NORTH TORONTO.

ENGINE TEST SHED—LEASIDE.

OFFICERS’ MESS—LEASIDE.

The North Toronto wing was the third flying station of the brigade to go into action. It was subdivided into two units, Leaside and Armour Heights, the ground for the former being most generously offered free of charge by the York Land Company and the town of Leaside; while for the use of the latter area the Corps is indebted to F. B. Robins, Esq.

Actual construction commenced on May 21st. Leaside, comprising 222 acres, presented an admirable surface which was carefully drained. The structural programme called for nine flight sheds, together with instructional and repair buildings, etc. At the close of hostilities there was accommodation for 89 officers, 230 cadets, 83 warrant officers and sergeants, and about 600 rank and file, the latter being housed in a large factory building, the use of which was secured from the Leaside Munitions Company. In the autumn of 1918, work was commenced on a central heating plant serving the officers’ and cadets’ quarters.

The territory north, east and west of Leaside presented a country with fairly large fields and but little wooded land, and there was in consequence every opportunity for forced landings. As this station was the main point at which training was given in artillery coöperation, a most complete system of observation huts connected by telephones, was constructed and dotted the countryside for miles around.

Leaside has always been a point of interest to visitors on account of its proximity to Toronto, and has had the honor of inspection by H.R.H. Prince Arthur of Connaught and the Duke of Devonshire, at that time Governor-General of Canada. From Leaside also started the aerial mail which, under the auspices of the Aero Clubof Canada, made several trips to Montreal and Ottawa, and demonstrated the great advantage that will no doubt accrue from the use of aerial transport for this purpose.

At Armour Heights were the squadrons detailed to give instruction in what is known as the Armour Heights course. The aerodrome lies some five miles north of Toronto. Here accommodation was provided for 58 officers, 56 cadets, 32 warrant officers and sergeants and 188 rank and file. The type of building and general arrangement of the station did not present any features varying noticeably from other camps, but this unit was always the object of much interest to visitors on account of the advanced flying at all times observable. The output of instructors here graduated has been vital to the success of the Corps, and the keenness and enthusiasm displayed was undoubtedly fostered by the brilliant example set by the flight commander who for many months was in charge. His record has been worthily maintained.

PART OF AERODROME, LEASIDE.

PART OF BEAMSVILLE AERODROME.

The site of the School of Aerial Fighting was selected in the autumn of 1917. Actual preparation of some 300 acres comprising the aerodrome began, and the work of building was in full swing by December. Climatic conditions approximated those at Camp Borden some twelve months previously, it being a winter of severe cold and high winds, but so earnestly was construction pushed that the camp stood ready for occupation when the School of Aerial Gunnery, as it then was, returned from Texas at the beginning of April, 1917. This provision did not at the time include barracks for cadets and rank and file.

As will be understood, complete equipment was provided for gunnery practice, the several ranges running from 25 to 200 yards. These were furnished with a diversity of targets for surprise deflection, miniature aeroplane and disappearing target work, the type of butt here constructed proving extremely satisfactory.

Full sized silhouettes of machines, riding on anchored rafts, were also set out in Lake Ontario a mile or so from shore, it having already been established in practice over Lake Worth, Texas, that firing over the water was of great value, owing to the accuracy with which registration could be made and also the excellent opportunity given of arriving at a proper diving angle. Beamsville provided all such advantages, and practice was further stimulated by the use of a fast armour-clad launch, which, travelling at top speed, offered an unusually good target.

As work developed, it became clear that the School was in point of fact one of tuition in aerial fighting, the practice of tactics forming a large part of the instruction given. Its nomenclature was in consequence altered in July, 1918.

In the summer of this year, a fourth squadron was organized and housed, and steps taken to provide permanent accommodation for all ranks. This programme included additional officers’ quarters, and the construction of about a dozen large buildings on the hillside which previously held the tents of the unit. The work had just been completed at the date of the armistice, when the accommodation at this station was sufficient for 122 officers, 400 cadets, 96 warrant officers and sergeants and 768 rank and file.

Other services covered an excellent supply of pure water from the lake, a complete drainage system, and ample electrical facilities from the circuits of the Dominion Power and Transmission Company of Hamilton, from which city Beamsville is some twenty-three miles distant to the eastward.

The trip from Toronto by air was always of interest, paralleling the south shore of Lake Ontario to the long sandspit that cuts off Hamilton Bay from the main lake, along this curving bar and thence over orchard and vineyard along the edge of the great escarpment over which, a little further eastward, plunges the Niagara River. This area is appropriately called the garden of Canada, and the unit found itself fortunate in its surroundings.

OFFICERS AND STRENGTH, SCHOOL OF AERIAL FIGHTING, BEAMSVILLE.

GROUND INSTRUCTIONAL SECTION—CAMP MOHAWK.

The Aeroplane Inspection Department took the responsibility of determining whether every aeroplane and every engine bought by the Royal Air Force, Canada, complied with the rigid requirements laid down as necessary before acceptance. That the duties of this organization were, in point of fact, admirably carried out, is evident in the splendid results secured by the brigade in flying duty.

The A.I.D. was, under another name, in actual existence in Canada before the arrival of the Corps in January, 1917, being then engaged in supervising the manufacture of machines made in Canada for the Admiralty by a branch of the Curtiss Aeroplane Company situated in Toronto. The work at that time was under the Director of Inspection for the Imperial Ministry of Munitions.

The coming of the Royal Flying Corps to Canada, and the consequent demand for the supply of large numbers of engines and machines, made it advisable that the unit should reap the fullest possible advantage by the expansion of inspection work into an organization, the first duty of which would be vouching for the quality of aeronautical supplies purchased. In order that the work of this Department might be kept absolutely up to date, constant touch was maintained with the Ministry of Munitions in Great Britain, and information regarding every new development was invariably transmitted to Canada without delay. Thus it has been possible that the factories in Canada producing aeroplane material were kept modernized by the best known methods of inspection.

It will be evident that the term inspection was something more than a name. All raw material of every description entering any factory for the manufactureof aeronautical supplies subject to the Aeroplane Inspection Department, is held until a release note is given by the latter, the release note only being issued, in the case of sheet metal, for instance, when a sample has been taken from every sixth sheet and analysed with satisfactory results. In the case of steel tubing, of which a great deal is used, every tenth tube is dealt with likewise, the same minute method being impartially applied to all material received.

As manufacture progresses with the material which has been passed, the manufactured parts themselves are subject to a second inspection, and are not allowed to be sent on to the assembling department unless up to requirements. A common sight in such factories is the supervisor’s metal cage, and it is on record that through one cage passed no less than 150,000 metal parts in one week.

Lastly comes inspection of final assembly; this formerly applied to every machine, but rigging and adjusting before leaving the factory was ultimately reduced to every sixth, results being found acceptable. Here the same rigid method was carried out, and examination release sheets were filled in. If results were satisfactory, these were signed by the Aeroplane Inspection Department, and a copy passed on to the Aircraft Equipment Branch of the R.F.C., the latter refusing each and all deliveries not thus vouched for. So satisfactorily had the system worked out, that at the request of the brigade the Aeroplane Inspection Department installed their representatives to pass upon the work of the Engine and Aeroplane Repair Parks of the brigade.

“A PANCAKE.”WHAT A MACHINE DID TO A DERRICK—PILOT UNHURT.COLLISION.

92ND SQUADRON, CAMP BORDEN—OFFICERS AND MECHANICS.

FORMATION. GLIDING HOME.MACHINE SEEN THROUGH A VERTICAL “BANK.”

AEROPLANE REPAIR—CAMP MOHAWK.

In British Columbia, the A.I.D. gave valuable services by the passing of all aeroplane lumber purchased by the Imperial Ministry of Munitions for aeroplane purposes, and from this source was drawn raw material required by Canadian factories. The quantities handled were very large, as much as four and a half million feet being inspected in the course of a month. Other services were the supervision of the manufacture of the many engines purchased by the brigade from the Curtiss Aeroplane and Engine Company in the United States.

In order that there might be a thorough consensus upon all technical questions, there was formed shortly after arrival of the R.A.F. an Aircraft Advisory Board. This consisted of representatives from the factory, from the R.A.F. and from the A.I.D., and dealt with the question of any changes required or contemplated in machines. It is hardly necessary to add that no alterations were actually made without conference between the Board and the A.I.D. The chief inspector states that always and under all circumstances the greatest possible harmony has existed between his organization and that of the R.A.F.

Flying instructors are, for the most part, too good to be sent overseas. This is a bald and possibly astonishing statement. The rest are usually those who, being incapacitated at the front from further active duty, spend the rest of their service imparting valuable knowledge to others. From which it may be seen that the appointment is highly honourable as well as arduous.

In the early days of the R.F.C., Canada, the job was not as exacting as in the later months of the R.A.F., Canada. The instructor was then a man who could fly. To-day he is still a man who can fly, but has, to boot, a peculiar and well developed art of infusing his own skill and courage into the pupil by following a certain recognized procedure which has been demonstrated to be the last word in training. There is nothing in this derogatory to the early instructors. Their work was admirable. In a sense they took even greater risks, owing to the slight preliminary training then afforded to pupils before going up. But the instructor of to-day is one who himself has been instructed not only in the mechanics and dynamics of flight, but also in that inductive process by which he acquires the complete confidence of his pupil. It will be understood therefore, that on the introduction of the more modern system of training, to which reference is made onpage 211, it was necessary to re-examine all instructors and make sure that their abilities equalled the new requirements. In addition it was constantly necessary to be sure that instructors were not growing stale in their work.

85TH SQUADRON—CAMP MOHAWK.

ON THE WESTERN FRONT.

While there is undoubted fascination in flying, the sensation begins to pall after hundreds of hours in the air in a slow machine which circles somewhat monotonously over areas of which every detail has long since been memorized. The Canadian JN4 is considered reliable, with vagaries too slight to demand much attention, and a most excellent machine for instructional purposes. It is not as inherently stable as some others, but instruction on a stable machine would not have been as desirable as on one which required constant if simple control, and effected its higher manoeuvres by acquired momentum and not by engine power.

In Canadian flying therefore, per se, there is nothing particularly attractive for the instructor. The most unstable element is provided by the cadet, and it has been remarked that at the outset “he has many opportunities for error and usually discovers them all.” To anyone who has observed a machine reeling unsteadily around an aerodrome under the guidance of a fledgling pilot, while his instructor sits impassively in the seat of danger, it will be apparent that the latter has attained an abnormal degree of pluck and composure. It is a point of honour with him not to assume control until it is obviously imperative, and even then there is danger lest the pupil, in an excess of fear, cling desperately to the stick and bring about disaster.

With the instructor must be placed the second in command of squadrons. To this officer falls the responsibility of conducting the “pool,” through which all pupils pass before being posted out. Here take place those final tests which determine the cadet’s proficiency. Failing in any one, the pupil is returned for further tuition. To this officer, therefore, the squadron commander looks for the ultimate approval of the work of every cadet, as well for the satisfactory condition of instructors and aerodrome discipline.

There are compensations, however, if no guarantee of personal security. To the instructor, for instance, there is always interest in the never-ending tide of cadets, their personalities, their characteristics as developed in the air and their progress. A cadet’sfirst solo flight brings, if successful, a peculiar pride to the man who taught him to fly, but if not successful a self-searching to determine what link in the armour of tuition has been weak—for the instructor is held responsible for the crash.

The wing examining officer was called into existence by the introduction of the Gosport system, which in itself has been developed and modified to suit Canadian conditions. The first result of this introduction was that it became necessary to comb out instructors, some of whom had been too long on the job and were “stale,” others too old, others too young to be entirely steady, and others who, though excellent pilots, could not adopt the principles and psychology evolved. Still others needed instruction themselves. To this end the School of Special Flying was established at Armour Heights under a brilliant pilot. A steady supply of well-trained men was assured by the operations of this unit.

Early in the year 1918, the instructors at every wing were put under the wing examining officer, whose duty it was to weed out those who got stale, to test the abilities of all new instructors from time to time, and form his own opinion of their instructional capacity. In addition, it was the obligation of this officer, to investigate the log book of every machine which crashed, and demand an explanation of any apparent discrepancies, and also to keep knowledge of all crashes so as to determine whether any one instructor was responsible for an unreasonable number. In the case of the latter being evident, it was palpable that the instructor was either stale or too young for his work, and he was forthwith sent overseas, where usually under the new and much-longed-for stimulant he did admirably.

OFF TO WORK—CAMP BORDEN.

“STUNTING” AT ARMOUR HEIGHTS.

A mind of peculiar judgment is required to find its chief satisfaction in the achievements of others. This is demanded of all instructors. Deprived of the tremendous incentive of contact with the enemy, isolated, as it were, in a daily repetition of duties that afford little variety, constantly speeding off others to that thrilling destination where they fain would be—others who owe to them their fitness to go—such is the every-day grind.

And yet how tremendously it has all counted! A large part of the work of the brigade was in preparing cadets to a point at which they were deemed worthy of flying instruction. Toward that honourable object was directed a vast amount of effort. Decorations were often subsequently won by pupils whose instructors plugged doggedly along the same old road. There was no publicity, and only junior—very junior rank. Here, therefore, is given earnestly and officially, the grateful thanks of the General Officer Commanding to those men who by their unfailing readiness and pluck have had so splendid a part in turning out the pilots the brigade has been privileged to send overseas.

The R.A.F., Canada, is indebted to many Canadian authorities and organizations for assistance rendered, but to none is the debt greater than to the Canadian Army Medical Corps for supplying the personnel from which the medical service of the Royal Air Force has from time to time been built up. The request was made in January by the Imperial Government that the Canadian Militia Department should supply this service. Prompt action was taken, and from a small beginning there has been formed a complete corps of medical officers, medical orderlies and nurses, skilled not only in everyday practice but also in the special work called for at flying camps.

The original intention was to supply only a small camp hospital, with one medical officer and the necessary orderlies at the various aerodromes, but it was soon determined that the work of the Medical Corps covered a much wider range than was anticipated. Almost the first need was that of skilled orderlies who were specially trained in first aid. Owing to calls from overseas, the available number of men was very small, and it was found imperative that the senior medical officer of the R.A.F. provide the necessary training. Coincident with this came a further need of isolation hospitals, which, although the general health of the brigade was maintained at an unusually high standard, were found to be essential in order that the work of training might not suffer in the least degree.

MEDICAL OFFICER AND STAFF, DESERONTO.

HOSPITAL—CAMP BORDEN.“HUNGRY LIZZIE.”

The responsibilities undertaken by the medical department were made the more onerous, not only because an extremely low percentage of class “A” men were enlisted—and these only owing to their possession of invaluable technical ability, but also because the community at large suffered from severe civilian epidemics of scarlet fever and influenza. Surgical work, with dental surgery—which latter covered many major operations owing to crashes resulting in broken jaws and teeth—comprised a considerable part of the duties performed.

A modern operating room was completely furnished at each aerodrome, together with X-ray equipment at the “out-stations.” In the autumn of 1917, the medical orderlies were further aided by the introduction of nursing sisters. For these also we are indebted to the Canadian Army Medical Corps, and without question their work has been of the highest possible advantage. Thus, by degrees, the medical staff of the Royal Air Force increased its personnel, the burden of its duties and the value of its services.

Ambulance equipment was of prime importance. A Packard machine, provided with a special type of shock absorbers and every possible requisite, not only for first aid but also for fire extinguishing, was stationed at each field, and remained on constant and watchful duty from the time the first aeroplane took the air till the skies were empty for the night. So close was the lookout, that “first aid” was often tearing full-powered to the rescue before the crash completed its descent. The ground traversed being often rough and devoid of roads, it was imperative that the ambulances be perfectly cushioned, lest the condition of “shock” as frequently found in “crash” be aggravated by the journey home. It is hardly conceivable that there could have been found vehicles better designed for the purpose than those selected, and unquestionably lives were saved in consequence of their use. Chemical extinguishers and asbestos blankets, the latter introduced for protection of the pilot in case the crash was in flames, were also carried as part of the equipment.

For winter purposes at outlying stations, the aerial ambulances shown herewith were evolved. With a wide radius, landings could have been made in anysuitable, snow-covered place, however inaccessible by motor transport. They were never to be used by the R.A.F., Canada.

In this connection it is interesting to note the degree to which the duties of the medical officers in flying camps varied from the more or less regulated routine met with in other services. The senior medical officer has, from time to time, instilled into his staff certain axioms for their constant guidance. It has been, for instance, necessary that the medical officer in flying camps become, as far as possible, the confidant and adviser of all ranks. It is advisable that he himself get into the air as soon as feasible, and that the machine which carries him be put through all evolutions, in order to acquaint him with the physical phenomena of flying. No machine must leave the ground unless the medical officer on duty is within reach, nor must the latter leave the aerodrome while there is a machine in the air. A further responsibility is that he must pronounce upon the fitness of all cadets and flying officers to take the air, and, further, without hesitation, prevent any man from going up who is, in his opinion, unfit. As routine work he must also conduct a monthly physical inspection of all cadets, and be present at all “test flights.”

The psychological side of medical service takes on new proportions in a flying camp. The personality and characteristics of the patient in question must be always kept in mind so that when investigating air sickness the medical officer may determine whether it is real or assumed. The question of fear, i.e., “aerophobia,” in its actuality, and any loss of nervous control, must be established if existing—and obversely. Any excitement or tension must be carefully distinguished from natural recklessness or other characteristics of what is termed a “thrusting disposition.”

An exhaustive study of the ideal pilot established the fact that he should have an acute and correct senseof equilibrium. This does not appear so essential for an observer, who if he is fairly safe in the air and does not become giddy in stunting, may prove acceptable.

The “rotation tests,” described in detail below, have proved that as regards a great number of successful pilots—referring to those who have flown 100 hours and more,—in no case has a man been discovered who has not conformed to the above standards laid down for admission to the brigade. Above all there is demanded a sound physical condition, by which alone all bodily functions will respond normally.

The following data are taken verbatim from memoranda issued by the senior medical officer and authorized by the G.O.C. for the information of medical and flying officers:—

“For the information of the flying officer, a short explanation of the phenomena of equilibrium may not be out of place. Deep in the bones of the skull, in close connection with the hearing apparatus, lie, one set on each side, a series of three minute canals, filled with a clear fluid and lined with a membrane intimately connected by delicate nervous elements with the brain.

“These canals, each corresponding to half of the arc of a circle, are about half an inch in length, have a diameter of about one-twentieth of an inch and inter-communicate. They lie in the three dimensions or planes of space, and it is primarily due to movements in the contained fluid acting on the delicate nerve terminals, which are directly connected with the brain through fibres of the Vill nerve, that man is enabled to maintain the equilibrium of the body. It may be of interest to note at this point that the corresponding system in birds shows the extremely high degree of development one would expect. Knowing that to be a successful pilot a man must have an accurate and delicate perception of his position inrelation to the earth, it is readily seen how intimately the internal ear, its adjuncts, and the problems involved in aeronautics are related. It should be understood that the canals mentioned above have nothing to do with the sense of hearing.

“Close to these, and in the same portion of the bone, lie two others closely resembling the spiral canals found in conch shells, and it is on these canals, also filled with fluid and lined with cells connected to the brain by fine nervous filaments, that we rely for our auditory impressions. It has been proved that not only dizziness, but also nausea and vomiting, all untoward symptoms frequently encountered in airmen, are closely connected with lesions or functional disturbances of the labyrinth of the auditory apparatus.

“In order to test the action of these canals, the contained fluid may be set in motion by rotating the body. This is most readily done by seating the patient in a revolving chair, and so, with the head in different planes, testing the different canals in turn. It has been found that pilots experiencing difficulty in flying, especially in maintaining equilibrium, and those who are troubled with vertigo or nausea, often show abnormal reactions, and it is for this reason that these tests are employed. These ‘rotation’ or ‘turning tests’ have been used for a considerable time in connection with diseases of the internal ear and in the diagnosis of lesions of the brain, but it is only recently, as a result of experimental work, that their application to aeronautics has been demonstrated and proved to be of practical value.

OPERATING ROOM. CAMP BORDEN HOSPITAL.

WINTER CRASHES.

“In the ‘nystagmus test’ the applicant is first spun in the chair exactly ten times in twenty seconds, accurately checked with a stop watch. The examiner now carefully observes certain lateral, jerking movements of the eyes which normally appear, but should cease on an average in twenty-six seconds. A certain variation is allowed from the normal time, and cadets for pilots not conforming to this test should not be allowed to fly. In it the head is tilted forward to an angle of thirty degrees in order to stimulate only those canals which lie in the horizontal plane.

“In order to stimulate those canals lying in the vertical plane, ‘falling tests’ are employed. The subject is instructed to lean forward, resting his forehead on his hands which are placed on his knees, and is then turned alternately to right and left five times in ten seconds.

“Should he be rotated to the right and be ordered to sit up, he should immediately fall to the right, which is the normal reaction, but should he sit directly upright or fall to the opposite direction, a faulty functioning of these canals or of the pathways in the brain is thus demonstrated.

“‘Pointing tests’ are applied somewhat similarly. The candidate is turned ten times in ten seconds alternately to right and left, with eyes closed. He is then instructed to raise his arm and point to a fixed object, usually the examiner’s finger, of the position of which he is already aware. As a result of the dizziness produced, if he has been turned to the right, he should point to the right of the object. This ‘past-pointing’ is a normal reaction, and any considerable deviation will immediately reject the applicant. Even after the chair has stopped, the man still feels that he is turning and is endeavouring to locate the fixed point. The ‘past-pointing’ shows that he is attempting to allow or the rotary motion which he is still experiencing, though actually the chair is stationary.

“Since the more sensitive, theoretically, a man is, as shown by ‘turning tests,’ the more likely he is to be a good pilot, as he should be able to detect more accurately and early the movements of his plane without the use of his eyes. This is, however, trueonly to a limited degree, for we have found that as a rule the higher the nystagmus time, the more likely is the man to suffer from vertigo, nausea or vomiting in the air. On the other hand, theoretically, a man with a short period of nystagmus should be less sensitive to unpleasant, subjective sensations, and those with ‘dead labyrinths’ ought to be immune.

“The practical deduction is that in good pilots the ocular oscillations must not vary to any considerable extent, say not more than ten to twelve seconds; on the other hand the lower or shorter the time the better a man should be able to stand the violent swaying of a captive balloon, since it is this motion above all others that produces the most intense nausea and emesis. Following the above to its logical conclusion, we in practice reject men who show too high a nystagmus time, and recommend for observers, and especially for balloonists, those showing sluggish reactions.”

Failure to conform to either the pointing or falling reactions required are good and sufficient reasons to reject applicants for cadet pilots.

It is probable that to the layman much of the foregoing will be found technical and scientific, but to the investigator into the physical and psychical phenomena induced by flying, it should be of direct interest. In the medical service of the R.A.F., Canada, the value of these tests in their standardized form was first proved by their application to men who were actually unfit to fly, and the case sheets of many such are on file in that department.

Their adoption only followed after the analysis and continual checking of results obtained by tests not only upon those who desired to take to the air, but also those who, having flown, were reported by their instructors to be unfit to continue, and which showed that they were demonstrably correct, and not merely deduced froma prioriassumption.

REACTION AFTER TURNING TO THE LEFT.REVOLVING CHAIR TESTS.

REACTION AFTER TURNING.REVOLVING CHAIR TESTS.

Investigations into “oxygen want,” as evidenced by drowsiness, shortness of breath, fainting, etc., at considerable altitudes, have led the authorities to supply pilots with oxygen tanks for use in high altitudes, since it is not the density of atmosphere but the dearth of oxygen which causes these distressing symptoms. An apparatus has recently been perfected by means of which, by diluting the respired air with nitrogen, it is now possible to determine accurately the altitude beyond which a pilot may fly in safety, and so it is hoped to prevent many casualties, and assist in the “classification” of airmen with reference to their flying capabilities.

Vision, which when abnormal causes headaches, dizziness, etc., should be normally stereoscopic, and the accommodation perfect in at least one eye; but while accurate color vision is considered desirable, it is not essential providing the primary colors are correctly recognized.

Amongst other tests adopted by the brigade are those giving the vital lung capacity, the expiratory force, also complemental and supplemental air, the former being the measurement of the excess capacity of the lungs over a normal intake of air, the latter that quantity of air remaining in the lungs after a normal expiration.

Excess of any nature is frowned on. Excessive tea or coffee drinking, or any semblance of nicotine poisoning at once asserts itself. The strain of instruction also produces definite phenomena, and pilots retained for this duty are limited to three and a half hours’ flying daily. These phenomena are watched for, and treated sanely and sympathetically, till the individual with all his personal variations becomes as it were a human barometer, which infallibly records the actions and reactions of the flying man’s life.

Owing to the fact that the pioneer attempt at systematic winter training, without regard to temperature,was undertaken during 1917-18 in Canada and successfully concluded during the severest weather of many years, certain new problems required solution. When it is realized that machines flew at ground temperatures as low as -35 degrees Fah., the occurrence of frostbite and any effect of the intense cold on the mental faculties, to the extent of producing drowsiness and even stupor, was extremely infrequent. The flying clothing provided, the Hawker boots, the gauntlets and chamois face masks, which were adopted after all ointments, oils, etc., generally in use in altitude flying, frozein situ, most effectually prevented the expected difficulties, so completely indeed that during the whole winter season no serious casualties could be traced to the effect of the low temperatures encountered.

Such in brief outline are some of the major investigations peculiar to the duties of the medical staff of the brigade. To these are of course added others better known, such as blood pressure, etc. Couple them with psycho-mental problems, and they give some suggestion of the history compiled for every would-be pilot and observer, an intimate history unapproached in detail and interest by any other tabulation of personal phenomena.

In conclusion, it is desired that special acknowledgment be made of the exceptional service rendered by medical officers on the aerodromes, and by the staff of medical orderlies distributed through the brigade.

The hours of the former were long and arduous, the duties of the latter, for which they were trained by the senior medical officer and his staff, were manifold and pressing. That they were admirably performed is of common knowledge, but that their swiftness in succour and skill in first aid saved many a life, is known only to those who have been privileged to see them at work.

AERIAL AMBULANCE.

R.A.F. Can.—Monthly Strength in Canada and Percentage Incapacitated by Illness

Prior to the operations of the Corps, it was generally assumed that the obstacles to intensive training in a snow-covered country were almost insuperable, but in the light of last winter’s experience it is difficult to imagine the limit to which the aeroplane may not safely be used in the latitudes of the far north. Its apparent fragility, the exposure of the pilot, the fact that a large percentage of accidents occurred in making landings, and the mental picture of a machine floundering through snowdrifts in an attempt to rise, all seemed to reduce the matter to an impossibility. To-day it has been demonstrated by the work of the 44th Wing of this unit that, with such provision as has already been proved suitable, the aeroplane will rise from a snow surface more easily than from bare ground at temperatures far below zero, land in spots inaccessible in summer time, and that the pilot may be maintained in physical comfort and security and practically immune to the weather.

The process was one of return to aboriginal principles, in that there was adopted a method used by the North American Indian, since first he traversed the frozen waste. Experiments soon evidenced that undercarriage wheels were out of the question in snow more than six inches deep, and by the elimination of things that rotated and the adoption of things that slid, the aeroplane fell, so to speak, into line with the winter customs of the country. The progressive experiments out of which were evolved the skids finally adopted, called for the united suggestions of the unit, the Repair Park and the Canadian Aeroplanes Limited, but passing over the investigations into proper length, width, anchorage, bow curve, and kindred points, the result was an effective and curiously attractive combinationof ancient and modern. As seen in the illustration onpage 130, this gives the machine a semi-naval appearance—prophetic perhaps of the early union between the air forces of land and sea in the R.A.F.

Once in regular use, the efficiency of these shoes became very noticeable. The slight bump observable in the best of landings smoothed itself out into a gently cushioned settling in which the actual first contact with the snow was imperceptible. Similarly, in taking off, the sensation was as in a toboggan darting without friction down a steep slope. Breakage in propellers and undercarriages became reduced to a minimum, and frequent landings soon ironed out the white expanse of the aerodrome to an unusually good surface.

The protection of the pilot was of prime importance to continuous training, and since flying was carried on at temperatures much below zero, particular attention was given to guarding against frostbite. Whale oil, vaseline, etc., smeared on the skin gave only partial results, and it was not till long flying boots coming to the thigh were provided, and chamois masks covering the face, with holes for eyes and mouth were also issued, that comfort was finally attained. Thus the pilot could remain in the air for a much longer period, and perform instructional work with ease. The unit lacked the electrically-heated clothing issued on the Western Front, but it did not suffer in consequence. There were variations, of course, in the powers of resistance to cold, it being found that some pilots could endure low temperatures much better than others—and this called for the particular attention of the medical officer on the aerodrome.

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