limited by a range of values from black to white pigments, which ordinarily represents an extreme contrast of about one to thirty. The brightnesses due to light may vary from darkness to those of the light-sources themselves. The decorator deals with secondary light—that is, light reflected by more or less diffusely reflecting objects. The lighting expert has at his command not only this secondary light but the primary light of the sources. Lighting effects everywhere attract attention and even the modern merchant testifies that adequate lighting in his store is of advertising value. In all the field of spectacular lighting the superiority of artificial light over natural light is demonstrated.
Light is a universal medium with which to attract attention and to enthrall mankind. The civilizations of all ages have realized this natural power of light. It has played a part in the festivals and triumphal processions from time immemorial and is still the most important feature of many celebrations. In the early festivals fires, candles, and oil-lamps were used and fireworks were invented for the purpose. Even to-day the pyrotechnical displays against the dark depths of the night sky hold mankind spellbound. But these evanescent notes of light have been improved upon by more permanent displays on a huge scale. Thirty years before the first practical installation of gas-lighting an exhibition of "Philosophical Fireworks" produced by the combustion of inflammable gases was given in several cities of England.
It is a long step from the array of flickering gas-flames with which the fronts of the buildings of the Soho works were illuminated a century ago to the wonderful lighting effects a century later at the Panama-Pacific Exposition. Some who saw that original display of gas-jets totaling a few hundred candle-power described it as an "occasion of extraordinary splendour." What would they have said of the modern spectacular lighting at the Exposition where Ryan used in a single effect forty-eight large search-lights aggregating 2,600,000,000 beam candle-power! No other comparison exemplifies more strikingly the progress of artificial lighting in the hundred years which have elapsed since it began to be developed.
The nature of the light-sources in the first half of the nineteenth century did not encourage spectacular or display lighting. In fact, this phase of lighting chiefly developed along with electric lamps. Of course, occasionally some temporary effect was attempted as in the case of illuminating the dome of St.Paul's Cathedral in London in 1872, but continued operation of the display was not entertained. In the case of lighting this dome a large number of ship's lanterns were used, but the result was unsatisfactory. After this unsuccessful attempt at lighting St. Paul's, a suggestion was made of "flooding it with electric light projected from various quarters." Spectacular lighting outdoors really began in earnest in the dawn of the twentieth century.
Although some of the first attempts at spectacular lighting outdoors were made with search-lights, spectacular lighting did not become generally popular until the appearance of incandescent filament lamps of reasonable efficiency and cost. The effects were obtained primarily by the use of small electric filament lamps draped in festoons or installed along the outlines and other principal lines of buildings and monuments. The effect was almost wholly that of light, for the glare from the visible lamps obscured the buildings or other objects. The method is still used because it is simple and the effects may be permanently installed without requiring any attention excepting to replace burned-out lamps. However, the method has limitations from an artistic point of view because the artistic effects of painting, sculpture, and architecture cannot be combined with it very effectively. For example, the details of a monument or of a building cannot be seen distinctly enough to be appreciated. The effect is merely that of outlines or lines and patterns of points of light and is usually glaring.
The next step was to conceal these lamps behind the cornices or other projections or in nooks constructedthe purpose. Light now began to mold and to paint the objects. The structures began to be visible; at least the important cornices and other details were no longer mere outlines. The introduction of the drawn-wire tungsten lamp is responsible for an innovation in spectacular lighting of this sort, for now it became possible to make concentrated light-sources so essential to projectors. Furthermore, these lighting units require very little attention after once being located. With the introduction of electric-filament lamps of this character small projectors came into use, and by means of concentrated beams of light whole buildings and monuments could be flooded with light from remote positions. The effects obtained by concealing lamps behind cornices had demonstrated that the lighting of the surfaces was the object to be realized in most cases, and when small projectors not requiring constant attention became available, a great impetus was given to flood-lighting.
When France gave to this country the Bartholdi Statue of Liberty there was no thought of having this emblem visible at night excepting for the torch held the hand of Liberty. This torch was modified at the time of the erection of the statue to accommodate the lamps available, with the result that it was merely a lantern containing a number of electric lamps. At night it was a speck of light more feeble than many surrounding shore lights. The statue had been lighted during festivals with festoons and outlines of lamps, but in 1915, when the freedom of the generous donor of the statue appeared to be at stake, a movement was begun which culminated in a fund for flood-lightingLiberty. The broad foundation of the statue made the lighting comparatively easy by means of banks of incandescent filament search-lights. About 225 of these units were used with a total beam candle-power of about 20,000,000. The original idea of an imitation flame for the torch was restored by building this from pieces of yellow cathedral glass of three densities. About six hundred pieces of glass were used, the upper ones being generally of the lighter tints and the lower ones of the darker tints. A lighthouse lens was placed in this lantern so that an intense beam of light would radiate from it. The flood-lighted Statue of Liberty is now visible by night as well as by day and it has a double significance at night, for light also symbolizes independence.
Just as the Statue of Liberty stands alone in the New York Harbor so does the Woolworth Building reign supreme on lower Manhattan. Liberty proclaims independence from the bondage of man and the Woolworth Tower stands majestically in defiance of the elements as a symbol of man's growing independence of nature. This building with its cream terra-cotta surface and intricate architectural details touched here and there with buff, blue, green, red, and gold, rises 792 feet or sixty stories above the street and typifies the American spirit of conceiving and of executing great undertakings. In it are blended art, utility, and majesty. Viewed by multitudes during the day, it is a valuable advertisement for the name which stands for a national institution. But by day it shares attention with its surroundings. If lighted at night it would stand virtually alone against the dark sky and theinvestment would not be wholly idle during the evening hours.
Mr. H. H. Magdsick, who designed the lighting for Liberty, planned the lighting for the Woolworth Tower, which rises 407 feet or thirty-one stories above the main building. Five hundred and fifty projectors containing tungsten filament lamps were distributed about the base of the tower and among some of the architectural details. The main architectural features of the mansard roof extending from the fifty-third to the fifty-seventh floor, the observation balcony at the fifty-eighth and the lantern structures at the fifty-ninth and sixtieth floors are covered with gold-leaf. By proper placing of the projectors a glittering effect is obtained from these gold surfaces. The crowning features of the lighting effect are the lanterns in the crest of the spire. Twenty-four 1000-watt tungsten lamps were placed behind crystal diffusing glass, which transmits the light predominantly in a horizontal direction. Thus at long distances, from which the architectural details cannot be distinguished, the brilliant crowning light is visible. An automatic dimmer was devised so that the effect of a huge varying flame was obtained. At close range, owing to the nature of the glass panels, this portion is not much brighter than the remainder of the surfaces. When the artificial lighting is in operation the tower becomes a majestic spire of light and this magnificent Gothic structure projecting defiantly into the depths of darkness is in more than one sense a torch of modern civilization.
Many prominent buildings and monuments have burst forth in a flood of light, and their beauty andsymbolism have been appreciated at night by many persons who do not notice them by day. Not only are the beautiful structures of man lighted permanently but many temporary effects are devised. Artificial lighting effects have become a prominent part in outdoor festivals, pageants, and theatricals. Candles have been associated with Christmas trees ever since the latter came into use and naturally artificial light has been a feature in the community Christmas trees which have come into vogue in recent years. The Municipal Christmas Tree in Chicago in 1916 was ninety feet high and was lighted with projectors. Thousands of gems taken from the Tower of Jewels at the San Francisco Exposition added life and sparkle to that of the other decorations.
The Capitol flooded with lightThe Capitol flooded with light
The Capitol flooded with light
Luna Park, Coney Island, studded with 60,000 incandescent filament lampsLuna Park, Coney Island, studded with 60,000 incandescent filament lamps
Luna Park, Coney Island, studded with 60,000 incandescent filament lamps
THE NEW FLOOD LIGHTING CONTRASTED WITH THE OLD OUTLINE LIGHTING
After the close of the recent war artificial light played a prominent part throughout the country in the joyful festivals. A jeweled arch erected in New York in honor of the returning soldiers rivaled some of the spectacles of the Panama-Pacific Exposition. The arch hung like a gigantic curtain of jewels between two obelisks, which rose to a height of eighty feet and were surmounted by jeweled forms in the shape of sunbursts. Approximately thirty thousand jewels glittered in the beams of batteries of arc-projectors. Many of the signs and devices which played a part in the "Welcome Home" movement were of striking nature and of a character to indicate permanency. The equipment of a large building consisted of more than five thousand 10-watt lamps, the entire building being outlined with stars consisting of eleven lamps each. The "Brighten Up" campaign spread throughout the country. Thelighting and installation of signs and special patriotic displays, the flooding of streets and shop-windows with light without stint, produced an inspiring and uplifting effect which did much to restore cheerfulness and optimism. A glowing example was set in Washington, where the flood-lighting of the Capitol, discontinued shortly after our entrance into the war, was resumed.
NIAGARA FALLS FLOODED WITH LIGHTNIAGARA FALLS FLOODED WITH LIGHT
NIAGARA FALLS FLOODED WITH LIGHT
In Chicago a "Victory Way" was established, with street-lighting posts on both sides of the street equipped with red, white, and blue globes surmounted by a golden goddess of Victory. One hundred and seventy-five projectors were installed along the way on the roofs and in the windows of office buildings. A brilliant, scintillating "Altar of Victory" was erected at the center of the Way. It was composed of two enormous candelabra erected one on each side of a platform ninety feet high. These were studded with jewels and supported a curtain of jewels suspended from the altar. In the center of the curtain was a huge jeweled eagle bearing the Allied flags. This was illuminated by arc-projectors which delivered 200,000,000 beam candle-power. In addition to these there were many smaller projectors. In the top of each candelabra six large red-and-orange lamps were installed in reflectors. These illuminated live steam which issued from the top. Surmounting the whole was a huge luminous fan formed by beams from large arc search-lights. These are only a few of the many lighting effects which welcomed the returning soldiers, but they illustrate how much modern civilization depends upon artificial light for expressing its feelingsand emotions. Throughout all these festivals light silently symbolized happiness, freedom, and advancement.
Projectors were used on a large scale in several cases before the advent of the concentrated filament lamp. W. D'A. Ryan, the leader in spectacular lighting, lighted the Niagara Falls in 1907 with batteries of arc-projectors aggregating 1,115,000,000-beam candle-power. In 1908 he used thirty arc-projectors to flood the Singer Tower in New York with light and projected light to the flag on top by means of a search-light thirty inches in diameter. Many flags waved throughout the war in the beams of search-lights, symbolizing a patriotism fully aroused. The search-light beam as it bores through the atmosphere at night is usually faintly bright, owing to the small amount of fog, dust, and smoke in the air. By providing more "substance" in the atmosphere, the beams are made to appear brighter. Following this reasoning, Ryan developed his scintillator consisting of a battery of search-light beams projected upward through clouds of steam which provided an artificial fog. This was first displayed at the Hudson-Fulton celebration with a battery of arc search-lights totaling 1,000,000,000-candle-power.
All these effects despite their magnitude were dwarfed by those at the Panama-Pacific Exposition, and inasmuch as this up to the present time represents the crowning achievement in spectacular lighting, some of the details worked out by Ryan may be of interest. In general, the lighting effects departed from the bizarre outline lighting in which glaring light-sourcesstudded the structures. The radiant grandeur and beauty of flood-lighting from concealed light-sources was the key-note of the lighting. In this manner wonderful effects were obtained, which not only appealed to the eye and to the artistic sensibility but which were free from glare. By means of flood-lighting and relief-lighting from concealed light-sources the third dimension or depth was obtained and the architectural details and colorings were preserved. A great many different kinds of devices and lamps were used to make the night effects superior in grandeur to those of daytime. The Zone or amusement section was lighted with bare lamps in the older manner and the glaring bizarre effects contrasted the spectacular lighting of the past with the illumination of the future.
In another section the visitor was greeted with a gorgeous display of carnival spirit. Beautifully colored heraldic shields on which were written the early history of the Pacific coast were illuminated by groups of luminous arc-lamps on standards varying from twenty-five to fifty-five feet in height. The Tower of Jewels with more than a hundred thousand dangling gems was flood-lighted, and the myriads of minute reflected images of light-sources glittering against the dark sky produced an effect surpassing the dreams of imagination. Shadows and high-lights of striking contrasts or of elusive colors greeted the visitor on every hand. Individual isolated effects of light were to be found here and there. Fire hissed from the mouths of serpents and cast the spell of mobile light over the composite Spanish-Gothic-Oriental setting. A colored beam of a search-light played here and there.Mysterious vapors rising from caldrons were in reality illuminated steam. Symbolic fountain groups did not escape the magic touch of the lighting wizard.
In the Court of the Universe great areas were illuminated by two fountains rising about a hundred feet above the sunken gardens. One of these symbolized the setting sun, the other the rising sun. The shaft and ball at the crest of each fountain were glazed with heavy opal glass imitating travertine marble and in these were installed incandescent lamps of a total candle-power of 500,000. The balustrade seventy feet above the sunken gardens was surmounted by nearly two hundred incandescent filament search-lights. Light was everywhere, either varying in color into a harmonious scene or changing in light and shadow to mold the architecture and sculpture. The enormous glass dome of the Palace of Horticulture was converted into an astronomical sphere by projecting images upon it in such a manner that spots of light revolved; rings and comets which appeared at the horizon passed on their way through the heavens, changing in color and disappearing again at the horizon. All these effects and many more were mirrored in the waters of the lagoons and the whole was a Wonderland indeed.
The scintillator consisted of 48 arc search-lights three feet in diameter totaling 2,600,000,000 beam candle-power. The lighting units were equipped with colored screens and the beams which radiated upward were supplied with an artificial fog by means of steam generated by a modern express locomotive. The latter was so arranged that the wheels could be driven at a speed of sixty miles per hour under brake, therebyemitting great volumes of steam and smoke, which when illuminated with various colors produced a magnificent spectacle. Over three hundred scintillator effects were worked out and this feature of fireless fireworks was widely varied. The aurora borealis and other effects created by this battery of search-lights extended for many miles. The many effects regularly available were augmented on special occasions and it is safe to state that this apparatus built upon a huge scale provided a flexibility of fireless fireworks never attained even with small-scale devices.
The lighting of the exposition can barely be touched upon in a few paragraphs and it would be difficult to describe in words even if space were unlimited. It represented the power of light to beautify and to awe. It showed the feebleness of the decorator's media in comparison with light pulsating with life. It consisted of a great variety of direct, masked, concealed, and projected effects, but these were blended harmoniously with one another and with the decorative and architectural details of the structures. It was a crowning achievement of a century of public lighting which began with Murdock's initial display of a hundred flickering gas-jets. It demonstrated the powers of science in the production of light and of genius and imagination in the utilization of light. It was a silent but pulsating display of grandeur dwarfing into insignificance the aurora borealis in its most resplendent moments.
From an esthetic or, more broadly, a psychological point of view no medium rivals light in expressiveness. Not only is light allied with man's most important sense but throughout long ages of associations and uses mankind has bestowed upon it many attributes. In fact, it is possible that light, color, and darkness possess certain fundamentally innate powers; at least, they have acquired expressive and impressive powers through the many associations in mythology, religion, nature, and common usage. Besides these attributes, light possesses a great advantage over the media of decoration in obtaining brightness and color effects. For example, the landscape artist cannot reproduce the range of values or brightnesses in most of nature's scenes, for if black is used to represent a deep shadow, white is not bright enough to represent the value of the sky. In fact, the range of brightnesses represented by the deep shadow and the sky extends far beyond the range represented by black and white pigments. The extreme contrast ordinarily available by means of artist's colors is about thirty to one, but the sky is a thousand times brighter than a shadow, a sunlit cloud is thousands of times brighter than the deep shadows of woods, and the sun is millions of times brighter than the shadows in a landscape.
The range of brightnesses obtainable by means of light extends from darkness or black throughout the range represented by pigments under equal illumination and beyond these through the enormous range obtainable by unequal illumination of surfaces to the brightnesses of the light-sources themselves. In the matter of purity of colors, light surpasses reflecting media, for it is easy to obtain approximately pure hues by means of light and to obtain pure spectral hues by resorting to the spectrum of light. It is impossible to obtain pure hues by means of pigments or of other reflecting media. These advantages of light are very evident on turning to spectacular lighting effects, and even the lighting of interiors illustrates a potentiality in light superior to other media. For example, in a modern interior in which concealed lighting produces brilliantly illuminated areas above a cornice and dark shadows on the under side, the range in values is often much greater than that represented by black and white, and still there remains the possibility of employing the light-sources themselves in extending the scale of brightness. Superposing color upon the whole it is obvious that the combination of "primary" light with reflected light possesses much greater potentiality than the latter alone. This potentiality of light is best realized if lighting is regarded as "painting with light" in a manner analogous to the decorator's painting with pigments, etc.
The expressive possibilities of lighting find extensive applications in relation to painting, sculpture, and architecture. A painting is an expression of light and the sculptor's product finally depends upon lighting forits effectiveness. Lighting is the master painter and sculptor. It may affect the values of a painting to some extent and it is a great influence upon the colors. It molds the model from which the sculptor works and it molds the completed work. The direction, distribution, and quality of light influence the appearance of all objects and groups of them. Aside from the modeling of ornament, the light and shade effects of relatively large areas in an interior such as walls and ceiling, the contrasts in the brightnesses of alcoves with that of the main interior, and the shadows under cornices, beams, and arches are expressions of light.
The decorator is able to produce a certain mood in a given interior by varying the distribution of values and the choice of colors and the lighting artist is able to do likewise, but the latter is even able to alter the mood produced by the decorator. For example, a large interior flooded with light from concealed sources has the airiness and extensiveness of outdoors. If lighted solely by means of sources concealed in an upper cornice, the ceiling may be bright and the walls may be relatively dark by contrast. Such a lighting effect may produce a feeling of being hemmed in by the walls without a roof. If the room is lighted by means of chandeliers hung low and equipped with shades in such a manner that the lower portions of the walls may be light while the upper portions of the interior may be ill defined, the feeling produced may be that of being hemmed in by crowding darkness. Thus lighting is productive of moods and illusions ranging from the mystery of crowding darkness to the extensiveness of outdoors.
Future lighting of interiors doubtless will provide an adequacy of lighting effects which will meet the respective requirements of various occasions. A decorative scheme in which light and medium grays are employed produces an interior which is very sensitive to lighting effects. To these light-and-shade effects colored light may add its charming effectiveness. Not only are colored lighting effects able to add much to the beauty of the setting but they possess certain other powers. Blue tints produce a "cold" effect and the yellow and orange tints a "warm" effect. For example, a room will appear cooler in the summer when illuminated by means of bluish light and a practical application of this effect is in the theater which must attract audiences in the summer. How tinted illuminants fit the spirit of an occasion or the mood of a room may be fully appreciated only through experiments, but these are so effective that the future of lighting will witness the application of the idea of "painting with light" to its fullest extent. Color is demanded in other fields, and, considering its effectiveness and superiority in lighting, it will certainly be demanded in lighting when its potentiality becomes appreciated and readily utilized.
The expressiveness of light is always evident in a landscape. On a sunny day the mood of a scene varies throughout the day and it grows more enticing and agreeable as the shadows lengthen toward evening. The artist in painting a desert scene employs short harsh shadows if he desires to suggest the excessive heat. These shadows suggest the relentless noonday sun. The overcast sky is universally depressing andit has been found that on a sunny day most persons experience a slight depression when a cloud obscures the sun. Nature's lightingvariesfrom moment to moment, from day to day, and from season to season. It presents the extremes of variation in distributions of light from overcast to sunny days and in the latter cases the shadows are continually shifting with the sun's altitude. They are harshest at noon and gradually fade as they lengthen, until at sunset they disappear. The colors of sunlit surfaces and of shadows vary from sunrise to sunset. These are the fundamental variations in the lighting, but in the various scenes the lighting effects are further modified by clouds and by local conditions or environment. The vast outdoors provides a fruitful field for the study of the expressiveness of light.
Having become convinced of this power of light, the lighting expert may turn to artificial light, which is so easily controlled in direction, distribution, and color, and draw upon its potentiality. Not only is it easy to provide a lighting suitable to the mood or to the function of an interior but it is possible to obtain some variety in effect so that the lighting may always suit the occasion. A study of nature's lighting reveals one great principle, namely, variety. Mankind demands variety in most of his activities. Work is varied and alternated with recreation. Meals are not always the same. Clothing, decorations, and furnishings are relieved of monotony. One of the most potent features of artificial light is the ease with which variety may be obtained. In obtaining relief from the monotony of decorations and furnishings, considerable expense andinconvenience are inevitably encountered. With an adequate supply of outlets, circuits, and controls a wide variety of lighting effects may be obtained with perhaps an insignificant increase in the initial investment. Variety is the spice of lighting as well as of life.
These various principles of lighting are readily exemplified in the lighting of the home, which is discussed in another chapter. The church is even a better example of the expressive possibilities of lighting. The architectural features are generally of a certain period and first of all it is essential to harmonize the lighting effect with that of the architectural and decorative scheme. Obviously, the dark-stained ceiling of a certain type of church would not be flooded with light. The fact that it is made dark by staining precludes such a procedure in lighting. The characteristics of creeds are distinctly different and these are to some extent exemplified by the lines of the architecture of their churches. In the same way the lighting effect may be harmonized with the creed and the spirit of the interior. The lighting may always be dignified, impressive, and congruous. Few churches are properly lighted with a high intensity of illumination; moderate lighting is more appropriate, for it is conducive to the spirit of worship. In some creeds a dominant note is extreme penitence and severity. The architecture may possess harsh outlines, and this severity or extreme solemnity may be expressed in lighting by harsher contrasts, although this does not mean that the lighting must be glaring. On the other hand, in a certain modern creed the dominant note appears to be cheerfulness. The spacious interiors of the churches of this creed arelacking in severe lines and the walls and ceilings are highly reflecting. Adequate illumination by means of diffused light without the production of severe contrasts expresses the creed, modernity, and enlightenment. On the altar of certain churches the expressiveness of light is utilized in the ceremonial uses which vary with the creed. Even the symbolism of color may be appropriately woven into the lighting of the church.
The expressiveness of light and color originated through the contact of primitive man with nature. Sunlight meant warmth and a bountiful vegetation, but darkness restricted his activities and harbored manifold dangers. Many associations thus originated and they were extended through ignorance and superstition. Yellow is naturally emblematical of the sun and it became the symbol of warmth. Brown as the predominant color of the autumn foliage became tinctured with sadness because the decay of the vegetation presaged the death of the year and the cold dreary months of winter. The first signs of green vegetation in the spring were welcomed as an end of winter and a beginning of another bountiful summer; hence green symbolized youth and hope. It became associated with the springtime of life and thus signified inexperience, but as the color of vegetation it also meant life itself and became a symbol of immortality. Blue acquired certain divine attributes because, as the color of the sky, it was associated with the abode of the gods or heaven. Also a blue sky is the acme of serenity and this color acquired certain appropriate attributes.
Associations of this character became woven into mythology and thus became firmly established. Poetshave felt these influences of light and color in nature and have given expression to them in words. They also have entwined much of the mythology of past civilizations and these repetitions have helped to establish the expressiveness of light and color. Early ecclesiasts employed these symbolisms in religious ceremonies and dictated the garbs of saints and other religious personages in the paintings which decorated their edifices. Thus there were many influences at work during the early centuries when intellects were particularly susceptible through superstition and lack of knowledge. The result has been an extensive symbolism of light, color, and darkness.
At the present time it is difficult to separate the innate appeal of light, color, and darkness from those attributes which have been acquired through associations. Possibly light and color have no innate powers but merely appear to have because the acquired attributes have been so thoroughly established through usage and common consent. Space does not permit a discussion of this point, but the chief aim is consummated if the existence of an expressiveness and impressiveness of light is established. There are many other symbolisms of color and light which have arisen in various ways but it is far beyond the scope of this book to discuss them.
Psychological investigations reveal many interesting facts pertaining to the influence of light and color upon mankind. When choosing color for color's sake alone, that is, divorced from any associations of usage, mankind prefers the pure colors to the tints and shades. It is interesting to note that this is in accord with thepreference exhibited by uncivilized beings in their use of colors for decorating themselves and their surroundings. Civilized mankind chooses tints and shades predominantly to live with, that is, for the decoration of his surroundings. However, civilized man and the savage appear to have the same fundamental preference for pure colors and apparently culture and refinement are responsible for their difference in choice of colors to live with. This is an interesting discovery and it has its applications in lighting, especially in spectacular and stage-lighting.
It appears to be further established that when civilized man chooses color for color's sake alone he not only prefers the pure colors but among these he prefers those near the ends of the spectrum, such as red and blue. Red is favored by women, with blue a close second, but the reverse is true for men. It is also thoroughly established that red, orange, and yellow exert an exciting influence; yellow-green, green, and blue-green, a tranquilizing influence, and blue and violet a subduing influence upon mankind. All these results were obtained with colors divorced from surroundings and actual usage. In the use of light and color the laws of harmony and esthetics must be obeyed, but the sensibility of the lighting artist is a satisfactory guide. Harmonies are of many varieties, but they may be generally grouped into two classes, those of analogy and those of contrast. The former includes colors closely associated in hue and the latter includes complementary colors. No rules in simplified form can be presented for the production of harmonies in light and color. These simplifications are made only by thosewho have not looked deeply enough into the subject through observation and experiment to see its complexity.
The expressiveness of light finds applications throughout the vast field of lighting, but the stage offers great opportunities which have been barely drawn upon. When one has awakened to the vast possibilities of light, shade, and color as a means of expression it is difficult to suppress a critical attitude toward the crudity of lighting effects on the present stage, the lack of knowledge pertaining to the latent possibilities of light, and the superficial use of this potential medium. The crude realism and the almost total absence of deep insight into the attributes of light and color are the chief defects of stage-lighting to-day. One turns hopefully toward the gallant though small band of stage artists who are striving to realize a harmony of lighting, setting, and drama in the so-called modern theater. Unappreciated by a public which flocks to the melodramatic movie, whose scenarios produced upon the legitimate stage would be jeered by the same public, the modern stage artist is striving to utilize the potentiality of light. But even among these there are impostors who have never achieved anything worth while and have not the perseverance to learn to extract some of the power of light and to apply it effectively. Lighting suffers in the hands of the artist owing to the absence of scientific knowledge and it is misused by the engineer who does not possess an esthetic sensibility. Science and art must be linked in lighting.
The worthy efforts of stage artists in some of themodern theaters lack the support of the producers, who cater to the taste of the public which pays the admission fees. Apparently the modern theater must first pass through a period in which financial support must be obtained from those who are able to give it, just as the symphony orchestra has been supported for the sake of art. Certainly the time is at hand for philanthropy to come to the aid of worthy and capable stage artists who hope to rescue theatrical production from the mire of commercialism.