Fig. 66—FOSSIL RADIOLARIA.A—Aff. Carposphaera (after David and Howchin). Cambrian. Brighton, S.A.B—Cenosphaera affinis, Hinde. Mid. Devonian. Tamworth, N.S.W.C—Amphibrachium truncatum, Hinde. Up. Cretaceous. Pt. Darwin.D—Dictyomitra triangularis, Hinde. Up. Cretaceous. Pt. Darwin.
A—Aff. Carposphaera (after David and Howchin). Cambrian. Brighton, S.A.B—Cenosphaera affinis, Hinde. Mid. Devonian. Tamworth, N.S.W.C—Amphibrachium truncatum, Hinde. Up. Cretaceous. Pt. Darwin.D—Dictyomitra triangularis, Hinde. Up. Cretaceous. Pt. Darwin.
The large number of fifty-three species have been found in the radiolarian rocks of Middle Devonian age at Tamworth in New South Wales (Fig. 66). These have been referred to twenty-nine genera comprising amongst others,Cenosphaera,Xiphosphaera,Staurolonche,Heliosphaera,AcanthosphaeraandSpongodiscus.
Cretaceous Radiolaria.—
Although certain silicified rocks in the Jurassic in Europe have furnished a large series of Radiolaria, the Australian marine limestones of this age have not yielded any of their remains up to the present. They have been found, however, in the Lower Cretaceous of Queensland, and in the (?)Upper Cretaceous of Port Darwin, N. Australia. The Radiolaria from the latter locality belong to the sub-orders Prunoidea,Discoidea and Cyrtoidea (Fig. 66). The rock which contains these minute fossils is stated to be eaten by the natives for medicinal purposes. As its composition is almost pure silica, its efficacy in such cases must be more imaginary than real.
Cainozoic Radiolaria.—
Cainozoic rocks of Pliocene age, composed entirely of Radiolaria, occur at Barbados in the West Indies. No Cainozoic Radiolaria, however, have been found either in Australia or New Zealand up to the present time.
COMMON OR CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS OF THE FOREGOING CHAPTER.
FORAMINIFERA.
Nubecularia stephensi, Howchin. Carbopermian: Tasmania and New South Wales.
Frondicularia woodwardi, Howchin. Carbopermian: W. Australia and New South Wales.
Geinitzina triangularis, Chapm. & Howchin. Carbopermian: New South Wales.
Pulvinulina insignis, Chapman. Trias (Wianamatta Series): New South Wales.
Marginulina solida, Terquem. Jurassic: W. Australia.
Flabellina dilatata, Wisniowski. Jurassic: W. Australia.
Vaginulina striata, d’Orbigny. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.
Truncatulina lobatula, W. and J. sp. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.
Miliolina vulgaris, d’Orb. sp. Cainozoic: Victoria and S. Australia.
Textularia gibbosa, d’Orb. Cainozoic: Victoria and S. Australia.
Nodosaria affinis, d’Orb. Cainozoic: Victoria and S. Australia.
Polymorphina elegantissima, Parker and Jones. Cainozoic: Victoria, Tasmania, and S. Australia.
Truncatulina ungeriana, d’Orb. sp. Cainozoic: Victoria, King Island, and S. Australia.
Amphistegina lessonii, d’Orb. Cainozoic: Victoria and S. Australia.
Lepidocyclina martini, Schlumberger. Cainozoic (Balcombian and Janjukian): Victoria.
L. tournoueri, Lemoine and Douvillé. Cainozoic (Junjukian): Victoria.
Cycloclypeus pustulosus, Chapman. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Victoria.
Fabularia howchini, Schlumberger. Cainozoic (Kalimnan): Victoria.
Hauerina intermedia, Howchin. Cainozoic (Kalimnan): Victoria.
Rotalia beccarii, Linné sp. Pleistocene: Victoria and S. Australia.
Polystomella striatopunctata, Fichtel and Moll sp. Pleistocene: Victoria and S. Australia.
RADIOLARIA.
(?)Carposphaerasp. Lower Cambrian: South Australia.
(?)Cenellipsissp. Lower Cambrian: South Australia.
Cenosphaera affinis, Hinde. Devonian: New South Wales.
Staurolonche davidi, Hinde. Devonian: New South Wales.
Amphibrachium truncatum, Hinde. Upper Cretaceous: Northern Territory.
Dictyomitra triangularis, Hinde. Upper Cretaceous: Northern Territory.
LITERATURE.
FORAMINIFERA.
Carbopermian.—Howchin, W. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. XIX. 1895; pp. 194-198. Chapman, F. and Howchin, W. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal. No. 14, 1905. Chapman, F. Bull. Geol. Surv. W. Austr., No. 27, 1907, pp. 15-18.
Trias.—Chapman, F. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. VIII. pt. 4, 1909, pp. 336-339.
Jurassic.—Chapman, F. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., vol. XVI. (N.S.), pt. II., 1904, pp. 186-199.
Cretaceous.—Moore, C. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. XXVI. 1870, pp. 239 and 242. Howchin, W. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. VIII. 1886, pp. 79-93. Idem, ibid., vol. XIX., 1895, pp. 198-200. Idem, Bull. Geol. Surv. W. Austr., No. 27, 1907, pp. 38-43.
Cainozoic.—Howchin, W. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. XII. 1889, pp. 1-20. Idem, ibid., vol. XIV. 1891, pp. 350-356. Jensen, H. I. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. XXIX. pt. 4, 1905, pp. 829-831. Goddard, E. J. and Jensen, H. I. ibid., vol. XXXII. pt. 2, 1907, pp. 308-318. Chapman, F. Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. Zool., vol. XXX. 1907, pp. 10-35.
General.—Howchin, W. Rep. Austr. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Adelaide Meeting, 1893, pp. 348-373.
RADIOLARIA.
Lower Cambrian.—David, T. W. E. and Howchin, W. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. XXI. 1897, p. 571.
Devonian.—David, T. W. E. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. XXI. 1897, pp. 553-570. Hinde, G. J. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. LV. 1890, pp. 38-64.
Upper Cretaceous.—Hinde, G. J. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. XLIX. 1893, pp. 221-226.
FOSSIL SPONGES, CORALS AND GRAPTOLITES.
SPONGES.
Characteristics of Sponges.—
T
The Sponges are sometimes placed by themselves as a separate phylum, the Porifera. With the exception of a few freshwater genera, they are of marine habit and to be found at all depths between low tide (littoral) and deep water (abyssal). Sponges are either fixed or lie loosely on the sea-floor. They possess no organs of locomotion, and have no distinct axis or lateral appendages. They exist by setting up currents in the water whereby the latter is circulated through the system, carrying with it numerous food particles, their tissues being at the same time oxygenated. Their framework, in the siliceous and calcareous sponges, is strengthened by a mineral skeleton, wholly or partially capable of preservation as a fossil.
Cambrian and Ordovician Sponges.—
The oldest rocks in Australia containing the remains of Sponges are the Cambrian limestones of South Australia, at Ardrossan and elsewhere. Some of these sponge-remains are referred to the genusProtospongia, a member of the Hexactinellid group having 6-rayed skeletal elements. When complete,theProtospongiahas a cup- or funnel-shaped body, composed of large and small modified spicules, which form quadrate areas, often seen in isolated or aggregated patches on the weathered surface of the rock.Protospongiaalso occurs in the Lower Ordovician slates and shales of Lancefield (P. oblonga), and Bendigo (P. reticulataandP. cruciformis), in Victoria (Fig. 67 A). At St. David’s, in South Wales, the genus is found in rocks of Middle Cambrian age. The South Australian limestones in whichProtospongiaoccurs are usually placed in the Lower Cambrian.
Fig. 67—PALAEOZOIC SPONGES, &c.A—Protospongia reticulata, T. S. Hall. Low. Ordovician. Bendigo.B—Receptaculites fergusoni, Chapm. Silurian. Wombat Creek, Vict.C—R. australis, Salter. (Section of wall, etched, after Eth. & Dun) Mid. Devonian. Co. Murray, N.S.W.D—Protopharetra scoulari, Eth. fil. Cambrian. S.A.
A—Protospongia reticulata, T. S. Hall. Low. Ordovician. Bendigo.B—Receptaculites fergusoni, Chapm. Silurian. Wombat Creek, Vict.C—R. australis, Salter. (Section of wall, etched, after Eth. & Dun) Mid. Devonian. Co. Murray, N.S.W.D—Protopharetra scoulari, Eth. fil. Cambrian. S.A.
Another genus of Sponges,Hyalostelia, whose affinities are not very clear, occurs in the South Australian Cambrian at Curramulka. This type is represented by the long, slightly bent, rod-likespicules of the root-tuft, and the skeletal spicules with six rays, one of which is much elongated.
Stephanella maccoyiis a Monactinellid sponge, found in the Lower Ordovician (Bendigo Series) of Bendigo, Victoria.
Silurian Sponges.—
Numerous Sponges of Silurian age are found in the neighbourhood of Yass, New South Wales, which belong to the Lithistid group, having irregular, knotty and branching spicules. These sponges resemble certain fossil fruits, generally like diminutive melons; their peculiar spicular structure, however, is usually visible on the outside of the fossil, especially in weathered specimens. The commonest genus isCarpospongia.
Receptaculites: Silurian to Carboniferous.—
In Upper Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous times the curious saucer- or funnel-shaped bodies known asReceptaculitesmust have been fairly abundant in Australia, judging by their frequent occurrence as fossils. They are found as impressions or moulds and casts in some of the mudstones and limestones of Silurian age in Victoria, as at Loyola and Wombat Creek, in west and north-east Gippsland respectively. In the Devonian limestones of New South Wales they occur at Fernbrook, near Mudgee, at the Goodradigbee River, and at Cavan, near Yass; also in beds of the same age in Victoria, at Bindi, and Buchan (Fig. 67, B.C.).Receptaculitesalso occur in the Star Beds of Upper Devonian or Lower Carboniferous age in Queensland, at Mount Wyatt. It will thus be seen that this genus has an extensive geological range.
Carbopermian Sponges.—
A Monactinellid Sponge, provisionally referred toLasiocladia, has been described from the Gympie beds of the Rockhampton District, Queensland.Lasiocladia, as well as the Hexactinellid SpongeHyalostelia, occurs in the Carbopermian of New South Wales.
Cretaceous Sponges.—
No sponge-remains seem to occur above the Carbopermian in Australia until we reach the Cretaceous rocks. In the Lower Cretaceous series in Queensland a doubtful member of the Hexactinellid group is found, namely,Purisiphonia clarkei. In the Upper Cretaceous of the Darling Downs District pyritized Sponges occur which have been referred to the genusSiphonia, a member of the Lithistid group, well known in the Cretaceous of Europe.
Cainozoic Sponges.—
A white siliceous clay, supposed to be from a “Deep Lead,” in the Norseman district in Western Australia, has proved to consist almost entirely of siliceous sponge-spicules, belonging to the Monactinellid, the Tetractinellid, the Lithistid, and the Hexactinellid groups (Fig. 69 A, B). The reference of the deposit to a “deep lead” or alluvial deposit presents a difficulty, since these sponge-spicules represent moderately deep water marine forms. This deposit resembles in some respects the spicule-bearing rock of Oamaru, New Zealand, which is of Miocene age.
Fig. 68—CAINOZOIC SPONGES.A—Latrunculia sp. (after Hinde). Cainozoic. Deep Lead, Norseman, W.A.B—Geodia sp. (after Hinde). Cainozoic. Deep Lead, Norseman, W.A.C—Ecionema newberyi. McCoy sp. Cainozoic. Boggy Creek, Gippsland, Vict.D—Plectroninia halli, Hinde. Cainozoic (Janjukian). Moorabool, Vict.E—Tretocalia pezica, Hinde. Cainozoic. Flinders, Vict.
A—Latrunculia sp. (after Hinde). Cainozoic. Deep Lead, Norseman, W.A.B—Geodia sp. (after Hinde). Cainozoic. Deep Lead, Norseman, W.A.C—Ecionema newberyi. McCoy sp. Cainozoic. Boggy Creek, Gippsland, Vict.D—Plectroninia halli, Hinde. Cainozoic (Janjukian). Moorabool, Vict.E—Tretocalia pezica, Hinde. Cainozoic. Flinders, Vict.
Fig. 69—SILURIAN CORALS.A—Cyathophyllum approximans, Chapm. Silurian (Yer.). Gippsland, Vict.B—Favosites grandipora, Eth. fil. Silurian (Yer.). Lilydale, Vict.C—Favosites grandipora, vertical section. Ditto.D—F. grandipora, transverse section. Ditto.E—Pleurodictyum megastomum, Dun. Lilydale, Vict.F—Halysites peristephesicus, Eth. fil. Silurian. N.S. Wales.G—Heliolites interstincta, Wahl sp Vict. (transv. sect). Silurian..
A—Cyathophyllum approximans, Chapm. Silurian (Yer.). Gippsland, Vict.B—Favosites grandipora, Eth. fil. Silurian (Yer.). Lilydale, Vict.C—Favosites grandipora, vertical section. Ditto.D—F. grandipora, transverse section. Ditto.E—Pleurodictyum megastomum, Dun. Lilydale, Vict.F—Halysites peristephesicus, Eth. fil. Silurian. N.S. Wales.G—Heliolites interstincta, Wahl sp Vict. (transv. sect). Silurian..
In the Cainozoic beds of southern Australia Sponges with calcareous skeletons are not at all uncommon. The majority of these belong to the Lithonine section of the Calcispongiae, in which the spicules are regular, and not fixed together. Living examples of these sponges, closely related to the fossils, have been dredged from the Japanese Sea. The fossils are found mainly in the Janjukian, at Curlewis, in the Moorabool River limestones, and in the polyzoal rock of Flinders, all in Victoria. They belong to the generaBactronella,PlectroniniaandTretocalia(Fig. 68, D and E). Some diminutive forms also occur in the older series, the Balcombian, at Mornington, namely,Bactronella parvula. At Boggy Creek, near Sale, in Victoria, a Tetractinellid Sponge,Ecionema newberyi, is found in the Janjukian marls; spicules of this form have also been noted from the clays of the Altona Bay coal-shaft (Fig. 68 C).
TheARCHAEOCYATHINAE: an ancient class of organisms related both to the Sponges and the Corals.
Archaeocyathinae in Cambrian Strata.—
These curious remains have been lately made the subject of detailed research, and it is now concluded that they form a group probably ancestral both to the sponges and the corals. They are calcareous, and generally cup-shaped or conical, often furnished at the pointed base with roots or strands for attachment to the surrounding reef. They have two walls, both the inner and the outer being perforated like sponges. As in the corals, they are divided by transverse septa and these are also perforated. Certain of the genera asProtopharetra(Fig. 67 D),Coscinocyathus, andArchaeocyathina, are common to the Cambrian of Sardinia and South Australia, whilst other genera of the class are also found in Siberia, China, Canada and the United States. A species ofProtopharetrawas recently detected in a pebble derived from the Cambrian limestone in the Antarctic, as far south as 85 deg. AnArchaeocyathinalimestone has also been found in situ from Shackleton’s farthest south.
CORALS(Class Anthozoa).
Rugose Corals.—
Many of the older types of Corals from the Palaeozoic rocks belong to the Tetracoralla (septa in multiples of four), or Rugosa (i.e., with wrinkled exterior).
Ordovician Corals.—
In Great Britain and North America Rugose Corals are found as early as Ordovician times, represented byStreptelasma,Petraia, etc. In Australia they seem to first make their appearance in the Silurian period.
Silurian Corals.—
In rocks of Silurian age in Australia we find genera likeCyathophyllum(with single cups or compound coralla),Diphyphyllum,TryplasmaandRhizophyllum, the first-named often being very abundant. The compound corallum ofCyathophyllum approximanspresents a very handsome appearance when cut transversely and polished. This coral is found in the Newer Silurian limestone in Victoria; it shows an alliance withC. mitchelliof the MiddleDevonian of the Murrumbidgee River, New South Wales (Fig. 69 A).
Silurian Hexacoralla.—
It is, however, to the next group, the Hexacoralla, with septa in multiples of six, twelve, and twenty-four, that we turn for the most varied and abundant types of Corals in Silurian times. The genusFavosites(Honey-comb Coral) is extremely abundant in Australian limestones (Fig. 69 B, C), such as those of Lilydale, Walhalla, and Waratah Bay in Victoria, and of Hatton’s Corner and other localities near Yass, in New South Wales.Pleurodictyumis also a familiar type in the Australian Silurian, being one of the commonest corals in the Yeringian stage; although, strange to say, in Germany and N. America, it is typical of Devonian strata (Fig. 69 E).Pleurodictyumhad a curious habit of growing, barnacle fashion, on the side of the column of the crinoids or sea-lilies which flourished in those times.Syringopora, with its funnel-shaped tabulae or floor partitions, is typical of many Australian limestones, as those from Lilydale, Victoria, and the Delegate River, New South Wales.Halysites(Chain Coral), with its neat strings of tubular and tabulated corallites joined together by their edges, is another striking Coral of the Silurian period (Fig. 69 F). This and the earlier mentionedSyringopora, is by some authors regarded as belonging to the Alcyonarian Corals (typically with eight tentacles).Halysitesis known from the limestones of the Mitta Mitta River, N.E. Gippsland, Victoria; from the Molong and Canobolas districts in NewSouth Wales; from the Gordon River limestone in Tasmania; and from Chillagoe in Queensland. Abroad it is a well known type of Coral in the Wenlockian of Gotland in Scandinavia, and Shropshire in England, as well as in the Niagara Limestone of the United States.
Silurian Octocoralla.—
Perhaps the most important of the Octocoralla isHeliolites(“Sunstone”), which is closely allied to the Blue Coral,Heliopora, a frequent constituent of our modern coral reefs. The genusHelioliteshas a massive, calcareous corallum, bearing two kinds of pores or tubes, large (autopores) containing complete polyps, and small (siphonopores) containing the coenosarc or flesh of the colony. Both kinds of tubes are closely divided by tabulae, whilst the former are septate.Heliolitesis of frequent occurrence in the Silurian limestones of New South Wales and Victoria (Fig. 69 G).
Devonian Corals.—
The Middle Devonian beds of Australia are chiefly limestones, such as the Buchan limestone, Victoria; the Burdekin Series, Queensland; and the Tamworth limestone of New South Wales. These rocks, as a rule, are very fossiliferous, and the chief constituent fossils are the Rugose and Perforate Corals.Campophyllum gregoriiis a common form in the Buchan limestone (Fig. 70 A), as well as some large mushroom-shapedFavosites, asF. gothlandicaandF. multitabulata. Other genera which may be mentioned as common to the Australian Middle Devonian rocks are,Cyathophyllum,SanidophyllumandSpongophyllum,Heliolitesis also found in limestones of this age in New South Wales and Queensland.
Fig. 70—UPPER PALAEOZIC CORALS.A—Campophyllum gregorii, Eth. fil. Mid. Devonian. Buchan, Vict.B—Pachypora meridionalis, Nich. & Eth. fil. Mid Devonian. Queens.C—Aulopora repens, Kn. & W. (after Hinde). Devonian. Kimberley district, W.A.D—Zaphrentis culleni, Eth. fil. Carboniferous. New South Wales.E—Trachypora wilkinsoni, Eth. fil. Carbopermian (Up. Marine Ser.) New South Wales.F—Stenopora crinita, Lonsdale. Carbopermian (Up. Mar. Ser.) N.S.W.
A—Campophyllum gregorii, Eth. fil. Mid. Devonian. Buchan, Vict.B—Pachypora meridionalis, Nich. & Eth. fil. Mid Devonian. Queens.C—Aulopora repens, Kn. & W. (after Hinde). Devonian. Kimberley district, W.A.D—Zaphrentis culleni, Eth. fil. Carboniferous. New South Wales.E—Trachypora wilkinsoni, Eth. fil. Carbopermian (Up. Marine Ser.) New South Wales.F—Stenopora crinita, Lonsdale. Carbopermian (Up. Mar. Ser.) N.S.W.
In the Burdekin Series (Middle Devonian) in Queensland we also findCystiphyllum,Favosites gothlandica, andPachypora meridionalis(Fig. 70 B), whilst in beds of the same age at Rough Range in Western Australia are foundAulopora repens(Fig. 70 C), and another species ofPachypora, namely,P. tumida.
Carbopermian Corals.—
The only true Carboniferous marine fauna occurring in Australia, appears to be that of the Star Beds in Queensland, but so far no corals have been found.The so-called Carboniferous of Western Australia may be regarded as Carbopermian or even of Permian age. The marine Carbopermian beds of New South Wales contain several genera of Corals belonging to the group Rugosa, asZaphrentis(Fig. 70 D),Lophophyllum, andCampophyllum. Of the Tabulate corals may be mentionedTrachypora wilkinsoni, very typical of the Upper Marine Series (Fig. 70 E) andCladochonus.
In the Gympie beds of the same system in Queensland occur the following rugose corals,Zaphrentis profundaand a species ofCyathophyllum.
In the Carbopermian of Western Australia the rugose corals are represented byAmplexus,Cyathophyllum, andPlerophyllum, which occur in rocks on the Gascoyne River.
The imperfectly understood group of the Monticuliporoids, by some authors placed with the Polyzoa (Order Trepostomata), are well represented in Australia by the genusStenopora(Fig. 70 F). The corallum is a massive colony of long tubes set side by side and turned outwards, the polyp moving upwards in growth and cutting off the lower part of the tube by platforms like those in the tabulate corals. Some of the species ofStenopora, likeS. tasmaniensis, of New South Wales and Tasmania, are found alike in the Lower and Upper Marine Series.S. australisis confined to the Bowen River Coal-field of Queensland.Stenoporaoften attains a large size, the corallum reaching over a foot in length.
Neither Jurassic or Cretaceous Corals have been found in Australasia, although elsewhere as inEurope and India, the representatives of modern corals are found in some abundance.
Cainozoic Corals.—
In Tertiary times the marine areas of southern Australia were the home of many typical solitary Corals of the group of the Hexacoralla. In the Balcombian beds of Mornington, Victoria, for instance, we have genera such asFlabellum,Placotrochus,Sphenotrochus,Ceratotrochus,Conosmilia,Trematotrochus,NotophylliaandBalanophyllia(Fig. 71).
Fig. 71—CAINOZOIC CORALS.A—Flabellum victoriae, Duncan. Balcombian. Mornington, Vict.B—Placotrochus deltoideus, Dunc. Balcombian. Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic.C—Balanophyllia seminuda, Dunc. Balcombian. Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic.D—Stephanotrochus tatei, Dennant. Janjukian. Torquay, near Geelong, Vict.E—Thamnastraea sera, Duncan. Janjukian. Table Cape, Tas.F—Graphularia senescens. Tate sp. Janjukian. Waurn Ponds, near Geelong, Vic.G—Trematotrochus clarkii, Dennant. Kalimnan. Gippsland Lakes, Vic.
A—Flabellum victoriae, Duncan. Balcombian. Mornington, Vict.B—Placotrochus deltoideus, Dunc. Balcombian. Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic.C—Balanophyllia seminuda, Dunc. Balcombian. Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic.D—Stephanotrochus tatei, Dennant. Janjukian. Torquay, near Geelong, Vict.E—Thamnastraea sera, Duncan. Janjukian. Table Cape, Tas.F—Graphularia senescens. Tate sp. Janjukian. Waurn Ponds, near Geelong, Vic.G—Trematotrochus clarkii, Dennant. Kalimnan. Gippsland Lakes, Vic.
Corals especially characteristic of the Janjukian Series areParacyathus tasmanicus,Stephanotrochus tatei,Montlivaltia variformis,Thamnastraea seraandDendrophyllia epithecata. The stony axis of the Sea-pen,Graphularia senescens, a member of the Octocoralla, is also typical of this stage, and are called “square-bones” by the quarrymen at Waurn Ponds, near Geelong, where these fossils occur.
The Kalimnan Corals are not so abundantly represented as in the foregoing stages, but certain species ofFlabellumandTrematotrochus, asF. curtumandT. clarkii, are peculiar to those beds. Several of the Janjukian Corals persist into Kalimnan times, some dating as far back as the Balcombian, asSphenotrochus emarciatus. The Sea-pen,Graphularia senescensis again found at this higher horizon, at Beaumaris; it probably represents a varietal form, the axis being smaller and more slender.
Other examples of the Octocoralla are seen inMopsea, two species of which are found in the Janjukian at Cape Otway; the deeper beds of the Mallee; and the Mount Gambier Series.
A species of the Astraeidae (Star-corals) of the reef-forming section,Plesiastraea st.vincenti, is found in the Kalimnan of Hallett’s Cove, South Australia.
HYDROZOA.
The few animals of this group met with in fossil faunas are represented by the livingMillepora(abundant as a coral reef organism),Hydractinia(parasitic on shells, etc.), andSertularia(Sea-firs).
Milleporids and Stylasterids.—
Although so abundant at the present time, the genusMilleporadoes not date back beyond the Pleistocene. The Eocene genusAxoporais supposedto belong here, but is not Australian. Of the Stylasterids one example is seen inDeontopora, represented by the branchlets ofD. mooraboolensis, from the Janjukian limestone of the Moorabool Valley, near Geelong.
Hydractinia.—
Hydractiniadates from the Upper Cretaceous rocks in England, and in Australia its encrusting polypidom is found attached to shells in the polyzoal limestone of Mount Gambier (Miocene).
Stromatoporoids.
An important group of reef-builders in Palaeozoic times was the organism known asStromatopora, and its allies. The structures of these hydroid polyps resemble successional and repetitional stages of a form likeHydractinia. As in that genus it always commenced to grow upon a base of attachment such as a shell, increasing by successive layers, until the organic colony often reached an enormous size, and formed great mounds and reefs (seeantea, Fig. 32). The stromatoporoid structure was formed by a layer of polyp cells separated by vertical partitions, upon which layer after layer was added until a great vertical thickness was attained. This limestone-making group first appeared in the Silurian, and probably reached its maximum development in Middle Devonian times, when it almost disappeared, except to be represented in Carbopermian strata by a few diminutive forms.
Fig. 72—STROMATOPOROIDEA and CLADOPHORA.A—Actinostroma clathratum, Nich. Devonian. Rough Range, W.A.B—Actinostroma clathratum, Nich. Devonian. Rough Range, W.A. Vertical section.(After G. J. Hinde).C—Callograptus sp. Up. Ordovician. San Remo, Vict.(After T. S. Hall).D—Ptilograptus sp. Up. Ordovician. San Remo, Vict.(After T. S. Hall).E—Dictyonema pulchellum, T. S. Hall. L. Ordov. Lancefield, Vict.F—Dictyonema macgillivrayi, T. S. Hall. L. Ordov. Lancefield, Vict.
A—Actinostroma clathratum, Nich. Devonian. Rough Range, W.A.B—Actinostroma clathratum, Nich. Devonian. Rough Range, W.A. Vertical section.(After G. J. Hinde).C—Callograptus sp. Up. Ordovician. San Remo, Vict.(After T. S. Hall).D—Ptilograptus sp. Up. Ordovician. San Remo, Vict.(After T. S. Hall).E—Dictyonema pulchellum, T. S. Hall. L. Ordov. Lancefield, Vict.F—Dictyonema macgillivrayi, T. S. Hall. L. Ordov. Lancefield, Vict.
(After G. J. Hinde).
(After T. S. Hall).
(After T. S. Hall).
Silurian Stromatoporoids.—
In the Silurian limestones of Victoria (Lilydale, Waratah Bay, Walhalla and Loyola), and New South Wales (near Yass), Stromatoporoids belonging to the generaClathrodictyon(probablyC. regulare),StromatoporaandIdiostromaoccur.Stromatoporellahas been recorded from the Silurian rocks of the Jenolan Caves, New South Wales.
Devonian Stromatoporids.—
The Middle Devonian strata of Bindi, Victoria, yield large, massive examples ofActinostroma. This genus is distinguished from the closely alliedClathrodictyonby its vertical pillars passing through several laminae in succession. Rocks of the sameage in Queensland containStromatopora, whilst in Western Australia the Rough Range Limestone has been shown to containActinostroma clathratum(Fig. 72 A, B) andStromatoporella eifeliensis.
Cladophora.
Palaeozoic Cladophora.—
Some branching and dendroid forms of Hydrozoa probably related to the modern Calyptoblastea (“covered buds”), such asSertulariaandCampanularia, are included in the Cladophora (“Branch bearers”). They existed from Cambrian to Devonian times, and consist of slender, forking branches sometimes connected by transverse processes or dissepiments, the branches bearing on one or both sides little cups or hydrothecae which evidently contained the polyps, and others of modified form, perhaps for the purpose of reproduction. The outer layer, called the periderm was of chitinous material. They were probably attached to the sea-floor like the Sertularians (Sea-firs).
Dictyonema and Allies.—
Remains of the above group are represented in the Australian rocks by several species ofDictyonema(Fig. 72 E, F) occurring in the Lower Ordovician of Lancefield, and in similar or older shales near Mansfield. Some of these species are of large size,D. grandemeasuring nearly a foot in width. The generaCallograptus,Ptilograptus(Fig. 72 C, D) andDendrograptusare also sparsely represented in the Upper Ordovician of Victoria, the two former from San Remo, the latter from Bulla.
Graptolites(Graptolitoidea).—
Value of Graptolites to Stratigraphist.—
The Graptolites were so named by Linnaeus from their resemblances to writing on the slates in which their compressed remains are found. They form a very important group of Palaeozoic fossils in all parts of the world where these rocks occur, and are well represented in Australasia. The species of the various Graptolite genera are often restricted to particular beds, and hence they are of great value as indicators of certain horizons or layers in the black, grey or variously coloured slates and shales of Lower Ordovician to Silurian times. By their aid a stratum or set of strata can be traced across country for long distances, and the typical species can be correlated even with those in the older slates and shales of Great Britain and North America.
Nature of Graptolites.—
The Graptolites were compound animals, consisting of a number of polyps inserted in cups or thecae which budded out in a line from the primary sicula or conical chamber, which chamber was probably attached to floating sea-weed, either by a fine thread (nema), or a disc-like expansion. This budding of the polyp-bearing thecae gives to the polypary or colony the appearance of a fret-saw, with the teeth directed away from the sicula.
The habit of the earlier graptolites was to branch repeatedly, as inClonograptus, or to show a compound leaf-like structure as inPhyllograptus. Lateron the many-branched forms had their branches reduced until, as inDidymograptus, there were only two branches. Sometimes the branches opened out to direct the thecae upwards, the better to procure their food supply. InDiplograptusthe thecae turned upwards and acquired a support by the formation of a medium rod (virgula), often ending in a disc or float. In Silurian timesMonograptusprevailed, a genus having only a single row of thecae supported by a straight or curved virgula. InRetiolitesthe polypary opened out by means of a net-work of fine strands, rendering it better able to float, at the same time retaining its original strength.
Lower Ordovician Graptolites, Victoria.—
The Lower Ordovician slates and shales of Victoria have been successfully divided into several distinct series by means of the Graptolites. These, commencing at the oldest, are:—
(1) Lancefield Series. Characterised byBryograptus clarki,B. victoriae,Didymograptus pritchardi,D. tayloriandTetragraptus decipiens. Other forms less restricted are,Clonograptus magnificus(measuring over a yard in breadth),C. flexilis,C. rigidus,Leptograptus antiquusandTetragraptus approximatus(Fig. 73).
(2) Bendigo Series. Characterised byTetragraptus fruticosus,T. pendens,Trichograptus fergusoniandGoniograptus thureaui. This series also containsTetragraptus serra(ranging into Darriwill Series),T. bryonoides,T. quadribrachiatus,T. approximatus(base of the series),Phyllograptus typus,Dichograptus octobrachiatus,Goniograptus macerand manyDidymograpti, includingD. bifidus(Fig. 74).
Fig. 73—LOWER ORDOVICIAN GRAPTOLITES.A—Bryograptus clarki, T. S. Hall. L. Ordovician. Lancefield, Vict.B—Tetragraptus fruticosus, J. Hall sp. L. Ordovician. Lancefield.C—Phyllograptus typus, J. Hall. L. Ordovician. Lancefield.D—Goniograptus macer, T. S. Hall. L. Ordovician. Lancefield.E—Didymograptus caduceus, Salter. L. Ordovician. Lancefield.F—Trigonograptus wilkinsoni, T. S. Hall. L. Ordov. Darriwill, Vict.
A—Bryograptus clarki, T. S. Hall. L. Ordovician. Lancefield, Vict.B—Tetragraptus fruticosus, J. Hall sp. L. Ordovician. Lancefield.C—Phyllograptus typus, J. Hall. L. Ordovician. Lancefield.D—Goniograptus macer, T. S. Hall. L. Ordovician. Lancefield.E—Didymograptus caduceus, Salter. L. Ordovician. Lancefield.F—Trigonograptus wilkinsoni, T. S. Hall. L. Ordov. Darriwill, Vict.
Fig. 74—LOWER ORDOVICIAN GRAPTOLITES.A—Loganograptus logani, J. Hall sp. L. Ordov. Newham, Vict.B—Tetragraptus approximatus, Nich. L. Ordovician. Canada and Victoria.(After Nicholson)C—Tetragraptus serra, Brongn. sp. L. Ordovician. Lancefield, Vict.D—Didymograptus bifidus, J. Hall. L. Ordovician. Guildford, Vict.
A—Loganograptus logani, J. Hall sp. L. Ordov. Newham, Vict.B—Tetragraptus approximatus, Nich. L. Ordovician. Canada and Victoria.(After Nicholson)C—Tetragraptus serra, Brongn. sp. L. Ordovician. Lancefield, Vict.D—Didymograptus bifidus, J. Hall. L. Ordovician. Guildford, Vict.
(After Nicholson)
(3) Castlemaine Series. Characterised byDidymograptus bifidus,D. caduceusandLoganograptus logani.Phyllograptuspersists from the Bendigo Series. It also containsTetragraptus serra,T. bryonoides,T. quadribrachiatus,Goniograptus macerand severalDidymograpti.
(4) Darriwill Series. Characterised byTrigonograptus wilkinsoni. Also containDiplograptus,GlossograptusandLasiograptus, whilstDidymograptusis rare.
Lower Ordovician Graptolites, New Zealand.—
In New Zealand Lower Ordovician Graptolites are found in the Kakanui Series, at Nelson, north-west of South Island. Some of the commoner forms areDidymograptus extensus,D. caduceus,Loganograptus logani,Phyllograptus typus,Tetragraptus similisandT. quadribrachiatus.
Graptolites agreeing closely with those of the Lancefield Series of Victoria occur near Preservation Inlet in the extreme South-west, and have been identified asClonograptus rigidus,Bryograptus victoriaeandTetragraptus decipiens.
Upper Ordovician Graptolites, Victoria.—
The Upper Ordovician rocks of Victoria, as at Wombat Creek and Mount Wellington in Gippsland, and at Diggers’ Rest near Sunbury, contain the double branched forms likeDicranograptus ramosus,Dicellograptus elegansandD. sextans; the sigmoidal formStephanograptus gracilis; and the diprionidian(biserial) forms asDiplograptus tardus,Climacograptus bicornis,Cryptograptus tricornis,Glossograptus hermaniandLasiograptus margaritatus(Fig. 75).
Fig. 75—UPPER ORDOVICIAN and SILURIAN GRAPTOLITES.A—Dicranograptus ramosus, J. Hall sp. Up. Ordovician. Victoria.B—Dicellograptus elegans, Carruthers sp. Up. Ordovician. Victoria.C—Diplograptus carnei, T. S. Hall. Up. Ordovician. N. S. Wales.D—Climacograptus bicornis, J. Hall. Up. Ordovician. Victoria.E—Glossograptus hermani, T. S. Hall. Up. Ordovician. Victoria.F—Retiolites australis, McCoy. Silurian. Keilor, Victoria.G—Monograptus dubius, Suess. Silurian. Wood’s Point, Victoria.
A—Dicranograptus ramosus, J. Hall sp. Up. Ordovician. Victoria.B—Dicellograptus elegans, Carruthers sp. Up. Ordovician. Victoria.C—Diplograptus carnei, T. S. Hall. Up. Ordovician. N. S. Wales.D—Climacograptus bicornis, J. Hall. Up. Ordovician. Victoria.E—Glossograptus hermani, T. S. Hall. Up. Ordovician. Victoria.F—Retiolites australis, McCoy. Silurian. Keilor, Victoria.G—Monograptus dubius, Suess. Silurian. Wood’s Point, Victoria.
Upper Ordovician Graptolites, New South Wales.—
In New South Wales, at Tallong, the Upper Ordovician Graptolites are well represented by such forms asDicellograptus elegans,Dicranograptus nicholsoni,Diplograptus carnei,D. foliaceus,Cryptograptus tricornisandGlossograptus quadrimucronatus, etc. Other localities in New South Wales for this Graptolite fauna are Stockyard Creek, Currowang, Tingaringi, Lawson, and Mandurama.
Tasmania.—
From Tasmania aDiplograptushas been recorded, but the particular horizon and locality are uncertain.
Silurian Graptolites, Victoria.—
In the Silurian shales at Keilor, in Victoria,Monograptusis a common genus, andCyrtograptusandRetiolites australis(Fig. 75 F) also occur. Several species ofMonograptushave also been found at South Yarra and Studley Park. At the latter place and WalhallaMonograptus dubius, which is a Wenlock and Ludlow fossil in Britain, has been found in some abundance (Fig. 75 G).
COMMON OR CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS OF THE FOREGOING CHAPTER.
SPONGES.
Protospongiasp. Cambrian: S. Australia.
Hyalosteliasp. Cambrian: S. Australia.
Protospongia oblonga, Hall. L. Ordovician: Victoria.
Stephanella maccoyi, Hall. L. Ordovician: Victoria.
Carpospongiasp. Silurian: Yass, New South Wales.
Receptaculites fergusoni, Chapman. Silurian: Victoria.
Receptaculites australis, Salter sp. Devonian: Victoria and New South Wales. Carboniferous: Queensland.
(?)Lasiocladia hindei, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: Queensland.
Purisiphonia clarkei, Bowerbank. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.
Geodiasp. Cainozoic: W. Australia.
Tethyasp. Cainozoic: W. Australia.
Ecionema newberyi, McCoy sp. Cainozoic: Victoria.
Plectroninia halli, Hinde. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Victoria.
Tretocalia pezica, Hinde. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Victoria.
ARCHAEOCYATHINAE.
Protopharetra scoulari, Etheridge, fil. Cambrian: S. Australia.
Coscinocyathus australis, Taylor. Cambrian: S. Australia.
Archaeocyathina ajax, Taylor. Cambrian: S. Australia.
CORALS.
Cyathophyllum approximans, Chapman. Silurian: Victoria.
Tryplasma liliiformis, Etheridge, fil. Silurian: New South Wales.
Favosites grandipora, Etheridge fil. Silurian: Victoria.
Pleurodictyum megastomum, Dun. Silurian: Victoria.
Halysites peristephicus, Etheridge, fil. Silurian: New South Wales.
Heliolites interstincta, Linné sp. Silurian: Victoria.
Campophyllum gregorii, Eth. fil. Middle Devonian: Victoria and Queensland.
Cystiphyllum australasicum, Eth. fil. Middle Devonian: New South Wales and Queensland.
Favosites multitabulata, Eth. fil. Middle Devonian: Victoria and New South Wales.
Pachypora meridionalis, Eth. fil. Middle Devonian: Queensland.
Zaphrentis culleni, Eth. fil. Carboniferous: New South Wales.
Lophophyllum corniculum, de Koninck. Carboniferous: New South Wales.
Zaphrentis profunda, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: Queensland.
Campophyllum columnare, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: New South Wales.
Trachypora wilkinsoni, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: New South Wales.
Stenopora tasmaniensis, Lonsdale. Carbopermian: Tasmania and New South Wales.
Flabellum gambierense, Duncan. Cainozoic: Victoria, S. Australia and Tasmania.
Placotrochus deltoideus, Duncan. Cainozoic: Victoria, S. Australia and Tasmania.
Sphenotrochus emarciatus, Duncan. Cainozoic: Victoria, S. Australia, and Tasmania.
Ceratotrochus exilis, Dennant. Cainozoic: Victoria.
Conosmilia elegans, Duncan. Cainozoic: Victoria.
Balanophyllia armata, Duncan. Cainozoic: Victoria.
Thamnastraea sera, Duncan. Cainozoic: Victoria and Tasmania.
Graphularia senescens, Tate sp. Cainozoic: Victoria and S. Australia.
HYDROZOA.
Clathrodictyon(?)regulare, Rosen sp. Silurian: Victoria.
Actinostroma clathratum, Nicholson. Devonian: W. Australia.
Stromatoporella eifeliensis, Nich. Devonian: W. Australia.
Dictyonema pulchella, T. S. Hall. Lower Ordovician: Victoria.
Ptilograptussp. L. Ordovician: Victoria.
Callograptussp. Lower Ordovician: Victoria.
GRAPTOLITES.
Bryograptus victoriae, T. S. Hall. Lower Ordovician (Lancefield Series): Victoria.
Tetragraptus fruticosus, J. Hall. L. Ordovician (Bendigo Series): Victoria.
Didymograptus caduceus, Salter. L. Ordovician (Castlemaine Series): Victoria. Also New Zealand.
Didymograptus bifidus, J. Hall. L. Ordovician (Castlemaine Series): Victoria. Also New Zealand.
Trigonograptus wilkinsoni, T. S. Hall. L. Ordovician (Darriwill Series): Victoria.
Dicranograptus ramosus, J. Hall sp. Upper Ordovician: Victoria.
Monograptus dubius, Suess. Silurian: Victoria.
Retiolites australis, McCoy. Silurian: Victoria.
LITERATURE.
SPONGES.
Cambrian.—Tate, R. Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. XV. (N.S.), 1892, p. 188.
Ordovician.—Hall, T. S. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. I. pt. I. 1889, pp. 60, 61 (Protospongia). Idem, ibid., vol. XI. (N.S.), pt. II. 1899, pp. 152-155 (Protospongia and Stephanella).
Silurian to Carboniferous.—Salter, J. W. Canad. Org. Rem. Dec. I. 1859, p. 47. Etheridge, R. jnr. and Dun, W. S. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. VI. 1898, pp. 62-75. Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict. vol. XVIII. (N.S.), pt. 1, 1905, pp. 5-15.
Carbopermian.—Etheridge, R. jnr., in Geol. and Pal. Q., 1892, p. 199.
Cretaceous.—Bowerbank, J. S. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1869, p. 342. Etheridge, R. jnr. in Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, pp. 438, 439 (Purisiphonia).
Cainozoic.—McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. V. 1877. Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XX. (N.S.), pt. 2, 1908, pp. 210-212 (Ecionema). Hinde, G. J. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. LVI., 1900, pp. 50-56 (calcisponges). Idem, Bull. Geol. Surv. W. Austr., No. 36, 1910, pp. 7-21 (sponge-spicules).
ARCHAEOCYATHINAE.
Etheridge, R. jnr., Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. XIII. 1890, pp. 10-22. Taylor, T. G. Mem. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. II., pt. 2, 1910 (a monograph).
CORALS.
Silurian.—Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. II. pt. 1, 1890, pp. 15-21 (Silurian and Devonian). Idem, ibid., vol. II. pt. 4, 1892, pp. 165-174 (Silurian and Devonian). Idem, in Pal. and Geol. Queensland, 1892. Idem, Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. I., No. 10, 1891, pp. 201-205 (Rhizophyllum). Id., ibid., vol. III. No. 2, 1897, pp. 30-33 (Columnaria). Id., Prog. Rep. Geol. Surv. Vict., No. 11, 1899, pp. 30-36. Idem, Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, No. 13, pt. I., 1904 (Halysites). Id., ibid., No. 13, pt. 2, 1907 (Tryplasma). De Koninck, L. G. ibid., Pal. No. 6, 1898. Shearsby, A. J. Geol. Mag., Dec. V., vol. III. 1906, pp. 547-552. Chapman, F. Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., vol. II. pt. 1, 1907, pp. 67-80.
Devonian.—Etheridge, R. jnr. and Foord, A. H. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. V., vol. XIV., 1884, pp. 175-179 (AlveolitesandAmplexopora=Litophyllum). Etheridge, R. jnr., in Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892. Idem, Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. IX. 1895, pp. 518-539. Id., Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. VI. pt. 3, 1899, pp. 152-182 (Tamworth District). Id., Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. IV. No. 7, 1902, pp. 253-260. De Koninck, L. G. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal. No. 6, 1898. Chapman, F. Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., vol. III, pt. 2, 1912, pp. 215-222.
Carbopermian.—Etheridge, R. jnr. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal. No. 5, 1891. Idem, in Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892. Id., Bull. Geol. Surv., W. Austr., No. 10, 1903, pp. 8-10.
Cainozoic.—Duncan, P. M. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. XXVI. 1870, pp. 284-318; vol. XXXI. 1875, pp. 673-678; vol. XXXII. 1876, pp. 341-351. Woods, T. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. XI., 1878, pp. 183-195; ibid., vol. XXX. 1879, pp. 57-61. Idem, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. I., 1878, pp. 104-119. Dennant, J. Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vols. XXIII. (1899) to XXVIII. (1904).
STROMATOPOROIDS.
Hinde, G. J. Geol. Mag., Dec. III. vol. VII, 1890, p. 193.
GRAPTOLITES.
McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict., Decades I. (1874): II. (1875): V. (1877). Hall, T. S. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., vol. IV. p. I. 1892, pp. 7, 8 (Dictyonema). Idem, Geol. Mag. Dec. IV. vol. VI. 1899, pp. 438-451; Id., Rep. Austr. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Brisbane, 1909, pp. 318-320. Id., Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., vol. I. pt. 4, 1906, pp. 266-278. Id., ibid., vol. III. pt. 2, 1912, pp. 188-211. Idem, Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. VII. part 1, 1910, pp. 16, 17. Ibid., pp. 49-59.
FOSSIL SEA-LILIES, STARFISHES, BRITTLE-STARS AND SEA-URCHINS.
Divisions of Echinodermata.—