Footnote 371:(return)"Bal-teinsignifies thefire of Baal. BaalorBallis the only word in Gaelic fora globe. This festival was probably in honour of the sun, whose return, in his apparent annual course, they celebrated, on account of his having such a visible influence, by his genial warmth, on the productions of the earth. That the Caledonians paid a superstitious respect to the sun, as was the practice among many other nations, is evident, not only by the sacrifice at Baltein, but upon many other occasions. When a Highlander goes to bathe, or to drink waters out of a consecrated fountain, he must always approach by going round the place,from east to west on the south side, in imitation of the apparent diurnal motion of the sun. When the dead are laid in the earth, the grave is approached by going round in the same manner. The bride is conducted to her future spouse, in the presence of the minister, and the glass goes round a company, in the course of the sun. This is called, in Gaelic, going round the right, or thelucky way. The opposite course is the wrong, or theunluckyway. And if a person's meat or drink were to affect the wind-pipe, or come against his breath, they instantly cry outdeisheal! which is an ejaculation praying that it may go by the right way" (Rev. J. Robertson, in Sir John Sinclair'sStatistical Account of Scotland, xi. 621 note). Compare J.G. Campbell,Superstitions of the Highlands and Islands of Scotland(Glasgow, 1900), pp. 229sq.: "The Right-hand Turn(Deiseal).—This was the most important of all the observances. The rule is 'Deiseal(i.e.the right-hand turn) for everything,' and consists in doing all things with a motion corresponding to the course of the sun, or from left to right. This is the manner in which screw-nails are driven, and is common with many for no reason but its convenience. Old men in the Highlands were very particular about it. The coffin was takendeisealabout the grave, when about to be lowered; boats were turned to sea according to it, and drams are given to the present day to a company. When putting a straw rope on a house or corn-stack, if the assistant wenttuaitheal(i.e.against the course of the sun), the old man was ready to come down and thrash him. On coming to a house the visitor should go round itdeisealto secure luck in the object of his visit. After milking a cow the dairy-maid should strike itdeisealwith the shackle, saying 'out and home' (mach 'us dachaigh). This secures its safe return. The word is fromdeas, right-hand, andiul, direction, and of itself contains no allusion to the sun." Compare M. Martin, "Description of the Western Islands of Scotland," in J. Pinkerton'sVoyages and Travels, iii. 612sq.: "There was an ancient custom in the island of Lewis, to make a fiery circle about the houses, corn, cattle, etc., belonging to each particular family: a man carried fire in his right hand, and went round, and it was calleddessil, from the right hand, which in the ancient language is calleddess.... There is another way of thedessil, or carrying fire round about women before they are churched, after child-bearing; and it is used likewise about children until they are christened; both which are performed in the morning and at night. This is only practised now by some of the ancient midwives: I enquired their reason for this custom, which I told them was altogether unlawful; this disobliged them mightily, insomuch that they would give me no satisfaction. But others, that were of a more agreeable temper, told me that fire-round was an effectual means to preserve both the mother and the infant from the power of evil spirits, who are ready at such times to do mischief, and sometimes carry away the infant; and when they get them once in their possession, return them poor meagre skeletons; and these infants are said to have voracious appetites, constantly craving for meat. In this case it was usual with those who believed that their children were thus taken away, to dig a grave in the fields upon quarter-day, and there to lay the fairy skeleton till next morning; at which time the parents went to the place, where they doubted not to find their own child instead of this skeleton. Some of the poorer sort of people in these islands retain the custom of performing these rounds sun-ways about the persons of their benefactors three times, when they bless them, and wish good success to all their enterprizes. Some are very careful when they set out to sea that the boat be first rowed about sun-ways; and if this be neglected, they are afraid their voyage may prove unfortunate." Probably the superstition was based entirely on the supposed luckiness of the right hand, which accordingly, in making a circuit round an object, is kept towards the centre. As to a supposed worship of the sun among the Scottish Highlanders, compare J.G. Campbell,Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland, p. 304: "Both the sun (a Ghrian) and moon (a Ghealach) are feminine in Gaelic, and the names are simply descriptive of their appearance. There is no trace of a Sun-God or Moon-Goddess." As to the etymology of Beltane, see above, p.149 note.
"Bal-teinsignifies thefire of Baal. BaalorBallis the only word in Gaelic fora globe. This festival was probably in honour of the sun, whose return, in his apparent annual course, they celebrated, on account of his having such a visible influence, by his genial warmth, on the productions of the earth. That the Caledonians paid a superstitious respect to the sun, as was the practice among many other nations, is evident, not only by the sacrifice at Baltein, but upon many other occasions. When a Highlander goes to bathe, or to drink waters out of a consecrated fountain, he must always approach by going round the place,from east to west on the south side, in imitation of the apparent diurnal motion of the sun. When the dead are laid in the earth, the grave is approached by going round in the same manner. The bride is conducted to her future spouse, in the presence of the minister, and the glass goes round a company, in the course of the sun. This is called, in Gaelic, going round the right, or thelucky way. The opposite course is the wrong, or theunluckyway. And if a person's meat or drink were to affect the wind-pipe, or come against his breath, they instantly cry outdeisheal! which is an ejaculation praying that it may go by the right way" (Rev. J. Robertson, in Sir John Sinclair'sStatistical Account of Scotland, xi. 621 note). Compare J.G. Campbell,Superstitions of the Highlands and Islands of Scotland(Glasgow, 1900), pp. 229sq.: "The Right-hand Turn(Deiseal).—This was the most important of all the observances. The rule is 'Deiseal(i.e.the right-hand turn) for everything,' and consists in doing all things with a motion corresponding to the course of the sun, or from left to right. This is the manner in which screw-nails are driven, and is common with many for no reason but its convenience. Old men in the Highlands were very particular about it. The coffin was takendeisealabout the grave, when about to be lowered; boats were turned to sea according to it, and drams are given to the present day to a company. When putting a straw rope on a house or corn-stack, if the assistant wenttuaitheal(i.e.against the course of the sun), the old man was ready to come down and thrash him. On coming to a house the visitor should go round itdeisealto secure luck in the object of his visit. After milking a cow the dairy-maid should strike itdeisealwith the shackle, saying 'out and home' (mach 'us dachaigh). This secures its safe return. The word is fromdeas, right-hand, andiul, direction, and of itself contains no allusion to the sun." Compare M. Martin, "Description of the Western Islands of Scotland," in J. Pinkerton'sVoyages and Travels, iii. 612sq.: "There was an ancient custom in the island of Lewis, to make a fiery circle about the houses, corn, cattle, etc., belonging to each particular family: a man carried fire in his right hand, and went round, and it was calleddessil, from the right hand, which in the ancient language is calleddess.... There is another way of thedessil, or carrying fire round about women before they are churched, after child-bearing; and it is used likewise about children until they are christened; both which are performed in the morning and at night. This is only practised now by some of the ancient midwives: I enquired their reason for this custom, which I told them was altogether unlawful; this disobliged them mightily, insomuch that they would give me no satisfaction. But others, that were of a more agreeable temper, told me that fire-round was an effectual means to preserve both the mother and the infant from the power of evil spirits, who are ready at such times to do mischief, and sometimes carry away the infant; and when they get them once in their possession, return them poor meagre skeletons; and these infants are said to have voracious appetites, constantly craving for meat. In this case it was usual with those who believed that their children were thus taken away, to dig a grave in the fields upon quarter-day, and there to lay the fairy skeleton till next morning; at which time the parents went to the place, where they doubted not to find their own child instead of this skeleton. Some of the poorer sort of people in these islands retain the custom of performing these rounds sun-ways about the persons of their benefactors three times, when they bless them, and wish good success to all their enterprizes. Some are very careful when they set out to sea that the boat be first rowed about sun-ways; and if this be neglected, they are afraid their voyage may prove unfortunate." Probably the superstition was based entirely on the supposed luckiness of the right hand, which accordingly, in making a circuit round an object, is kept towards the centre. As to a supposed worship of the sun among the Scottish Highlanders, compare J.G. Campbell,Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland, p. 304: "Both the sun (a Ghrian) and moon (a Ghealach) are feminine in Gaelic, and the names are simply descriptive of their appearance. There is no trace of a Sun-God or Moon-Goddess." As to the etymology of Beltane, see above, p.149 note.
Footnote 372:(return)Rev. James Robertson (Parish Minister of Callander), in Sir John Sinclair'sStatistical Account of Scotland(Edinburgh, 1791-1799), xi. 620sq.
Rev. James Robertson (Parish Minister of Callander), in Sir John Sinclair'sStatistical Account of Scotland(Edinburgh, 1791-1799), xi. 620sq.
Footnote 373:(return)Pennant's "Tour in Scotland," in John Pinkerton'sVoyages and Travels(London, 1808-1814), iii. 49.
Pennant's "Tour in Scotland," in John Pinkerton'sVoyages and Travels(London, 1808-1814), iii. 49.
Footnote 374:(return)Rev. Dr. Thomas Bisset, in Sir John Sinclair'sStatistical Account of Scotland, v. 84.
Rev. Dr. Thomas Bisset, in Sir John Sinclair'sStatistical Account of Scotland, v. 84.
Footnote 375:(return)Rev. Allan Stewart, in Sir John Sinclair'sStatistical Account of Scotland, xv. 517 note.
Rev. Allan Stewart, in Sir John Sinclair'sStatistical Account of Scotland, xv. 517 note.
Footnote 376:(return)Rev. Walter Gregor, "Notes on Beltane Cakes,"Folk-lore, vi. (1895) pp. 2sq.The Beltane cakes with the nine knobs on them remind us of the cakes with twelve knobs which the Athenians offered to Cronus and other deities (seeThe Scapegoat, p. 351). The King of the Bean on Twelfth Night was chosen by means of a cake, which was broken in as many pieces as there were persons present, and the person who received the piece containing a bean or a coin became king. See J. Boemus,Mores, leges et ritus omnium gentium(Lyons, 1541), p. 222; John Brand,Popular Antiquities of Great Britain(London, 1882-1883), i. 22sq.; The Scapegoat, pp. 313sqq.
Rev. Walter Gregor, "Notes on Beltane Cakes,"Folk-lore, vi. (1895) pp. 2sq.The Beltane cakes with the nine knobs on them remind us of the cakes with twelve knobs which the Athenians offered to Cronus and other deities (seeThe Scapegoat, p. 351). The King of the Bean on Twelfth Night was chosen by means of a cake, which was broken in as many pieces as there were persons present, and the person who received the piece containing a bean or a coin became king. See J. Boemus,Mores, leges et ritus omnium gentium(Lyons, 1541), p. 222; John Brand,Popular Antiquities of Great Britain(London, 1882-1883), i. 22sq.; The Scapegoat, pp. 313sqq.
Footnote 377:(return)Shaw, in Pennant's "Tour in Scotland," printed in J. Pinkerton'sVoyages and Travels, iii. 136. The part of Scotland to which Shaw's description applies is what he calls the province or country of Murray, extending from the river Spey on the east to the river Beauly on the west, and south-west to Loch Lochy.
Shaw, in Pennant's "Tour in Scotland," printed in J. Pinkerton'sVoyages and Travels, iii. 136. The part of Scotland to which Shaw's description applies is what he calls the province or country of Murray, extending from the river Spey on the east to the river Beauly on the west, and south-west to Loch Lochy.
Footnote 378:(return)Rev. Walter Gregor,Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-East of Scotland(London, 1881), p. 167.
Rev. Walter Gregor,Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-East of Scotland(London, 1881), p. 167.
Footnote 379:(return)A. Goodrich-Freer, "More Folklore from the Hebrides,"Folk-lore, xiii. (1902) p. 41. The St. Michael's cake (Strùthan na h'eill Micheil), referred to in the text, is described as "the size of a quern" in circumference. "It is kneaded simply with water, and marked across like a scone, dividing it into four equal parts, and then placed in front of the fire resting on a quern. It is not polished with dry meal as is usual in making a cake, but when it is cooked a thin coating of eggs (four in number), mixed with buttermilk, is spread first on one side, then on the other, and it is put before the fire again. An earlier shape, still in use, which tradition associates with the female sex, is that of a triangle with the corners cut off. Astrùhthanorstrùhdhan(the word seems to be used for no other kind of cake) is made for each member of the household, including servants and herds. When harvest is late, an early patch of corn is mown on purpose for thestrùthan" (A. Goodrich-Freer,op. cit.pp. 44.sq..)
A. Goodrich-Freer, "More Folklore from the Hebrides,"Folk-lore, xiii. (1902) p. 41. The St. Michael's cake (Strùthan na h'eill Micheil), referred to in the text, is described as "the size of a quern" in circumference. "It is kneaded simply with water, and marked across like a scone, dividing it into four equal parts, and then placed in front of the fire resting on a quern. It is not polished with dry meal as is usual in making a cake, but when it is cooked a thin coating of eggs (four in number), mixed with buttermilk, is spread first on one side, then on the other, and it is put before the fire again. An earlier shape, still in use, which tradition associates with the female sex, is that of a triangle with the corners cut off. Astrùhthanorstrùhdhan(the word seems to be used for no other kind of cake) is made for each member of the household, including servants and herds. When harvest is late, an early patch of corn is mown on purpose for thestrùthan" (A. Goodrich-Freer,op. cit.pp. 44.sq..)
Footnote 380:(return)Marie Trevelyan,Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales(London, 1909), pp. 22-24.
Marie Trevelyan,Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales(London, 1909), pp. 22-24.
Footnote 381:(return)Jonathan Ceredig Davies,Folklore of West and Mid-Wales(Aberystwyth, 1911), p. 76.
Jonathan Ceredig Davies,Folklore of West and Mid-Wales(Aberystwyth, 1911), p. 76.
Footnote 382:(return)Joseph Train,An Historical and Statistical Account of the Isle of Man(Douglas, Isle of Man, 1845), i. 314sq.
Joseph Train,An Historical and Statistical Account of the Isle of Man(Douglas, Isle of Man, 1845), i. 314sq.
Footnote 383:(return)(Sir) John Rhys,Celtic Folk-lore, Welsh and Manx(Oxford, 1901), i. 309;id., "The Coligny Calendar,"Proceedings of the British Academy, 1909-1910, pp. 261sq.See furtherThe Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 53sq.
(Sir) John Rhys,Celtic Folk-lore, Welsh and Manx(Oxford, 1901), i. 309;id., "The Coligny Calendar,"Proceedings of the British Academy, 1909-1910, pp. 261sq.See furtherThe Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 53sq.
Footnote 384:(return)Professor Frank Granger, "Early Man," inThe Victoria History of the County of Nottingham, edited by William Page, i. (London, 1906) pp. 186sq.
Professor Frank Granger, "Early Man," inThe Victoria History of the County of Nottingham, edited by William Page, i. (London, 1906) pp. 186sq.
Footnote 385:(return)(Sir) John Rhys,Celtic Folk-lore, Welsh and Manx(Oxford, 1901), i. 310;id., "Manx Folk-lore and Superstitions,"Folk-lore, ii. (1891) pp. 303sq.
(Sir) John Rhys,Celtic Folk-lore, Welsh and Manx(Oxford, 1901), i. 310;id., "Manx Folk-lore and Superstitions,"Folk-lore, ii. (1891) pp. 303sq.
Footnote 386:(return)P.W. Joyce,A Social History of Ancient Ireland(London, 1903), i. 290sq., referring to Kuno Meyer,Hibernia Minora, p. 49 andGlossary, 23.
P.W. Joyce,A Social History of Ancient Ireland(London, 1903), i. 290sq., referring to Kuno Meyer,Hibernia Minora, p. 49 andGlossary, 23.
Footnote 387:(return)J.B. Bury,The Life of St. Patrick(London, 1905), pp. 104sqq.
J.B. Bury,The Life of St. Patrick(London, 1905), pp. 104sqq.
Footnote 388:(return)Above, p.147.
Above, p.147.
Footnote 389:(return)Geoffrey Keating, D.D.,The History of Ireland, translated by John O'Mahony (New York, 1857), pp. 300sq.
Geoffrey Keating, D.D.,The History of Ireland, translated by John O'Mahony (New York, 1857), pp. 300sq.
Footnote 390:(return)(Sir) John Rhys, "Manx Folk-lore and Superstition,"Folk-lore, ii. (1891) p. 303;id., Celtic Folk-lore, Welsh and Manx(Oxford, 1901), i. 309. Compare P.W. Joyce,A Social History of Ancient Ireland(London, 1903), i. 291: "The custom of driving cattle through fires against disease on the eve of the 1st of May, and on the eve of the 24th June (St. John's Day), continued in Ireland, as well as in the Scottish Highlands, to a period within living memory." In a footnote Mr. Joyce refers to Carmichael,Carmina Gadelica, ii. 340, for Scotland, and adds, "I saw it done in Ireland."
(Sir) John Rhys, "Manx Folk-lore and Superstition,"Folk-lore, ii. (1891) p. 303;id., Celtic Folk-lore, Welsh and Manx(Oxford, 1901), i. 309. Compare P.W. Joyce,A Social History of Ancient Ireland(London, 1903), i. 291: "The custom of driving cattle through fires against disease on the eve of the 1st of May, and on the eve of the 24th June (St. John's Day), continued in Ireland, as well as in the Scottish Highlands, to a period within living memory." In a footnote Mr. Joyce refers to Carmichael,Carmina Gadelica, ii. 340, for Scotland, and adds, "I saw it done in Ireland."
Footnote 391:(return)L. Lloyd,Peasant Life in Sweden(London, 1870), pp. 233sq.
L. Lloyd,Peasant Life in Sweden(London, 1870), pp. 233sq.
Footnote 392:(return)Reinsberg-Düringsfeld,Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen(Prague, N.D.), pp. 211sq.; Br. Jelínek, "Materialien zur Vorgeschichte und Volkskunde Böhmens,"Mittheilungen der anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien, xxi. (1891) p. 13; Alois John,Sitte, Branch, und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen(Prague, 1905), p. 71.
Reinsberg-Düringsfeld,Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen(Prague, N.D.), pp. 211sq.; Br. Jelínek, "Materialien zur Vorgeschichte und Volkskunde Böhmens,"Mittheilungen der anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien, xxi. (1891) p. 13; Alois John,Sitte, Branch, und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen(Prague, 1905), p. 71.
Footnote 393:(return)J.A.E. Köhler,Volksbrauch, Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte Ueberlieferungen im Voigtlande(Leipsic, 1867), p. 373. The superstitions relating to witches at this season are legion. For instance, in Saxony and Thuringia any one who labours under a physical blemish can easily rid himself of it by transferring it to the witches on Walpurgis Night. He has only to go out to a cross-road, make three crosses on the blemish, and say, "In the name of God the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost." Thus the blemish, whatever it may be, is left behind him at the cross-road, and when the witches sweep by on their way to the Brocken, they must take it with them, and it sticks to them henceforth. Moreover, three crosses chalked up on the doors of houses and cattle-stalls on Walpurgis Night will effectually prevent any of the infernal crew from entering and doing harm to man or beast. See E. Sommer,Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Sachsen und Thüringen(Halle, 1846), pp. 148sq.; Die gestriegelte Rockenphilosophie(Chemnitz, 1759), p. 116.
J.A.E. Köhler,Volksbrauch, Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte Ueberlieferungen im Voigtlande(Leipsic, 1867), p. 373. The superstitions relating to witches at this season are legion. For instance, in Saxony and Thuringia any one who labours under a physical blemish can easily rid himself of it by transferring it to the witches on Walpurgis Night. He has only to go out to a cross-road, make three crosses on the blemish, and say, "In the name of God the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost." Thus the blemish, whatever it may be, is left behind him at the cross-road, and when the witches sweep by on their way to the Brocken, they must take it with them, and it sticks to them henceforth. Moreover, three crosses chalked up on the doors of houses and cattle-stalls on Walpurgis Night will effectually prevent any of the infernal crew from entering and doing harm to man or beast. See E. Sommer,Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Sachsen und Thüringen(Halle, 1846), pp. 148sq.; Die gestriegelte Rockenphilosophie(Chemnitz, 1759), p. 116.
Footnote 394:(return)SeeThe Scapegoat, pp. 158sqq.
SeeThe Scapegoat, pp. 158sqq.
Footnote 395:(return)As to the Midsummer Festival of Europe in general see the evidence collected in the "Specimen Calendarii Gentilis," appended to theEdda Rhythmica seu Antiquior, vulgo Saemundina dicta, Pars iii. (Copenhagen, 1828) pp. 1086-1097.
As to the Midsummer Festival of Europe in general see the evidence collected in the "Specimen Calendarii Gentilis," appended to theEdda Rhythmica seu Antiquior, vulgo Saemundina dicta, Pars iii. (Copenhagen, 1828) pp. 1086-1097.
Footnote 396:(return)John Mitchell Kemble,The Saxons in England, New Edition (London, 1876), i. 361sq., quoting "an ancient MS. written in England, and now in the Harleian Collection, No. 2345, fol. 50." The passage is quoted in part by J. Brand,Popular Antiquities of Great Britain(London, 1882-1883), i. 298sq., by R.T. Hampson,Medii Aevi Kalendarium(London, 1841), i. 300, and by W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus, p. 509. The same explanations of the Midsummer fires and of the custom of trundling a burning wheel on Midsummer Eve are given also by John Beleth, a writer of the twelfth century. See hisRationale Divinorum Officiorum(appended to theRationale Divinorum Officiorumof G. [W.] Durandus, Lyons, 1584), p. 556recto: "Solent porro hoc tempore[the Eve of St. John the Baptist]ex veteri consuetudine mortuorum animalium ossa comburi, quod hujusmodi habet originem. Sunt enim animalia, quae dracones appellamus.... Haec inquam animalia in aere volant, in aquis natant, in terra ambulant. Sed quando in aere ad libidinem concitantur (quod fere fit) saepe ipsum sperma vel in puteos, vel in aquas fluviales ejicunt ex quo lethalis sequitur annus. Adversus haec ergo hujusmodi inventum est remedium, ut videlicet rogus ex ossibus construeretur, et ita fumus hujusmodi animalia fugaret. Et quia istud maxime hoc tempore fiebat, idem etiam modo ab omnibus observatur.... Consuetum item est hac vigilia ardentes deferri faculas quod Johannes fuerit ardens lucerna, et qui vias Domini praeparaverit. Sed quod etiam rota vertatur hinc esse putant quia in eum circulum tunc Sol descenderit ultra quem progredi nequit, a quo cogitur paulatim descendere." The substance of the passage is repeated in other words by G. Durandus (Wilh. Durantis), a writer of the thirteenth century, in hisRationale Divinorum Officiorum, lib. vii. cap. 14 (p. 442verso, ed. Lyons, 1584). Compare J. Grimm,Deutsche Mythologie,4i. 516.With the notion that the air is poisoned at midsummer we may compare the popular belief that it is similarly infected at an eclipse. Thus among the Esquimaux on the Lower Yukon river in Alaska "it is believed that a subtle essence or unclean influence descends to the earth during an eclipse, and if any of it is caught in utensils of any kind it will produce sickness. As a result, immediately on the commencement of an eclipse, every woman turns bottom side up all her pots, wooden buckets, and dishes" (E.W. Nelson, "The Eskimo about Bering Strait,"Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part i. (Washington, 1899) p. 431). Similar notions and practices prevail among the peasantry of southern Germany. Thus the Swabian peasants think that during an eclipse of the sun poison falls on the earth; hence at such a time they will not sow, mow, gather fruit or eat it, they bring the cattle into the stalls, and refrain from business of every kind. If the eclipse lasts long, the people get very anxious, set a burning candle on the mantel-shelf of the stove, and pray to be delivered from the danger. See Anton Birlinger,Volksthümliches aus Schwaben(Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), i. 189. Similarly Bavarian peasants imagine that water is poisoned during a solar eclipse (F. Panzer,Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. 297); and Thuringian bumpkins cover up the wells and bring the cattle home from pasture during an eclipse either of the sun or of the moon; an eclipse is particularly poisonous when it happens to fall on a Wednesday. See August Witzschel,Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen(Vienna, 1878), p. 287. As eclipses are commonly supposed by the ignorant to be caused by a monster attacking the sun or moon (E.B. Tylor,Primitive Culture,2London, 1873, i. 328sqq.), we may surmise, on the analogy of the explanation given of the Midsummer fires, that the unclean influence which is thought to descend on the earth at such times is popularly attributed to seed discharged by the monster or possibly by the sun or moon then in conjunction with each other.
John Mitchell Kemble,The Saxons in England, New Edition (London, 1876), i. 361sq., quoting "an ancient MS. written in England, and now in the Harleian Collection, No. 2345, fol. 50." The passage is quoted in part by J. Brand,Popular Antiquities of Great Britain(London, 1882-1883), i. 298sq., by R.T. Hampson,Medii Aevi Kalendarium(London, 1841), i. 300, and by W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus, p. 509. The same explanations of the Midsummer fires and of the custom of trundling a burning wheel on Midsummer Eve are given also by John Beleth, a writer of the twelfth century. See hisRationale Divinorum Officiorum(appended to theRationale Divinorum Officiorumof G. [W.] Durandus, Lyons, 1584), p. 556recto: "Solent porro hoc tempore[the Eve of St. John the Baptist]ex veteri consuetudine mortuorum animalium ossa comburi, quod hujusmodi habet originem. Sunt enim animalia, quae dracones appellamus.... Haec inquam animalia in aere volant, in aquis natant, in terra ambulant. Sed quando in aere ad libidinem concitantur (quod fere fit) saepe ipsum sperma vel in puteos, vel in aquas fluviales ejicunt ex quo lethalis sequitur annus. Adversus haec ergo hujusmodi inventum est remedium, ut videlicet rogus ex ossibus construeretur, et ita fumus hujusmodi animalia fugaret. Et quia istud maxime hoc tempore fiebat, idem etiam modo ab omnibus observatur.... Consuetum item est hac vigilia ardentes deferri faculas quod Johannes fuerit ardens lucerna, et qui vias Domini praeparaverit. Sed quod etiam rota vertatur hinc esse putant quia in eum circulum tunc Sol descenderit ultra quem progredi nequit, a quo cogitur paulatim descendere." The substance of the passage is repeated in other words by G. Durandus (Wilh. Durantis), a writer of the thirteenth century, in hisRationale Divinorum Officiorum, lib. vii. cap. 14 (p. 442verso, ed. Lyons, 1584). Compare J. Grimm,Deutsche Mythologie,4i. 516.
With the notion that the air is poisoned at midsummer we may compare the popular belief that it is similarly infected at an eclipse. Thus among the Esquimaux on the Lower Yukon river in Alaska "it is believed that a subtle essence or unclean influence descends to the earth during an eclipse, and if any of it is caught in utensils of any kind it will produce sickness. As a result, immediately on the commencement of an eclipse, every woman turns bottom side up all her pots, wooden buckets, and dishes" (E.W. Nelson, "The Eskimo about Bering Strait,"Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part i. (Washington, 1899) p. 431). Similar notions and practices prevail among the peasantry of southern Germany. Thus the Swabian peasants think that during an eclipse of the sun poison falls on the earth; hence at such a time they will not sow, mow, gather fruit or eat it, they bring the cattle into the stalls, and refrain from business of every kind. If the eclipse lasts long, the people get very anxious, set a burning candle on the mantel-shelf of the stove, and pray to be delivered from the danger. See Anton Birlinger,Volksthümliches aus Schwaben(Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), i. 189. Similarly Bavarian peasants imagine that water is poisoned during a solar eclipse (F. Panzer,Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. 297); and Thuringian bumpkins cover up the wells and bring the cattle home from pasture during an eclipse either of the sun or of the moon; an eclipse is particularly poisonous when it happens to fall on a Wednesday. See August Witzschel,Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen(Vienna, 1878), p. 287. As eclipses are commonly supposed by the ignorant to be caused by a monster attacking the sun or moon (E.B. Tylor,Primitive Culture,2London, 1873, i. 328sqq.), we may surmise, on the analogy of the explanation given of the Midsummer fires, that the unclean influence which is thought to descend on the earth at such times is popularly attributed to seed discharged by the monster or possibly by the sun or moon then in conjunction with each other.
Footnote 397:(return)The Popish Kingdome or reigne of Antichrist, written in Latin verse by Thomas Naogeorgus and Englyshed by Barnabe Googe, 1570, edited by R.C. Hope (London, 1880), p. 54verso. As to this work see above, p.125 note 1.
The Popish Kingdome or reigne of Antichrist, written in Latin verse by Thomas Naogeorgus and Englyshed by Barnabe Googe, 1570, edited by R.C. Hope (London, 1880), p. 54verso. As to this work see above, p.125 note 1.
Footnote 398:(return)J. Boemus,Mores, leges et ritus omnium gentium(Lyons, 1541), pp. 225sq.
J. Boemus,Mores, leges et ritus omnium gentium(Lyons, 1541), pp. 225sq.
Footnote 399:(return)Tessier, "Sur la fête annuelle de la roue flamboyante de la Saint-Jean, à Basse-Kontz, arrondissement de Thionville,"Mémoires et dissertations publiés par la Société Royale des Antiquaires de France, v. (1823) pp. 379-393. Tessier witnessed the ceremony, 23rd June 1822 (not 1823, as is sometimes stated). His account has been reproduced more or less fully by J. Grimm (Deutsche Mythologie,4i. 515sq.) W. Mannhardt (Der Baumkultus, pp. 510sq.), and H. Gaidoz ("Le dieu gaulois du Soleil et le symbolisme de la Roue,"Revue Archéologique, iii. Série, iv. (1884) pp. 24sq.).
Tessier, "Sur la fête annuelle de la roue flamboyante de la Saint-Jean, à Basse-Kontz, arrondissement de Thionville,"Mémoires et dissertations publiés par la Société Royale des Antiquaires de France, v. (1823) pp. 379-393. Tessier witnessed the ceremony, 23rd June 1822 (not 1823, as is sometimes stated). His account has been reproduced more or less fully by J. Grimm (Deutsche Mythologie,4i. 515sq.) W. Mannhardt (Der Baumkultus, pp. 510sq.), and H. Gaidoz ("Le dieu gaulois du Soleil et le symbolisme de la Roue,"Revue Archéologique, iii. Série, iv. (1884) pp. 24sq.).
Footnote 400:(return)Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern(Munich, 1860-1867), i. 373sq.; compareid., iii. 327sq. As to the burning discs at the spring festivals, see above, pp.116sq.,119,143.
Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern(Munich, 1860-1867), i. 373sq.; compareid., iii. 327sq. As to the burning discs at the spring festivals, see above, pp.116sq.,119,143.
Footnote 401:(return)Op. cit. ii. 260sq., iii. 936, 956, iv. 2. p. 360.
Op. cit. ii. 260sq., iii. 936, 956, iv. 2. p. 360.
Footnote 402:(return)Op. cit. ii. 260.
Op. cit. ii. 260.
Footnote 403:(return)Op. cit.iv. i. p. 242. We have seen (p. 163) that in the sixteenth century these customs and beliefs were common in Germany. It is also a German superstition that a house which contains a brand from the midsummer bonfire will not be struck by lightning (J.W. Wolf,Beiträge, zur deutschen Mythologie, i. p. 217, § 185).
Op. cit.iv. i. p. 242. We have seen (p. 163) that in the sixteenth century these customs and beliefs were common in Germany. It is also a German superstition that a house which contains a brand from the midsummer bonfire will not be struck by lightning (J.W. Wolf,Beiträge, zur deutschen Mythologie, i. p. 217, § 185).
Footnote 404:(return)J. Boemus,Mores, leges et ritus omnium gentium(Lyons, 1541), p. 226.
J. Boemus,Mores, leges et ritus omnium gentium(Lyons, 1541), p. 226.
Footnote 405:(return)Karl Freiherr von Leoprechting,Aus dem Lechrain(Munich, 1855), pp. 181sqq.; W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus, p. 510.
Karl Freiherr von Leoprechting,Aus dem Lechrain(Munich, 1855), pp. 181sqq.; W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus, p. 510.
Footnote 406:(return)A. Birlinger,Volksthümliches aus Schwaben(Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), ii. pp. 96sqq., § 128, pp. 103sq., § 129;id., Aus Schwaben(Wiesbaden, 1874), ii. 116-120; E. Meier,Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben(Stuttgart, 1852), pp. 423sqq.; W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus, p. 510.
A. Birlinger,Volksthümliches aus Schwaben(Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), ii. pp. 96sqq., § 128, pp. 103sq., § 129;id., Aus Schwaben(Wiesbaden, 1874), ii. 116-120; E. Meier,Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben(Stuttgart, 1852), pp. 423sqq.; W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus, p. 510.
Footnote 407:(return)F. Panzer,Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie(Munich, 1848-1855), i. pp. 215sq., § 242;id., ii. 549.
F. Panzer,Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie(Munich, 1848-1855), i. pp. 215sq., § 242;id., ii. 549.
Footnote 408:(return)A. Birlinger,Volksthümliches aus Schwaben(Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), ii. 99-101.
A. Birlinger,Volksthümliches aus Schwaben(Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), ii. 99-101.
Footnote 409:(return)Elard Hugo Mayer,Badisches Volksleben(Strasburg, 1900), pp. 103sq., 225sq.
Elard Hugo Mayer,Badisches Volksleben(Strasburg, 1900), pp. 103sq., 225sq.
Footnote 410:(return)W. von Schulenberg, inVerhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, Jahrgang 1897, pp. 494sq.(bound up withZeitschrift für Ethnologie, xxix. 1897).
W. von Schulenberg, inVerhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, Jahrgang 1897, pp. 494sq.(bound up withZeitschrift für Ethnologie, xxix. 1897).
Footnote 411:(return)H. Gaidoz, "Le dieu Gaulois du Soleil et le symbolisme de la Roue,"Revue Archéologique, iii. Série, iv. (1884) pp. 29sq.
H. Gaidoz, "Le dieu Gaulois du Soleil et le symbolisme de la Roue,"Revue Archéologique, iii. Série, iv. (1884) pp. 29sq.
Footnote 412:(return)Bruno Stehle, "Volksglauben, Sitten und Gebräuche in Lothringen,"Globus, lix. (1891) pp. 378sq.; "Die Sommerwendfeier im St. Amarinthale,"Der Urquell, N.F., i. (1897) pp. 181sqq.
Bruno Stehle, "Volksglauben, Sitten und Gebräuche in Lothringen,"Globus, lix. (1891) pp. 378sq.; "Die Sommerwendfeier im St. Amarinthale,"Der Urquell, N.F., i. (1897) pp. 181sqq.
Footnote 413:(return)J.H. Schmitz,Sitten und Sagen Lieder, Sprüchwörter und Räthsel des Eifler Volkes(Treves, 1856-1858), i. 40sq.According to one writer, the garlands are composed of St. John's wort (Montanus,Die deutschen Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube, Iserlohn, N.D., p. 33). As to the use of St. John's wort at Midsummer, see below, vol. ii. pp. 54sqq.
J.H. Schmitz,Sitten und Sagen Lieder, Sprüchwörter und Räthsel des Eifler Volkes(Treves, 1856-1858), i. 40sq.According to one writer, the garlands are composed of St. John's wort (Montanus,Die deutschen Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube, Iserlohn, N.D., p. 33). As to the use of St. John's wort at Midsummer, see below, vol. ii. pp. 54sqq.
Footnote 414:(return)A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz,Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche(Leipsic, 1848), p. 390.
A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz,Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche(Leipsic, 1848), p. 390.
Footnote 415:(return)Montanus,Die deutschen Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube(Iserlohn, N.D.), pp. 33sq.
Montanus,Die deutschen Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube(Iserlohn, N.D.), pp. 33sq.
Footnote 416:(return)C.L. Rochholz,Deutscher Glaube und Brauch(Berlin, 1867), ii. 144sqq.
C.L. Rochholz,Deutscher Glaube und Brauch(Berlin, 1867), ii. 144sqq.
Footnote 417:(return)Philo vom Walde,Schlesien in Sage und Brauch(Berlin, N.D.), p. 124; Paul Drechsler,Sitte, Brauch, und Volksglaube in Schlesien(Leipsic, 1903-1906), i. 136sq.
Philo vom Walde,Schlesien in Sage und Brauch(Berlin, N.D.), p. 124; Paul Drechsler,Sitte, Brauch, und Volksglaube in Schlesien(Leipsic, 1903-1906), i. 136sq.
Footnote 418:(return)J. Grimm,Deutsche Mythologie,,4i. 517sq.
J. Grimm,Deutsche Mythologie,,4i. 517sq.
Footnote 419:(return)From information supplied by Mr. Sigurd K. Heiberg, engineer, of Bergen, Norway, who in his boyhood regularly collected fuel for the fires. I have to thank Miss Anderson, of Barskimming, Mauchline, Ayrshire, for kindly procuring the information for me from Mr. Heiberg.The Blocksberg, where German as well as Norwegian witches gather for their great Sabbaths on the Eve of May Day (Walpurgis Night) and Midsummer Eve, is commonly identified with the Brocken, the highest peak of the Harz mountains. But in Mecklenburg, Pomerania, and probably elsewhere, villages have their own local Blocksberg, which is generally a hill or open place in the neighbourhood; a number of places in Pomerania go by the name of the Blocksberg. See J. Grimm,Deutsche Mythologie,4ii. 878sq.; Ulrich Jahn,Hexenwesen und Zauberei in Pommern(Breslau, 1886), pp. 4sq.;id.,Volkssagen aus Pommern und Rügen(Stettin, 1886), p. 329.
From information supplied by Mr. Sigurd K. Heiberg, engineer, of Bergen, Norway, who in his boyhood regularly collected fuel for the fires. I have to thank Miss Anderson, of Barskimming, Mauchline, Ayrshire, for kindly procuring the information for me from Mr. Heiberg.
The Blocksberg, where German as well as Norwegian witches gather for their great Sabbaths on the Eve of May Day (Walpurgis Night) and Midsummer Eve, is commonly identified with the Brocken, the highest peak of the Harz mountains. But in Mecklenburg, Pomerania, and probably elsewhere, villages have their own local Blocksberg, which is generally a hill or open place in the neighbourhood; a number of places in Pomerania go by the name of the Blocksberg. See J. Grimm,Deutsche Mythologie,4ii. 878sq.; Ulrich Jahn,Hexenwesen und Zauberei in Pommern(Breslau, 1886), pp. 4sq.;id.,Volkssagen aus Pommern und Rügen(Stettin, 1886), p. 329.
Footnote 420:(return)L. Lloyd,Peasant Life in Sweden(London, 1870), pp. 259, 265.
L. Lloyd,Peasant Life in Sweden(London, 1870), pp. 259, 265.
Footnote 421:(return)L. Lloyd,op. cit.pp. 261sq.These springs are called "sacrificial fonts" (Offer källor) and are "so named because in heathen times the limbs of the slaughtered victim, whether man or beast, were here washed prior to immolation" (L. Lloyd,op. cit.p. 261).
L. Lloyd,op. cit.pp. 261sq.These springs are called "sacrificial fonts" (Offer källor) and are "so named because in heathen times the limbs of the slaughtered victim, whether man or beast, were here washed prior to immolation" (L. Lloyd,op. cit.p. 261).
Footnote 422:(return)E. Hoffmann-Krayer,Feste und Bräuche des Schweizervolkes(Zurich, 1913), p. 164.
E. Hoffmann-Krayer,Feste und Bräuche des Schweizervolkes(Zurich, 1913), p. 164.
Footnote 423:(return)Ignaz V. Zingerle,Sitten, Bräuche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes,2(Innsbruck, 1871), ii. p. 159, § 1354.
Ignaz V. Zingerle,Sitten, Bräuche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes,2(Innsbruck, 1871), ii. p. 159, § 1354.
Footnote 424:(return)I.V. Zingerle,op. cit.p. 159, §§ 1353, 1355, 1356; W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus, p. 513.
I.V. Zingerle,op. cit.p. 159, §§ 1353, 1355, 1356; W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus, p. 513.
Footnote 425:(return)W. Mannhardt,l.c.
W. Mannhardt,l.c.
Footnote 426:(return)F. Panzer,Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie(Munich, 1848-1855), i. p. 210, § 231.
F. Panzer,Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie(Munich, 1848-1855), i. p. 210, § 231.
Footnote 427:(return)Theodor Vernaleken,Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in Oesterreich(Vienna, 1859), pp. 307sq.
Theodor Vernaleken,Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in Oesterreich(Vienna, 1859), pp. 307sq.
Footnote 428:(return)J. Grimm,Deutsche Mythologie,4i. 519; Theodor Vernaleken,Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in Oesterreich(Vienna, 1859), p. 308; Joseph Virgil Grohmann,Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Bohmen und Mähren(Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 80, § 636; Reinsberg-Düringsfeld,Fest-Kalender aus Bohmen(Prague, N.D.), pp. 306-311; Br. Jelfnek, "Materialien zur Vorgeschichte und Volkskunde Böhmens,"Mittheilungen der anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien>xxi. (1891) p. 13; Alois John,Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen(Prague, 1905) pp. 84-86.
J. Grimm,Deutsche Mythologie,4i. 519; Theodor Vernaleken,Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in Oesterreich(Vienna, 1859), p. 308; Joseph Virgil Grohmann,Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Bohmen und Mähren(Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 80, § 636; Reinsberg-Düringsfeld,Fest-Kalender aus Bohmen(Prague, N.D.), pp. 306-311; Br. Jelfnek, "Materialien zur Vorgeschichte und Volkskunde Böhmens,"Mittheilungen der anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien>xxi. (1891) p. 13; Alois John,Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen(Prague, 1905) pp. 84-86.
Footnote 429:(return)Willibald Müller,Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren(Vienna and Olmutz, 1893), pp. 263-265.
Willibald Müller,Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren(Vienna and Olmutz, 1893), pp. 263-265.
Footnote 430:(return)Anton Peter,Volksthümliches aus Österreichisch-Schlesien(Troppau, 1865-1867), ii. 287.
Anton Peter,Volksthümliches aus Österreichisch-Schlesien(Troppau, 1865-1867), ii. 287.
Footnote 431:(return)Th. Vernaleken,Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in Oesterreich(Vienna, 1859), pp. 308sq.
Th. Vernaleken,Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in Oesterreich(Vienna, 1859), pp. 308sq.
Footnote 432:(return)The Dying God, p. 262. Compare M. Kowalewsky, inFolk-lore, i. (1890) p. 467.
The Dying God, p. 262. Compare M. Kowalewsky, inFolk-lore, i. (1890) p. 467.
Footnote 433:(return)W.R.S. Ralston,Songs of the Russian People, Second Edition (London, 1872), p. 240.
W.R.S. Ralston,Songs of the Russian People, Second Edition (London, 1872), p. 240.
Footnote 434:(return)J. Grimm,Deutsche Mythologie,4i. 519; W.R.S. Ralston,Songs of the Russian People(London, 1872), pp. 240, 391.
J. Grimm,Deutsche Mythologie,4i. 519; W.R.S. Ralston,Songs of the Russian People(London, 1872), pp. 240, 391.
Footnote 435:(return)W.R.S. Ralston,op. cit.p. 240.
W.R.S. Ralston,op. cit.p. 240.
Footnote 436:(return)W.R.S. Ralston,l.c.
W.R.S. Ralston,l.c.
Footnote 437:(return)W.J.A. von Tettau und J.D.H. Temme,Die Volkssagen Ostpreussens, Litthauens und Westpreussens(Berlin, 1837), p. 277.
W.J.A. von Tettau und J.D.H. Temme,Die Volkssagen Ostpreussens, Litthauens und Westpreussens(Berlin, 1837), p. 277.
Footnote 438:(return)M. Töppen,Aberglauben aus Masuren,2(Danzig, 1867), p. 71.
M. Töppen,Aberglauben aus Masuren,2(Danzig, 1867), p. 71.
Footnote 439:(return)F.S. Krauss, "Altslavische Feuergewinnung,"Globus, lix. (1891) p. 318.
F.S. Krauss, "Altslavische Feuergewinnung,"Globus, lix. (1891) p. 318.
Footnote 440:(return)J.G. Kohl,Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen(Dresden and Leipsic, 1841), i. 178-180, ii. 24sq.Ligho was an old heathen deity, whose joyous festival used to fall in spring.
J.G. Kohl,Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen(Dresden and Leipsic, 1841), i. 178-180, ii. 24sq.Ligho was an old heathen deity, whose joyous festival used to fall in spring.
Footnote 441:(return)Ovid,Fasti, vi. 775sqq.
Ovid,Fasti, vi. 775sqq.
Footnote 442:(return)Friederich S. Krauss,Sitte und Brauch der Südslaven(Vienna, 1885), pp. 176sq.
Friederich S. Krauss,Sitte und Brauch der Südslaven(Vienna, 1885), pp. 176sq.
Footnote 443:(return)J. Grimm,Deutsche Mythologie,4i. 519.
J. Grimm,Deutsche Mythologie,4i. 519.
Footnote 444:(return)H. von Wlislocki,Volksglaube und religiöser Brauch der Magyar(Münster i. W., 1893), pp. 40-44.
H. von Wlislocki,Volksglaube und religiöser Brauch der Magyar(Münster i. W., 1893), pp. 40-44.
Footnote 445:(return)A. von Ipolyi, "Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie aus Ungarn,"Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde, i. (1853) pp. 270sq.
A. von Ipolyi, "Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie aus Ungarn,"Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde, i. (1853) pp. 270sq.
Footnote 446:(return)J.G. Kohl,Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen, ii. 268sq.; F.J. Wiedemann,Aus dem inneren und äusseren Leben der Ehsten(St. Petersburg, 1876), p. 362. The word which I have translated "weeds" is in Esthoniankaste-heinad, in GermanThaugras. Apparently it is the name of a special kind of weed.
J.G. Kohl,Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen, ii. 268sq.; F.J. Wiedemann,Aus dem inneren und äusseren Leben der Ehsten(St. Petersburg, 1876), p. 362. The word which I have translated "weeds" is in Esthoniankaste-heinad, in GermanThaugras. Apparently it is the name of a special kind of weed.
Footnote 447:(return)Fr. Kreutzwald und H. Neus,Mythische und Magische Lieder der Ehsten(St. Petersburg, 1854), p. 62.
Fr. Kreutzwald und H. Neus,Mythische und Magische Lieder der Ehsten(St. Petersburg, 1854), p. 62.
Footnote 448:(return)J.B. Holzmayer, "Osiliana,"Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat, vii. (1872) pp. 62sq.Wiedemann also observes that the sports in which young couples engage in the woods on this evening are not always decorous (Aus dem inneren und äusseren Leben der Ehsten, p. 362).
J.B. Holzmayer, "Osiliana,"Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat, vii. (1872) pp. 62sq.Wiedemann also observes that the sports in which young couples engage in the woods on this evening are not always decorous (Aus dem inneren und äusseren Leben der Ehsten, p. 362).
Footnote 449:(return)J.G. Kohl,Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen, ii. 447sq.
J.G. Kohl,Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen, ii. 447sq.
Footnote 450:(return)J.G. Georgi,Beschreibung aller Nationen des russischen Reichs(St. Petersburg, 1776), p. 36; August Freiherr von Haxthausen,Studien über die innere Zustände das Volksleben und insbesondere die ländlichen Einrichtungen Russlands(Hanover, 1847), i. 446sqq.
J.G. Georgi,Beschreibung aller Nationen des russischen Reichs(St. Petersburg, 1776), p. 36; August Freiherr von Haxthausen,Studien über die innere Zustände das Volksleben und insbesondere die ländlichen Einrichtungen Russlands(Hanover, 1847), i. 446sqq.
Footnote 451:(return)Alfred de Nore,Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France(Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 19.
Alfred de Nore,Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France(Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 19.
Footnote 452:(return)It is notable that St. John is the only saint whose birthday the Church celebrates with honours like those which she accords to the nativity of Christ. Compare Edmond Doutté,Magie et Religion dans l'Afrique du Nord(Algiers, 1908), p. 571 note I.
It is notable that St. John is the only saint whose birthday the Church celebrates with honours like those which she accords to the nativity of Christ. Compare Edmond Doutté,Magie et Religion dans l'Afrique du Nord(Algiers, 1908), p. 571 note I.
Footnote 453:(return)Bossuet,Oeuvres(Versailles, 1815-1819), vi. 276 ("Catéchisme du diocèse de Meaux"). His description of the superstitions is, in his own words, as follows: "Danser à l'entour du feu, jouer, faire des festins, chanter des chansons deshonnètes, jeter des herbes par-dessus le feu, en cueillir avant midi ou à jeun, en porter sur soi, les conserver le long de l'année, garder des tisons ou des charbons du feu, et autres semblables." This and other evidence of the custom of kindling Midsummer bonfires in France is cited by Ch. Cuissard in his tractLes Feux de la Saint-Jean(Orleans, 1884).
Bossuet,Oeuvres(Versailles, 1815-1819), vi. 276 ("Catéchisme du diocèse de Meaux"). His description of the superstitions is, in his own words, as follows: "Danser à l'entour du feu, jouer, faire des festins, chanter des chansons deshonnètes, jeter des herbes par-dessus le feu, en cueillir avant midi ou à jeun, en porter sur soi, les conserver le long de l'année, garder des tisons ou des charbons du feu, et autres semblables." This and other evidence of the custom of kindling Midsummer bonfires in France is cited by Ch. Cuissard in his tractLes Feux de la Saint-Jean(Orleans, 1884).
Footnote 454:(return)Ch. Cuissard,Les Feux de la Saint-Jean(Orleans, 1884), pp. 40sq.
Ch. Cuissard,Les Feux de la Saint-Jean(Orleans, 1884), pp. 40sq.
Footnote 455:(return)A. Le Braz,La Légende de la Mort en Basse-Bretagne(Paris, 1893), p. 279. For an explanation of the custom of throwing a pebble into the fire, see below, p.240.
A. Le Braz,La Légende de la Mort en Basse-Bretagne(Paris, 1893), p. 279. For an explanation of the custom of throwing a pebble into the fire, see below, p.240.
Footnote 456:(return)M. Quellien, quoted by Alexandre Bertrand,La Religion des Gaulois(Paris, 1897), pp. 116sq.
M. Quellien, quoted by Alexandre Bertrand,La Religion des Gaulois(Paris, 1897), pp. 116sq.
Footnote 457:(return)Collin de Plancy,Dictionnaire Infernal(Paris, 1825-1826), iii. 40; J.W. Wolf,Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie(Göttingen, 1852-1857), i. p. 217, § 185; A. Breuil, "Du Culte de St. Jean Baptiste,"Mémoires de la Société des Antiquaires de Picardie, viii. (Amiens, 1845) pp. 189sq.
Collin de Plancy,Dictionnaire Infernal(Paris, 1825-1826), iii. 40; J.W. Wolf,Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie(Göttingen, 1852-1857), i. p. 217, § 185; A. Breuil, "Du Culte de St. Jean Baptiste,"Mémoires de la Société des Antiquaires de Picardie, viii. (Amiens, 1845) pp. 189sq.
Footnote 458:(return)Eugene Cortet,Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses(Paris, 1867), p. 216; Ch. Cuissard,Les Feux de la Saint-Jean(Orleans, 1884), p. 24.
Eugene Cortet,Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses(Paris, 1867), p. 216; Ch. Cuissard,Les Feux de la Saint-Jean(Orleans, 1884), p. 24.
Footnote 459:(return)Paul Sébillot,Coutumes populaires de la Haute-Bretagne(Paris, 1886), pp. 192-195. In Upper Brittany these bonfires are calledrieuxorraviers.
Paul Sébillot,Coutumes populaires de la Haute-Bretagne(Paris, 1886), pp. 192-195. In Upper Brittany these bonfires are calledrieuxorraviers.
Footnote 460:(return)A. de Nore,Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France(Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 219; E. Cortet,Essai sur les Fétes Religieuses, p. 216.
A. de Nore,Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France(Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 219; E. Cortet,Essai sur les Fétes Religieuses, p. 216.
Footnote 461:(return)A. de Nore,Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France, pp. 219, 228, 231; E. Cortet,op. cit.pp. 215sq.
A. de Nore,Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France, pp. 219, 228, 231; E. Cortet,op. cit.pp. 215sq.
Footnote 462:(return)J. Lecoeur,Esquisses du Bocage Normand(Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), ii. 219-224.
J. Lecoeur,Esquisses du Bocage Normand(Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), ii. 219-224.
Footnote 463:(return)This description is quoted by Madame Clément (Histoire des fêtes civites et religieuses, etc.,de la Belgique Méridionale, Avesnes, 1846, pp. 394-396); F. Liebrecht (Des Gervasius von Tilbury Otia Imperialia, Hanover, 1856, pp. 209sq.); and W. Mannhardt (Antike Wald und Feldkulte, Berlin, 1877, pp. 323sqq.) from theMagazin pittoresque, Paris, viii. (1840) pp. 287sqq.A slightly condensed account is given, from the same source, by E. Cortet (Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses, pp. 221sq.).
This description is quoted by Madame Clément (Histoire des fêtes civites et religieuses, etc.,de la Belgique Méridionale, Avesnes, 1846, pp. 394-396); F. Liebrecht (Des Gervasius von Tilbury Otia Imperialia, Hanover, 1856, pp. 209sq.); and W. Mannhardt (Antike Wald und Feldkulte, Berlin, 1877, pp. 323sqq.) from theMagazin pittoresque, Paris, viii. (1840) pp. 287sqq.A slightly condensed account is given, from the same source, by E. Cortet (Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses, pp. 221sq.).
Footnote 464:(return)Bazin, quoted by Breuil, inMémoires de la Société d' Antiquaires de Picardie, viii. (1845) p. 191 note.
Bazin, quoted by Breuil, inMémoires de la Société d' Antiquaires de Picardie, viii. (1845) p. 191 note.
Footnote 465:(return)Correspondents quoted by A. Bertrand,La Religion des Gaulois(Paris, 1897), pp. 118, 406.
Correspondents quoted by A. Bertrand,La Religion des Gaulois(Paris, 1897), pp. 118, 406.
Footnote 466:(return)Correspondent quoted by A. Bertrand,op. cit.p. 407.
Correspondent quoted by A. Bertrand,op. cit.p. 407.
Footnote 467:(return)Felix Chapiseau,Le folk-lore de la Beauce et du Perche(Paris, 1902), i. 318-320. In Perche the midsummer bonfires were calledmarolles. As to the custom formerly observed at Bullou, near Chateaudun, see a correspondent quoted by A. Bertrand,La Religion des Gaulois(Paris, 1897), p. 117.
Felix Chapiseau,Le folk-lore de la Beauce et du Perche(Paris, 1902), i. 318-320. In Perche the midsummer bonfires were calledmarolles. As to the custom formerly observed at Bullou, near Chateaudun, see a correspondent quoted by A. Bertrand,La Religion des Gaulois(Paris, 1897), p. 117.
Footnote 468:(return)Albert Meyrac,Traditions, Coutumes, Légendes, et Contes des Ardennes(Charleville, 1890), pp. 88sq.
Albert Meyrac,Traditions, Coutumes, Légendes, et Contes des Ardennes(Charleville, 1890), pp. 88sq.
Footnote 469:(return)L.F. Sauvé,Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges(Paris, 1889), p. 186.
L.F. Sauvé,Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges(Paris, 1889), p. 186.
Footnote 470:(return)Désiré Monnier,Traditions populaires comparées(Paris, 1854), pp. 207sqq.; E. Cortet,Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses, pp. 217sq.
Désiré Monnier,Traditions populaires comparées(Paris, 1854), pp. 207sqq.; E. Cortet,Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses, pp. 217sq.
Footnote 471:(return)Bérenger-Féraud,Réminiscences populaires de la Provence(Paris, 1885), p. 142.
Bérenger-Féraud,Réminiscences populaires de la Provence(Paris, 1885), p. 142.
Footnote 472:(return)Charles Beauquier,Les Mois en Franche-Comté(Paris, 1900), p. 89. The names of the bonfires vary with the place; among them arefailles, bourdifailles, bâsorbaux, feulèresorfolières, andchavannes.
Charles Beauquier,Les Mois en Franche-Comté(Paris, 1900), p. 89. The names of the bonfires vary with the place; among them arefailles, bourdifailles, bâsorbaux, feulèresorfolières, andchavannes.
Footnote 473:(return)La Bresse Louhannaise, Juin, 1906, p. 207.
La Bresse Louhannaise, Juin, 1906, p. 207.
Footnote 474:(return)Laisnel de la Salle,Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la France(Paris, 1875), i. 78sqq.The writer adopts the absurd derivation ofjônéefrom Janus. Needless to say that our old friend Baal, Bel, or Belus figures prominently in this and many other accounts of the European fire-festivals.
Laisnel de la Salle,Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la France(Paris, 1875), i. 78sqq.The writer adopts the absurd derivation ofjônéefrom Janus. Needless to say that our old friend Baal, Bel, or Belus figures prominently in this and many other accounts of the European fire-festivals.
Footnote 475:(return)A. de Nore,Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France(Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 150.
A. de Nore,Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France(Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 150.
Footnote 476:(return)Correspondent, quoted by A. Bertrand,La Religion des Gaulois(Paris, 1897), p. 408.
Correspondent, quoted by A. Bertrand,La Religion des Gaulois(Paris, 1897), p. 408.
Footnote 477:(return)Guerry, "Sur les usages et traditions du Poitou,"Mémoires et dissertations publiés par la Société Royale des Antiquaires de France, viii. (1829) pp. 451sq.
Guerry, "Sur les usages et traditions du Poitou,"Mémoires et dissertations publiés par la Société Royale des Antiquaires de France, viii. (1829) pp. 451sq.
Footnote 478:(return)Breuil, inMémoires de la Société des Antiquaires de Picardie, viii. (1845) p. 206; E. Cortet,Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses, p. 216; Laisnel de la Salle,Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la France, i. 83; J. Lecoeur,Esquisses du Bocage Normand, ii. 225.
Breuil, inMémoires de la Société des Antiquaires de Picardie, viii. (1845) p. 206; E. Cortet,Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses, p. 216; Laisnel de la Salle,Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la France, i. 83; J. Lecoeur,Esquisses du Bocage Normand, ii. 225.
Footnote 479:(return)H. Gaidoz, "Le dieu gaulois du soleil et le symbolisme de la roue,"Revue Archéologique, iii. Série, iv. (1884) p. 26, note 3.
H. Gaidoz, "Le dieu gaulois du soleil et le symbolisme de la roue,"Revue Archéologique, iii. Série, iv. (1884) p. 26, note 3.
Footnote 480:(return)L. Pineau,Le Folk-lore du Poitou(Paris, 1892), pp. 499sq.In Périgord the ashes of the midsummer bonfire are searched for the hair of the Virgin (E. Cortet,Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses, p. 219).
L. Pineau,Le Folk-lore du Poitou(Paris, 1892), pp. 499sq.In Périgord the ashes of the midsummer bonfire are searched for the hair of the Virgin (E. Cortet,Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses, p. 219).
Footnote 481:(return)A. de Nore,Coutumes Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France, pp. 149sq.; E. Cortet,op. cit.pp. 218sq.
A. de Nore,Coutumes Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France, pp. 149sq.; E. Cortet,op. cit.pp. 218sq.
Footnote 482:(return)Dupin, "Notice sur quelques fêtes et divertissemens populaires du département des Deux-Sèvres,"Mémoires et Dissertations publiés par la Société Royale des Antiquaires de France, iv. (1823) p. 110.
Dupin, "Notice sur quelques fêtes et divertissemens populaires du département des Deux-Sèvres,"Mémoires et Dissertations publiés par la Société Royale des Antiquaires de France, iv. (1823) p. 110.
Footnote 483:(return)J.L.M. Noguès,Les moeurs d'autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis(Saintes, 1891), pp. 72, 178sq.
J.L.M. Noguès,Les moeurs d'autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis(Saintes, 1891), pp. 72, 178sq.
Footnote 484:(return)H. Gaidoz, "Le dieu soleil et le symbolisme de la roue,"Revue Archéologique, iii. Série, iv. (1884) p. 30.
H. Gaidoz, "Le dieu soleil et le symbolisme de la roue,"Revue Archéologique, iii. Série, iv. (1884) p. 30.
Footnote 485:(return)Ch. Cuissard,Les Feux de la Saint-Jean(Orleans, 1884), pp. 22sq.
Ch. Cuissard,Les Feux de la Saint-Jean(Orleans, 1884), pp. 22sq.
Footnote 486:(return)A. de Nore,Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de Francep. 127.
A. de Nore,Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de Francep. 127.
Footnote 487:(return)Aubin-Louis Millin,Voyage dans les Départemens du Midi de la France(Paris, 1807-1811), iii. 341sq.
Aubin-Louis Millin,Voyage dans les Départemens du Midi de la France(Paris, 1807-1811), iii. 341sq.
Footnote 488:(return)Aubin-Louis Millin,op. cit.iii. 28.
Aubin-Louis Millin,op. cit.iii. 28.
Footnote 489:(return)A. de Nore,op. cit.pp. 19sq.; Bérenger-Féraud,Reminiscences populaires de la Provence(Paris, 1885), pp. 135-141. As to the custom at Toulon, see Poncy, quoted by Breuil,Mémoires de la Société des Antiquaires de Picardie, viii. (1845) p. 190 note. The custom of drenching people on this occasion with water used to prevail in Toulon, as well as in Marseilles and other towns in the south of France. The water was squirted from syringes, poured on the heads of passers-by from windows, and so on. See Breuil,op. cit.pp. 237sq.
A. de Nore,op. cit.pp. 19sq.; Bérenger-Féraud,Reminiscences populaires de la Provence(Paris, 1885), pp. 135-141. As to the custom at Toulon, see Poncy, quoted by Breuil,Mémoires de la Société des Antiquaires de Picardie, viii. (1845) p. 190 note. The custom of drenching people on this occasion with water used to prevail in Toulon, as well as in Marseilles and other towns in the south of France. The water was squirted from syringes, poured on the heads of passers-by from windows, and so on. See Breuil,op. cit.pp. 237sq.
Footnote 490:(return)A. de Nore,op. cit.pp. 20sq.; E. Cortet,op. cit.pp. 218, 219sq.
A. de Nore,op. cit.pp. 20sq.; E. Cortet,op. cit.pp. 218, 219sq.
Footnote 491:(return)Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld,Calendrier Belge(Brussels, 1861-1862), i. 416sq.439.
Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld,Calendrier Belge(Brussels, 1861-1862), i. 416sq.439.
Footnote 492:(return)Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld,op. cit.i. 439-442.
Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld,op. cit.i. 439-442.
Footnote 493:(return)Madame Clément,Histoire des fêtes civiles et religieuses, etc.,du Département du Nord(Cambrai, 1836), p. 364; J.W. Wolf,Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie(Göttingen, 1852-1857), ii. 392; W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus. p. 513.
Madame Clément,Histoire des fêtes civiles et religieuses, etc.,du Département du Nord(Cambrai, 1836), p. 364; J.W. Wolf,Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie(Göttingen, 1852-1857), ii. 392; W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus. p. 513.
Footnote 494:(return)E. Monseur,Folklore Wallon(Brussels, N.D.), p. 130, §§ 1783, 1786, 1787.
E. Monseur,Folklore Wallon(Brussels, N.D.), p. 130, §§ 1783, 1786, 1787.
Footnote 495:(return)Joseph Strutt,The Sports and Pastimes of the People of England, New Edition, by W. Hone (London, 1834), p. 359.
Joseph Strutt,The Sports and Pastimes of the People of England, New Edition, by W. Hone (London, 1834), p. 359.
Footnote 496:(return)John Stow,A Survay of London, edited by Henry Morley (London, N.D.), pp. 126sq.Stow'sSurvaywas written in 1598.
John Stow,A Survay of London, edited by Henry Morley (London, N.D.), pp. 126sq.Stow'sSurvaywas written in 1598.
Footnote 497:(return)John Brand,Popular Antiquities of Great Britain(London, 1882-1883), i. 338; T.F. Thiselton Dyer,British Popular Customs(London, 1876), p. 331. Both writers refer toStatus Scholae Etonensis(A.D. 1560).
John Brand,Popular Antiquities of Great Britain(London, 1882-1883), i. 338; T.F. Thiselton Dyer,British Popular Customs(London, 1876), p. 331. Both writers refer toStatus Scholae Etonensis(A.D. 1560).
Footnote 498:(return)John Aubrey,Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme(London, 1881), p. 26.
John Aubrey,Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme(London, 1881), p. 26.
Footnote 499:(return)J. Brand,Popular Antiquities of Great Britain(London, 1882-1883), i. 300sq., 318, compare pp. 305, 306, 308sq.; W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus, p. 512. Compare W. Hutchinson,View of Northumberland, vol. ii. (Newcastle, 1778), Appendix, p. (15), under the head "Midsummer":—"It is usual to raise fires on the tops of high hills and in the villages, and sport and danse around them; this is of very remote antiquity, and the first cause lost in the distance of time."
J. Brand,Popular Antiquities of Great Britain(London, 1882-1883), i. 300sq., 318, compare pp. 305, 306, 308sq.; W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus, p. 512. Compare W. Hutchinson,View of Northumberland, vol. ii. (Newcastle, 1778), Appendix, p. (15), under the head "Midsummer":—"It is usual to raise fires on the tops of high hills and in the villages, and sport and danse around them; this is of very remote antiquity, and the first cause lost in the distance of time."
Footnote 500:(return)Dr. Lyttelton, Bishop of Carlisle, quoted by William Borlase,Antiquities, Historical and Monumental, of the County of Cornwall(London, 1769), p. 135 note.
Dr. Lyttelton, Bishop of Carlisle, quoted by William Borlase,Antiquities, Historical and Monumental, of the County of Cornwall(London, 1769), p. 135 note.
Footnote 501:(return)County Folk-lore, vol. iv.Northumberland, collected by M.C. Balfour (London, 1904), p. 76, quoting E. Mackenzie,An Historical, Topographical, and Descriptive View of the County of Northumberland, Second Edition (Newcastle, 1825), i. 217.
County Folk-lore, vol. iv.Northumberland, collected by M.C. Balfour (London, 1904), p. 76, quoting E. Mackenzie,An Historical, Topographical, and Descriptive View of the County of Northumberland, Second Edition (Newcastle, 1825), i. 217.
Footnote 502:(return)County Folk-lore, vol. iv.Northumberland, collected by M.C. Balfour, p. 75.
County Folk-lore, vol. iv.Northumberland, collected by M.C. Balfour, p. 75.
Footnote 503:(return)County Folk-lore, vol. iv.Northumberland, collected by M.C. Balfour, p. 75.
County Folk-lore, vol. iv.Northumberland, collected by M.C. Balfour, p. 75.
Footnote 504:(return)The Denham Tracts, edited by J. Hardy (London, 1892-1895), ii. 342sq., quotingArchælogia Aeliana, N.S., vii. 73, and theProceedingsof the Berwickshire Naturalists' Club, vi. 242sq.;County Folk-lore, vol. iv.Northumberland, collected by M.C. Balfour (London, 1904), pp. 75sq.Whalton is a village of Northumberland, not far from Morpeth.
The Denham Tracts, edited by J. Hardy (London, 1892-1895), ii. 342sq., quotingArchælogia Aeliana, N.S., vii. 73, and theProceedingsof the Berwickshire Naturalists' Club, vi. 242sq.;County Folk-lore, vol. iv.Northumberland, collected by M.C. Balfour (London, 1904), pp. 75sq.Whalton is a village of Northumberland, not far from Morpeth.
Footnote 505:(return)County Folk-lore, vol. vi.East Riding of Yorkshire, collected and edited by Mrs. Gutch (London, 1912), p. 102.
County Folk-lore, vol. vi.East Riding of Yorkshire, collected and edited by Mrs. Gutch (London, 1912), p. 102.
Footnote 506:(return)John Aubrey,Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme(London, 1881), p. 96, compareid., p. 26.
John Aubrey,Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme(London, 1881), p. 96, compareid., p. 26.
Footnote 507:(return)J. Brand,Popular Antiquities of Great Britain(London, 1882-1883), i. 311.
J. Brand,Popular Antiquities of Great Britain(London, 1882-1883), i. 311.
Footnote 508:(return)William Borlase, LL.D.,Antiquities, Historical and Monumental, of the County of Cornwall(London, 1769), pp. 135sq.The Eve of St. Peter is June 28th. Bonfires have been lit elsewhere on the Eve or the day of St. Peter. See above, pp.194sq.196sq., and below, pp.199sq.,202,207.
William Borlase, LL.D.,Antiquities, Historical and Monumental, of the County of Cornwall(London, 1769), pp. 135sq.The Eve of St. Peter is June 28th. Bonfires have been lit elsewhere on the Eve or the day of St. Peter. See above, pp.194sq.196sq., and below, pp.199sq.,202,207.
Footnote 509:(return)J. Brand,op. cit.i. 318, 319; T.F. Thiselton Dyer,British Popular Customs(London, 1876), p. 315.
J. Brand,op. cit.i. 318, 319; T.F. Thiselton Dyer,British Popular Customs(London, 1876), p. 315.
Footnote 510:(return)William Bottrell,Traditions and Hearthside Stories of West Cornwall(Penzance, 1870), pp. 8sq., 55sq.; James Napier,Folk-lore, or Superstitious Beliefs in the West of Scotland(Paisley, 1879), p. 173.
William Bottrell,Traditions and Hearthside Stories of West Cornwall(Penzance, 1870), pp. 8sq., 55sq.; James Napier,Folk-lore, or Superstitious Beliefs in the West of Scotland(Paisley, 1879), p. 173.
Footnote 511:(return)Richard Edmonds,The Land's End District(London, 1862), pp. 66sq.; Robert Hunt,Popular Romances of the West of England, Third Edition (London, 1881), pp. 207sq.
Richard Edmonds,The Land's End District(London, 1862), pp. 66sq.; Robert Hunt,Popular Romances of the West of England, Third Edition (London, 1881), pp. 207sq.
Footnote 512:(return)Marie Trevelyan,Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales(London, 1909), pp. 27sq.Compare Jonathan Ceredig Davies,Folk-lore of West and Mid-Wales(Aberystwyth, 1911), p. 76.
Marie Trevelyan,Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales(London, 1909), pp. 27sq.Compare Jonathan Ceredig Davies,Folk-lore of West and Mid-Wales(Aberystwyth, 1911), p. 76.
Footnote 513:(return)J. Brand,Popular Antiquities of Great Britain(London, 1882-1883), i. 318.
J. Brand,Popular Antiquities of Great Britain(London, 1882-1883), i. 318.
Footnote 514:(return)Joseph Train,Account of the Isle of Man(Douglas, Isle of Man, 1845), ii. 120.
Joseph Train,Account of the Isle of Man(Douglas, Isle of Man, 1845), ii. 120.
Footnote 515:(return)Sir Henry Piers,Description of the County of Westmeath, written in 1682, published by (General) Charles Vallancey,Collectanea de Rebus Hibernieis, i. (Dublin, 1786) pp. 123sq.
Sir Henry Piers,Description of the County of Westmeath, written in 1682, published by (General) Charles Vallancey,Collectanea de Rebus Hibernieis, i. (Dublin, 1786) pp. 123sq.
Footnote 516:(return)J. Brand,Popular Antiquities of Great Britain(London, 1882-1883), i. 303, quoting the author of theSurvey of the South of Ireland, p. 232.
J. Brand,Popular Antiquities of Great Britain(London, 1882-1883), i. 303, quoting the author of theSurvey of the South of Ireland, p. 232.
Footnote 517:(return)J. Brand,op. cit.i. 305, quoting the author of theComical Pilgrim's Pilgrimage into Ireland(1723), p. 92.
J. Brand,op. cit.i. 305, quoting the author of theComical Pilgrim's Pilgrimage into Ireland(1723), p. 92.
Footnote 518:(return)The Gentleman's Magazine, vol. lxv. (London, 1795) pp. 124sq.The writer dates the festival on June 21st, which is probably a mistake.
The Gentleman's Magazine, vol. lxv. (London, 1795) pp. 124sq.The writer dates the festival on June 21st, which is probably a mistake.
Footnote 519:(return)T.F. Thiselton Dyer,British Popular Customs(London, 1876), pp. 321sq., quoting theLiverpool Mercuryof June 29th, 1867.
T.F. Thiselton Dyer,British Popular Customs(London, 1876), pp. 321sq., quoting theLiverpool Mercuryof June 29th, 1867.
Footnote 520:(return)L.L. Duncan, "Further Notes from County Leitrim,"Folk-lore, v. (1894) p. 193.
L.L. Duncan, "Further Notes from County Leitrim,"Folk-lore, v. (1894) p. 193.
Footnote 521:(return)A.C. Haddon, "A Batch of Irish Folk-lore,"Folk-lore, iv. (1893) pp. 351, 359.
A.C. Haddon, "A Batch of Irish Folk-lore,"Folk-lore, iv. (1893) pp. 351, 359.
Footnote 522:(return)G.H. Kinahan, "Notes on Irish Folk-lore,"Folk-lore Record, iv. (1881) p. 97.
G.H. Kinahan, "Notes on Irish Folk-lore,"Folk-lore Record, iv. (1881) p. 97.
Footnote 523:(return)Charlotte Elizabeth,Personal Recollections, quoted by Rev. Alexander Hislop,The Two Babylons(Edinburgh, 1853), p. 53.
Charlotte Elizabeth,Personal Recollections, quoted by Rev. Alexander Hislop,The Two Babylons(Edinburgh, 1853), p. 53.
Footnote 524:(return)Lady Wilde,Ancient Legends, Mystic Charms, and Superstitions of Ireland(London, 1887), i. 214sq.
Lady Wilde,Ancient Legends, Mystic Charms, and Superstitions of Ireland(London, 1887), i. 214sq.
Footnote 525:(return)T.F. Thiselton Dyer,British Popular Customs(London, 1876), pp. 322sq., quoting theHibernian Magazine, July 1817. As to the worship of wells in ancient Ireland, see P.W. Joyce,A Social History of Ancient Ireland(London, 1903), i. 288sq., 366sqq.
T.F. Thiselton Dyer,British Popular Customs(London, 1876), pp. 322sq., quoting theHibernian Magazine, July 1817. As to the worship of wells in ancient Ireland, see P.W. Joyce,A Social History of Ancient Ireland(London, 1903), i. 288sq., 366sqq.
Footnote 526:(return)Rev. A. Johnstone, describing the parish of Monquhitter in Perthshire, in Sir John Sinclair'sStatistical Account of Scotland(Edinburgh, 1791-1799), xxi. 145. Mr. W. Warde Fowler writes that in Scotland "before the bonfires were kindled on midsummer eve, the houses were decorated with foliage brought from the woods" (Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic, London, 1899, pp. 80sq.). For his authority he refers toChambers' Journal, July, 1842.
Rev. A. Johnstone, describing the parish of Monquhitter in Perthshire, in Sir John Sinclair'sStatistical Account of Scotland(Edinburgh, 1791-1799), xxi. 145. Mr. W. Warde Fowler writes that in Scotland "before the bonfires were kindled on midsummer eve, the houses were decorated with foliage brought from the woods" (Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic, London, 1899, pp. 80sq.). For his authority he refers toChambers' Journal, July, 1842.
Footnote 527:(return)John Ramsay, of Ochtertyre,Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century, edited by A. Allardyce (Edinburgh, 1888), ii. 436.
John Ramsay, of Ochtertyre,Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century, edited by A. Allardyce (Edinburgh, 1888), ii. 436.
Footnote 528:(return)Rev. Mr. Shaw, Minister of Elgin, in Pennant's "Tour in Scotland," printed in John Pinkerton'sVoyages and Travels(London, 1808-1814), iii. 136.
Rev. Mr. Shaw, Minister of Elgin, in Pennant's "Tour in Scotland," printed in John Pinkerton'sVoyages and Travels(London, 1808-1814), iii. 136.
Footnote 529:(return)A. Macdonald, "Midsummer Bonfires,"Folk-lore, xv. (1904) pp. 105sq.
A. Macdonald, "Midsummer Bonfires,"Folk-lore, xv. (1904) pp. 105sq.
Footnote 530:(return)From notes kindly furnished to me by the Rev. J.C. Higgins, parish minister of Tarbolton. Mr. Higgins adds that he knows of no superstition connected with the fire, and no tradition of its origin. I visited the scene of the bonfire in 1898, but, as Pausanias says (viii. 41. 6) in similar circumstances, "I did not happen to arrive at the season of the festival." Indeed the snow was falling thick as I trudged to the village through the beautiful woods of "the Castle o' Montgomery" immortalized by Burns. From a notice inThe Scotsmanof 26th June, 1906 (p. 8) it appears that the old custom was observed as usual that year.
From notes kindly furnished to me by the Rev. J.C. Higgins, parish minister of Tarbolton. Mr. Higgins adds that he knows of no superstition connected with the fire, and no tradition of its origin. I visited the scene of the bonfire in 1898, but, as Pausanias says (viii. 41. 6) in similar circumstances, "I did not happen to arrive at the season of the festival." Indeed the snow was falling thick as I trudged to the village through the beautiful woods of "the Castle o' Montgomery" immortalized by Burns. From a notice inThe Scotsmanof 26th June, 1906 (p. 8) it appears that the old custom was observed as usual that year.
Footnote 531:(return)Thomas Moresinus,Papatus seu Depravatae Religionis Origo et Incrementum(Edinburgh, 1594), p. 56.
Thomas Moresinus,Papatus seu Depravatae Religionis Origo et Incrementum(Edinburgh, 1594), p. 56.
Footnote 532:(return)Rev. Dr. George Lawrie, in Sir John Sinclair'sStatistical Account of Scotland, iii. (Edinburgh, 1792) p. 105.
Rev. Dr. George Lawrie, in Sir John Sinclair'sStatistical Account of Scotland, iii. (Edinburgh, 1792) p. 105.
Footnote 533:(return)Letter from Dr. Otero Acevado of Madrid, published inLe Temps, September 1898. An extract from the newspaper was sent me, but without mention of the day of the month when it appeared. The fires on St. John's Eve in Spain are mentioned also by J. Brand,Popular Antiquities of Great Britain, i. 317. Jacob Grimm inferred the custom from a passage in a romance (Deutsche Mythologie,4i. 518). The custom of washing or bathing on the morning of St. John's Day is mentioned by the Spanish historian Diego Duran,Historia de las Indias de Nueva España, edited by J.F. Ramirez (Mexico, 1867-1880), vol. ii. p. 293. To roll in the dew on the morning of St. John's Day is a cure for diseases of the skin in Normandy, Périgord, and the Abruzzi, as well as in Spain. See J. Lecoeur,Esquisses du Bocage Normand, ii. 8; A. de Nore,Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France, p. 150; Gennaro Finamore,Credenze, Usi e Costumi Abruzzesi(Palermo, 1890), p. 157.
Letter from Dr. Otero Acevado of Madrid, published inLe Temps, September 1898. An extract from the newspaper was sent me, but without mention of the day of the month when it appeared. The fires on St. John's Eve in Spain are mentioned also by J. Brand,Popular Antiquities of Great Britain, i. 317. Jacob Grimm inferred the custom from a passage in a romance (Deutsche Mythologie,4i. 518). The custom of washing or bathing on the morning of St. John's Day is mentioned by the Spanish historian Diego Duran,Historia de las Indias de Nueva España, edited by J.F. Ramirez (Mexico, 1867-1880), vol. ii. p. 293. To roll in the dew on the morning of St. John's Day is a cure for diseases of the skin in Normandy, Périgord, and the Abruzzi, as well as in Spain. See J. Lecoeur,Esquisses du Bocage Normand, ii. 8; A. de Nore,Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France, p. 150; Gennaro Finamore,Credenze, Usi e Costumi Abruzzesi(Palermo, 1890), p. 157.
Footnote 534:(return)M. Longworth Dames and Mrs. E. Seemann, "Folklore of the Azores,"Folk-lore, xiv. (1903) pp. 142sq.; Theophilo Braga,O Povo Portuguez nos seus Costumes, Crenças e Tradiçoes(Lisbon, 1885), ii. 304sq., 307sq.
M. Longworth Dames and Mrs. E. Seemann, "Folklore of the Azores,"Folk-lore, xiv. (1903) pp. 142sq.; Theophilo Braga,O Povo Portuguez nos seus Costumes, Crenças e Tradiçoes(Lisbon, 1885), ii. 304sq., 307sq.
Footnote 535:(return)See below, pp.234sqq.
See below, pp.234sqq.
Footnote 536:(return)Angelo de Gubernatis,Mythologie des Plantes(Paris, 1878-1882), i. 185 note 1.
Angelo de Gubernatis,Mythologie des Plantes(Paris, 1878-1882), i. 185 note 1.
Footnote 537:(return)Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition, pp. 202sq.
Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition, pp. 202sq.
Footnote 538:(return)G. Finamore,Credenze, Usi e Costumi Abruzzesi(Palermo, 1890), pp. 154sq.
G. Finamore,Credenze, Usi e Costumi Abruzzesi(Palermo, 1890), pp. 154sq.
Footnote 539:(return)G. Finamore,Credenze, Usi e Costumi Abruzzesi, pp. 158-160. We may compare the Provençal and Spanish customs of bathing and splashing water at Midsummer. See above, pp.193sq.,208.
G. Finamore,Credenze, Usi e Costumi Abruzzesi, pp. 158-160. We may compare the Provençal and Spanish customs of bathing and splashing water at Midsummer. See above, pp.193sq.,208.
Footnote 540:(return)Giuseppe Pitrè,Spettacoli e Feste Popolari Siciliane(Palermo, 1881), pp. 246, 308sq.;id., Usi e Costumi, Credenze e Pregiudizi del Popolo Siciliano(Palermo, 1889), pp. 146sq.
Giuseppe Pitrè,Spettacoli e Feste Popolari Siciliane(Palermo, 1881), pp. 246, 308sq.;id., Usi e Costumi, Credenze e Pregiudizi del Popolo Siciliano(Palermo, 1889), pp. 146sq.
Footnote 541:(return)J. Grimm,Deutsche Mythologie,4i. 518.
J. Grimm,Deutsche Mythologie,4i. 518.
Footnote 542:(return)V. Busuttil,Holiday Customs in Malta, and Sports, Usages, Ceremonies, Omens, and Superstitions of the Maltese People(Malta, 1894), pp. 56sqq.The extract was kindly sent to me by Mr. H.W. Underwood (letter dated 14th November, 1902, Birbeck Bank Chambers, Southampton Buildings, Chancery Lane, W.C.). SeeFolk-lore, xiv. (1903) pp. 77sq.
V. Busuttil,Holiday Customs in Malta, and Sports, Usages, Ceremonies, Omens, and Superstitions of the Maltese People(Malta, 1894), pp. 56sqq.The extract was kindly sent to me by Mr. H.W. Underwood (letter dated 14th November, 1902, Birbeck Bank Chambers, Southampton Buildings, Chancery Lane, W.C.). SeeFolk-lore, xiv. (1903) pp. 77sq.
Footnote 543:(return)W. R. Paton, inFolk-lore, ii. (1891) p. 128. The custom was reported to me when I was in Greece in 1890 (Folk-lore, i. (1890) p. 520).
W. R. Paton, inFolk-lore, ii. (1891) p. 128. The custom was reported to me when I was in Greece in 1890 (Folk-lore, i. (1890) p. 520).
Footnote 544:(return)J. Grimm,Deutsche Mythologie,4i. 519.
J. Grimm,Deutsche Mythologie,4i. 519.
Footnote 545:(return)G. Georgeakis et L. Pineau,Le Folk-lore de Lesbos(Paris, 1894), pp. 308sq.
G. Georgeakis et L. Pineau,Le Folk-lore de Lesbos(Paris, 1894), pp. 308sq.
Footnote 546:(return)W.R. Paton, inFolk-lore, vi. (1895) p. 94. From the stones cast into the fire omens may perhaps be drawn, as in Scotland, Wales, and probably Brittany. See above, p.183, and below, pp.230sq.,239,240.
W.R. Paton, inFolk-lore, vi. (1895) p. 94. From the stones cast into the fire omens may perhaps be drawn, as in Scotland, Wales, and probably Brittany. See above, p.183, and below, pp.230sq.,239,240.
Footnote 547:(return)W.H.D. Rouse, "Folklore from the Southern Sporades,"Folk-lore, x. (1899) p. 179.
W.H.D. Rouse, "Folklore from the Southern Sporades,"Folk-lore, x. (1899) p. 179.
Footnote 548:(return)Lucy M.J. Garnett,The Women of Turkey and their Folk-lore, the Christian Women(London, 1890), p. 122; G.F. Abbott,Macedonian Folklore(Cambridge, 1903), p. 57.
Lucy M.J. Garnett,The Women of Turkey and their Folk-lore, the Christian Women(London, 1890), p. 122; G.F. Abbott,Macedonian Folklore(Cambridge, 1903), p. 57.
Footnote 549:(return)J.G. von Hahn,Albanesische Studien(Jena, 1854), i. 156.
J.G. von Hahn,Albanesische Studien(Jena, 1854), i. 156.
Footnote 550:(return)K. von den Steinen,Unter den Natur-Völkern Zentral-Brasiliens(Berlin, 1894), p. 561.
K. von den Steinen,Unter den Natur-Völkern Zentral-Brasiliens(Berlin, 1894), p. 561.
Footnote 551:(return)Alcide d'Orbigny,Voyage dans l'Amérique Méridionale, ii. (Paris and Strasbourg, 1839-1843), p. 420; D. Forbes, "On the Aymara Indians of Bolivia and Peru,"Journal of the Ethnological Society of London, ii. (1870) p. 235.
Alcide d'Orbigny,Voyage dans l'Amérique Méridionale, ii. (Paris and Strasbourg, 1839-1843), p. 420; D. Forbes, "On the Aymara Indians of Bolivia and Peru,"Journal of the Ethnological Society of London, ii. (1870) p. 235.
Footnote 552:(return)Edmond Doutté,Magie et Religion dans l'Afrique du Nord(Algiers, 1908), pp. 566sq. For an older but briefer notice of the Midsummer fires in North Africa, see Giuseppe Ferraro,Superstizioni, Usi e Proverbi Monferrini(Palermo, 1886), pp. 34sq.: "Also in Algeria, among the Mussalmans, and in Morocco, as Alvise da Cadamosto reports in hisRelazione dei viaggi d'Africa, which may be read in Ramusio, people used to hold great festivities on St. John's Night; they kindled everywhere huge fires of straw (thePaliliaof the Romans), in which they threw incense and perfumes the whole night long in order to invoke the divine blessing on the fruit-trees." See also Budgett Meakin,The Moors(London, 1902), p. 394: "The Berber festivals are mainly those of Islam, though a few traces of their predecessors are observable. Of these the most noteworthy is Midsummer or St. John's Day, still celebrated in a special manner, and styledEl Ansarah. In the Rîf it is celebrated by the lighting of bonfires only, but in other parts there is a special dish prepared of wheat, raisins, etc., resembling the frumenty consumed at the New Year. It is worthy of remark that the Old Style Gregorian calendar is maintained among them, with corruptions of Latin names."
Edmond Doutté,Magie et Religion dans l'Afrique du Nord(Algiers, 1908), pp. 566sq. For an older but briefer notice of the Midsummer fires in North Africa, see Giuseppe Ferraro,Superstizioni, Usi e Proverbi Monferrini(Palermo, 1886), pp. 34sq.: "Also in Algeria, among the Mussalmans, and in Morocco, as Alvise da Cadamosto reports in hisRelazione dei viaggi d'Africa, which may be read in Ramusio, people used to hold great festivities on St. John's Night; they kindled everywhere huge fires of straw (thePaliliaof the Romans), in which they threw incense and perfumes the whole night long in order to invoke the divine blessing on the fruit-trees." See also Budgett Meakin,The Moors(London, 1902), p. 394: "The Berber festivals are mainly those of Islam, though a few traces of their predecessors are observable. Of these the most noteworthy is Midsummer or St. John's Day, still celebrated in a special manner, and styledEl Ansarah. In the Rîf it is celebrated by the lighting of bonfires only, but in other parts there is a special dish prepared of wheat, raisins, etc., resembling the frumenty consumed at the New Year. It is worthy of remark that the Old Style Gregorian calendar is maintained among them, with corruptions of Latin names."
Footnote 553:(return)Edward Westermarck, "Midsummer Customs in Morocco,"Folklore, xvi. (1905) pp. 28-30;id., Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with Agriculture, Certain Dates of the Solar Year, and the Weather(Helsingfors, 1913), pp. 79-83.
Edward Westermarck, "Midsummer Customs in Morocco,"Folklore, xvi. (1905) pp. 28-30;id., Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with Agriculture, Certain Dates of the Solar Year, and the Weather(Helsingfors, 1913), pp. 79-83.
Footnote 554:(return)E. Westermarck, "Midsummer Customs in Morocco,"Folk-lore, xvi. (1905) pp. 30sq.;id., Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with Agriculture, etc., pp. 83sq.
E. Westermarck, "Midsummer Customs in Morocco,"Folk-lore, xvi. (1905) pp. 30sq.;id., Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with Agriculture, etc., pp. 83sq.
Footnote 555:(return)Edmond Doutté,Magie et Religion dans l'Afrique du Nord(Algiers, 1908), pp. 567sq.
Edmond Doutté,Magie et Religion dans l'Afrique du Nord(Algiers, 1908), pp. 567sq.
Footnote 556:(return)E. Westermarck, "Midsummer Customs in Morocco,"Folk-lore, xvi. (1905) pp. 31sq.;id., Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with Agriculture, etc., pp. 84-86.
E. Westermarck, "Midsummer Customs in Morocco,"Folk-lore, xvi. (1905) pp. 31sq.;id., Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with Agriculture, etc., pp. 84-86.
Footnote 557:(return)See K. Vollers, in Dr. James Hastings'sEncyclopaedia of Religion and Ethicsiii. (Edinburgh, 1910)s.v."Calendar (Muslim)," pp. 126sq.However, L. Ideler held that even before the time of Mohammed the Arab year was lunar and vague, and that intercalation was only employed in order to fix the pilgrimage month in autumn, which, on account of the milder weather and the abundance of food, is the best time for pilgrims to go to Mecca. See L. Ideler,Handbuch der mathematischen und techischen Chronologie(Berlin, 1825-1826), ii. 495sqq.
See K. Vollers, in Dr. James Hastings'sEncyclopaedia of Religion and Ethicsiii. (Edinburgh, 1910)s.v."Calendar (Muslim)," pp. 126sq.However, L. Ideler held that even before the time of Mohammed the Arab year was lunar and vague, and that intercalation was only employed in order to fix the pilgrimage month in autumn, which, on account of the milder weather and the abundance of food, is the best time for pilgrims to go to Mecca. See L. Ideler,Handbuch der mathematischen und techischen Chronologie(Berlin, 1825-1826), ii. 495sqq.
Footnote 558:(return)E. Doutté,Magie et Religion dans l'Afrique du Nord, pp. 496, 509, 532, 543, 569. It is somewhat remarkable that the tenth, not the first, day of the first month should be reckoned New Year's Day.
E. Doutté,Magie et Religion dans l'Afrique du Nord, pp. 496, 509, 532, 543, 569. It is somewhat remarkable that the tenth, not the first, day of the first month should be reckoned New Year's Day.
Footnote 559:(return)E. Westermarck, "Midsummer Customs in Morocco,"Folk-lore, xvi. (1905) pp. 40-42.
E. Westermarck, "Midsummer Customs in Morocco,"Folk-lore, xvi. (1905) pp. 40-42.
Footnote 560:(return)E. Doutté,Magie et Religion dans l'Afrique du Nord(Algiers, 1908), pp. 541sq.
E. Doutté,Magie et Religion dans l'Afrique du Nord(Algiers, 1908), pp. 541sq.
Footnote 561:(return)E. Westermarck, "Midsummer Customs in Morocco,"Folk-lore, xvi. (1905) p. 42;id., Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with Agriculture, Certain Dates of the Solar Year, and the Weather in Morocco(Helsingfors, 1913), p. 101.
E. Westermarck, "Midsummer Customs in Morocco,"Folk-lore, xvi. (1905) p. 42;id., Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with Agriculture, Certain Dates of the Solar Year, and the Weather in Morocco(Helsingfors, 1913), p. 101.
Footnote 562:(return)E. Westermarck, "Midsummer Customs in Morocco,"Folk-lore, xvi. (1905), pp. 42sq., 46sq.; id., Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with Agriculture, etc.,in Morocco, pp. 99sqq.
E. Westermarck, "Midsummer Customs in Morocco,"Folk-lore, xvi. (1905), pp. 42sq., 46sq.; id., Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with Agriculture, etc.,in Morocco, pp. 99sqq.
Footnote 563:(return)G. F. Abbott,Macedonian Folklore(Cambridge, 1903), pp. 60sq.
G. F. Abbott,Macedonian Folklore(Cambridge, 1903), pp. 60sq.
Footnote 564:(return)"Narrative of the Adventures of four Russian Sailors, who were cast in a storm upon the uncultivated island of East Spitzbergen," translated from the German of P.L. Le Roy, in John Pinkerton'sVoyages and Travels(London, 1808-1814), i. 603. This passage is quoted from the original by (Sir) Edward B. Tylor,Researches into the Early History of Mankind, Third Edition (London, 1878), pp. 259sq.
"Narrative of the Adventures of four Russian Sailors, who were cast in a storm upon the uncultivated island of East Spitzbergen," translated from the German of P.L. Le Roy, in John Pinkerton'sVoyages and Travels(London, 1808-1814), i. 603. This passage is quoted from the original by (Sir) Edward B. Tylor,Researches into the Early History of Mankind, Third Edition (London, 1878), pp. 259sq.
Footnote 565:(return)SeeThe Scapegoat, pp. 166sq.
SeeThe Scapegoat, pp. 166sq.
Footnote 566:(return)E.K. Chambers,The Mediaeval Stage(Oxford, 1903), i. 110sqq.
E.K. Chambers,The Mediaeval Stage(Oxford, 1903), i. 110sqq.