The Great Crisis in Jesus' Ministry.The Gospel narratives are so fragmentary and the topographical evidence is so meagre that it is impossible to trace with any degree of assurance Jesus' various journeys. Once, and possibly often, he visited his kinsmen at his native town of Nazareth, following the well-beaten highway along the lake to Magdala and thence pastthe village of Hattin to Nazareth. From the cities on the northern end of the Sea of Galilee, which were the scenes of his public ministry, the rumor of his work spread in all directions and multitudes came streaming to him from Galilee, Judea, the cities of the Decapolis and even distant Phœnicia. It soon became evident, however, that the majority came merely to be healed, or attracted by the hope that he was the Messiah of the popular expectation. To such his strong ethical message was a disappointment. They represented the stony or shallow ground of the familiar parable, and, therefore, in their lives the seed which he sowed bore no fruit. Scribes sent by the Jewish hierarchy at Jerusalem also came to entrap him with questions and to stir up distrust and opposition even in the ranks of his disciples. Thus he suddenly found himself surrounded not by enthusiastic multitudes but by suspicious, relentless foes.
Journey to Phœnicia.This great crisis marks an important turning-point in Jesus' ministry. Influenced by the evidences of the loss of public favor and of the open opposition of the Pharisees, he withdrew from public activity in Galilee and devoted himself more and more to the instruction and training of his disciples. Through them he realized that he was to accomplish his divine mission. On one occasion he departed with his disciples to the borders of Tyre and Sidon. It was a circuitous journey through the lofty, picturesque valleys of upper Galilee, down toward the fertile, warm plains of Phœnicia. The biblical narrative indicates that he did not enter the ancient city of Tyre, but proceeded northward, probably along the great coast road that ran through Sarepta and Sidon. At this time both of these cities were important commercial centres. Sidon lay on a promontory jutting out into the Mediterranean, with shallow, sandy harbors both on the north and on the south. The fertile fields and groves that encircled this northern metropolis, and its warm, sunny climate doubtless reminded Jesus and his disciples of their home at Capernaum. The Gospel narrative also implies that Jesusreturned to Bethsaida through the Greek towns east of the Jordan, thus completely avoiding the territory of Antipas.
At Cæsarea Philippi.Soon after, or possibly in connection with the same journey, Jesus visited Philip's capital at Cæsarea.(30)It lay at the head of the Jordan valley, on the highway from northern Palestine to Damascus. About were picturesque hills, covered with poplars, oaks, and evergreens, and fertile gardens watered by the many streams that sprang from the base of Mount Hermon. The Roman town was situated on a triangular terrace, with the present Wady Hashabeh on the north and the Wady Zaareh on the south. On the east there was also a protecting moat, while the inner city was surrounded by thick walls and guarded by towers. It was not within this heathen city, but on the quiet hilltops and the spurs of Mount Hermon that rise to the north of the town, that Jesus found the refuge and quiet which he sought. Here, away from the Judean multitudes and the popular hopes of a temporal Messiah, Jesus told his disciples that he must accomplish his mission not by the sword or with the outward signs of triumph, but through suffering, ignominy, and death. Here, therefore, is to be sought the scene of that transfiguration which was so closely connected with his announcement to his disciples of the supreme sacrifice which he was about to make and which revealed to them his true character.
The Journey Southward from Galilee.From Luke 13:31 it is clear that at this period Herod Antipas was endeavoring to put Jesus to death, even as he had John the Baptist. This fact doubtless explains why Jesus avoided the territory of Antipas, preferring, as he himself implies, to end his work in Jerusalem rather than in some gloomy fortress like that of Machærus (Luke 13:33, 34). Hence, as he returned southward from Cæsarea Philippi, passing through Galilee, probably along the western side of the lake or by boat to the southern end, he was careful "that no man should know it" (Mark 9:30). The most direct route from Capernaum to Jerusalem was down the western side of the Jordan valley. Luke 17:11 states that on hisway he passed along the borders of Samaria and Galilee. It was probably in one of the little villages not far from Scythopolis that the ten lepers sought his help. From Luke 9:51-56 it appears that he first planned to pass thence through Samaria, probably by the road that ran through Teiasir and Tubas and joined the main central highway near Sychar (cf.p. 80); but the inhospitable reception accorded him by the Samaritans evidently led him to avoid this road and keep instead to the Jordan valley. Mark 10:1 indicates that he followed the east-Jordan highway. This road took him into the territory of Perea, which was under the control of Herod Antipas, but at a distance from his capital. Here, in the field of John the Baptist's activity and near the scene of Jesus' early work, the people again rallied about him in great numbers.
At Jericho.The multitudes still followed Jesus after he had crossed the Jordan on his way to Jerusalem. The Gospel narratives have given two vivid pictures, one of the blind men who sat by the way as he passed along, and the other of Zaccheus, the prominent tax-collector. The Herodian Jericho evidently lay on both sides of the Wady Kelt, whose waters irrigated the city and its fertile gardens that extended far across the level plain.(35)The ancient ruins indicate that the larger portion of the Roman city lay on the southern side of the Kelt; but its suburbs extended northward to a point east of the older Jericho, which lay near the western hills. The plains about the Roman Jericho were probably cultivated for miles in each direction. Here the date-palms grew in great profusion and their fruit was one of the chief exports of the place. Strabo states that balsam was produced here in large quantities. In summer the climate was exceedingly hot and oppressive, but in winter it was balmy and equable. Josephus describes with unwonted enthusiasm its marvellous fertility and healthful climate (Jew. Wars, IV, 8:2, 3). Through it ran the great caravan road to Gilead and the desert. It was the eastern outpost of Judea. The collection of customs at this point was, therefore, of great importance. The city was as different from the other cities ofJudah as was its physical environment. Plenty, luxury, and corruption were its chief characteristics. It was the heir of the traditions of the ancient Canaanite cities of the plain. Its immediate associations were with Herod the Great, Cleopatra, and Archelaus, three of the most sinister characters of this corrupt age.
Situation of Bethany.From Jericho the road led up through the barren wilderness of Judea(25)to Jerusalem. It was an almost steady climb of three thousand feet. Probably Herod the Great had already joined these two important cities of his empire by a Roman road, following the general course along which runs the modern carriage road. In striking contrast to the barrenness of the brown, rocky wilderness is the lofty plateau which stands at the top of the final ascent. On this southeastern spur of the Mount of Olives lay the little town of Bethany.(124)It was surrounded by small, rock-strewn grain fields and stood in a bower of fig, almond, and olive trees. To the northwest rose the higher ridges of the Mount of Olives, shutting off the view of Jerusalem. Above was probably situated the little village of Bethphage, less than a mile away and closely associated with Bethany in the minds of the Gospel writers. The view to the east was through the broad hollow down which went the road to Jericho. To the southeast the eye looked beyond the barren hills of the Judean wilderness to the Dead Sea and the lofty line of the plateau of Moab.(24)It is significant that Jesus chose this village as his home while in Judea, for it was retired, yet near to Jerusalem and one of the few places that commanded a wide outlook. This fact suggests the impression which Jerusalem made upon the mind of the great Prophet of Nazareth. Shut in by its surrounding hills and by its narrow fanaticism and ceremonialism its atmosphere must have seemed to him stifling.
The Triumphal Entrance Into Jerusalem.Near Bethany, his southern home, where Jesus apparently spent many days, he secured the ass on which he made his memorable journey to Jerusalem. The occasion was the Passover Feast, and pilgrimsfrom Perea, Galilee, and eastern Judea, the fields in which his ministry had been performed, accompanied him on the journey. As they saw him riding on an ass, the royal beast in the days of David, the earlier hopes of the people were suddenly revived. Quickly the news of his presence spread through the long line of pilgrims. Those ahead tore branches from the trees by the wayside or else spread their garments in the way along which he was to pass, while they all joined in a triumphant song suggested by Psalm 118:25, 26:
Hosanna to the son of David!Blessed is he who cometh in the name of the Lord!Hosanna in the highest!
Hosanna to the son of David!Blessed is he who cometh in the name of the Lord!Hosanna in the highest!
Slowly the procession wound around the southern spur of the Mount of Olives, with the deep gorge of the Kidron on the south, until Jerusalem suddenly burst into view. Thence descending into the valley, Jesus entered the city and found his way to the temple just as the sun was setting behind the western hills. He sought not a waiting throne, but a place for quiet worship. Then in the hush of the evening, refusing to give the slightest encouragement to the selfish, material hopes of the people, he returned to his humble home at Bethany.
Jesus' Activity in the Temple.Jesus' activity during the last week of his ministry gathers about the temple.(125)The remark of his disciples regarding its huge foundation stones was used by him as a means of calling their attention to the temple not built with hands. It was probably near the entrances in the southern part of the great court of the Gentiles, under the huge portico with its four rows of Corinthian columns, that the extortionate money-changers and those who sold doves plied their trade. To secure a place within the sacred precincts, they must have bribed the temple officials. Jesus' act in expelling them was, therefore, not merely a reassertion of the sanctity of the temple, but also a rebuke of the corrupt practices of the Sadducean nobles. Solomon's Porch, where Jesuswalked and taught, was the long colonnade with its double row of pillars on the eastern side of the Court of the Gentiles. From this eastern side one magnificent gate, with doors adorned with Corinthian brass, led directly into the Court of the Women. Within this small eastern court were probably placed the thirteen offertory chests into which the people cast their free-will offerings. Here only men and women of Jewish faith and parentage were allowed to enter. It was probably within this court that Jesus stood with his disciples and watched the people as they cast in their offerings, the rich of their plenty and the poor widow her mite.
The Last Supper and Agony.The place of the upper chamber, where Jesus ate the last supper with his disciples, is not definitely known. Tradition fixes it at a certain place on the western hill. Equally uncertain is the exact site of the Garden of Gethsemane. Its name indicates that it was probably an olive grove containing an oil press. It was doubtless enclosed with a fence like similar gardens about Jerusalem to-day. It was situated somewhere to the east of the Kidron, on the side of the Mount of Olives. A tradition which is probably not older than the sixteenth century identifies Gethsemane(126)with a garden low down in the Valley of the Kidron, opposite the temple. This garden, with its eight old olive trees, aids the imagination in picturing the spot, probably farther away and more secluded, where Jesus met and overcame his last great temptation, and gave himself wholly and voluntarily to the completion of the divine task entrusted to him.
Scenes of the Trials.The Gospel narrative implies that Jesus was not tried before a formal meeting of the Sanhedrin, which would have convened in one of the chambers immediately adjoining the temple, but in the house of Caiaphas, the high priest. This midnight session was, therefore, not a regular trial, but a preliminary examination by his Sadducean enemies, with a view to formulating definite charges against him. The house of the high priest was undoubtedly near the temple, probably somewhere to the west. According to the Fourth Gospel,the trial before Pilate, the Roman governor, was held in the Prætorium. The judgment seat of Pilate may have been connected with the palace reared by Herod on the western hill, which was then the home of the Roman rulers of Jerusalem, but more probably it was in the tower of Antonia, immediately to the north of the temple, opening into the Court of the Gentiles where the mob which was in league with the high priestly party was assembled.
Traditional Place of the Crucifixion.The exact scene of the crucifixion is also uncertain. The biblical records indicate that it was outside the city wall and yet in a conspicuous position near the city and also near an important highway. In the vicinity was a tomb, and the name, Golgotha, suggests that it was either at a place of burial or else on a hill, the form of which suggested the shape of a skull. In Luke the place is called The Skull, supporting the conclusion that it was the peculiar form of the rock that gave the place its name. Jerome speaks of it as the little mountain, or hill, of Golgotha. It was the practice both of the Jews and Romans to put to death public offenders outside the city. In the case of those, like Jesus, charged with rebellion, a conspicuous public place was chosen in order to make the object-lesson more impressive. The traditional site of the crucifixion is due west of the temple, across the upper end of the Tyropœon Valley. It is possible to infer from recent excavations that it was just outside the northern wall of the Roman city. Tombs discovered at this point show that it was also a place of burial. While this identification is not impossible, it cannot be traced farther back than the fourth Christian century.
The More Probable Site.A more probable site is somewhere near the rounded skull-like hill five hundred feet north of the Damascus gate, above the so-called Grotto of Jeremiah.(127)It is near the great northern road and, because of its height, can readily be seen from the northern side of the city. It is the continuation of the northern ridge on which Jerusalem is built and its bold form and abrupt face are due to the rockcuttings at this point. Vast quantities of stone used in the repeated restorations of the walls have been taken from these quarries. Probably Herod quarried at this point much of the stone used in extending the temple area southward. The bold, rocky bluff on the northern side of this quarry was well adapted to public executions. If this was the scene of the crucifixion the place where the cross rested has probably been cut away by later excavations.
The Place of Burial.In a little garden to the left is shown to-day a well-preserved, rock-cut tomb.(128)It is an excellent example of the family tomb of the Roman period and may have been that of Joseph of Arimathea, although there is no conclusive evidence. It possesses great interest, however, because it is a type of the tomb in which the body of the Master was laid.(129)Most significant is the fact that not one of the places which witnessed the closing scenes of his life can be identified with absolute assurance. Occidental as well as oriental Christianity has shown itself too eager to worship sacred sites and in so doing to forget the deeper meaning of the events which have made the places memorable. Though most of the scenes will remain forever unknown, the work and teachings of the Master will abide and occupy an increasingly larger place in the life and thought of mankind.
Original Centre at Jerusalem.The spread of Christianity throughout the civilized world bears conclusive testimony not only to the life-giving truth of Jesus' message, but also to the supreme wisdom of his method. His heroic death at first daunted, but the vision of his living presence, which, according to the oldest records, came to his disciples amidst the familiar scenes on the northern shores of the Sea of Galilee, quickly inspired them to take up the mission which he had left them and to proclaim abroad the good tidings of God's love for men. Strangely enough, Galilee, which had been the scene of the call, the training, and the sending forth of Jesus' disciples, again sinks into oblivion. Capernaum, Chorazin, and Bethsaida had failed to respond to their great opportunity. In accordance with the implied, if not the expressed, commands of Jesus, his disciples soon transferred their homes and work to Jerusalem, the religious home of the Jewish race, to which they, as well as their Master, at first alone appealed. Here it was possible at the great annual festivals, when the pilgrims streamed to the temple from all parts of the Roman empire, to touch the entire Jewish world. Following the example of the Great Teacher, his disciples took up the task of teaching and preaching within the precincts of the temple and especially at Solomon's Porch on the eastern side, where he had often walked and talked.
Spread of Christianity Outside Judea.The stoning of Stephen, which was outside the city and probably in the desertedquarries immediately to the north of the temple, marked a new epoch in the life of the early Christian community, for it was the beginning of a bitter persecution at the hands of the Jewish authorities, which soon drove the disciples in all directions from secluded Judah and transformed them into a world-conquering missionary force. In this early dispersion the apostles naturally followed the great highways, which led northward, southward, and westward from Jerusalem. Philip the Evangelist preached with great success at Samaria. Here he was building on an older Hebrew basis, for the Bible of the Samaritans contained the first five books of the Old Testament with portions of the book of Joshua. The mixed Samaritan population, however, ever open by virtue of their geographical position to the diverse influences that surged up and down the eastern Mediterranean, never proved a stable element in the early Christian church.
Philip's Work in the South and West.Leaving the Samaritans, Philip set out for the coast city of Gaza. He probably took the central highway from Jerusalem southward by way of Hebron. A late tradition places the spring where he baptized the Ethiopian official on the tortuous road, practically impassable for chariots, which leads southwestward from Jerusalem, but the older and more probable tradition identifies it with that beside the main road southward, a little north of Bethzur. Thence Philip turned westward, preaching and teaching with success at the old Philistine town of Ashdod, which lay three miles from the Mediterranean, on the border line between the fertile plain and the drifting sands, at the point where the main coast highway divided into its eastern and western branches.
Extension and Expansion of Christianity During the First Decade.Peter, likewise, turned westward, and at the flourishing city of Lydda, which stood where the main highway from Jerusalem to Joppa crossed the great northern coast road, found a well-established Christian community. Joppa(130)stood on a bold hill looking out over the western sea. It was fitting that here Peter, the natural leader of the rapidly growingChristian church, should have a clear vision of the great and needy Gentile world that lay beyond the narrow bounds of Judea. Joppa was indeed the gateway between Jerusalem, which represented Judaism, and Rome, which stood as the embodiment of regnant heathenism. From Joppa, with its small, rocky harbor, the apostle followed the messengers of Cornelius, the Roman centurion, along the road which closely skirted the shore to Cæsarea, the new door which Herod the Great had opened between Palestine and the Gentile world along the shores of the Mediterranean. Here Peter was far beyond Jewish atmosphere and civilization. The population, the public buildings, and the language of this busy seaport were either Greek or Roman. Thus, before Herod Agrippa in 41A.D.entered upon his brief but brilliant reign of three years, Christianity had swept over the borders of Judea into the great strategic cities of the western coast plains and even to Damascus, far in the north. It was also breaking the narrow Jewish bonds and following the great western highways that were guiding it on to the conquest of the empire.
Situation and History of Tarsus.The man who led this forward movement and formulated the world-wide policy of the Christian church was born in a city of southern Cilicia, which stood midway between the east and the west. There the influences of the ancient Orient and of the more active Occident met and mingled. The city of Tarsus lay on a rich, moist, alluvial plain, ten miles north of the Mediterranean and only eighty feet above the level of the ocean. Two miles farther north rose the foot-hills that led up to the lofty, massive peaks of the Taurus Mountains. These northern heights shut off the cooling winds, making the climate of Tarsus hot and enervating. In ancient times the sluggish river Cydnus flowed through the centre of the town on its way to the sea. The strength of Tarsus consisted in its position at the southern end of the great Cilician Plain. At this point the main highway from Antioch to Ephesus and Smyrna touched the Cydnus and thence turned northward, crossing the Taurus range by the famous Cilician Gates. Itscommercial prestige, however, was not so much the result of its natural position as of the energy of the early population. They had drained the marshes about the Cydnus and transformed the lake immediately south of the town into a large inland harbor. They also cut the road beside the narrow stream that penetrated the Taurus range, making Tarsus the seaport of the wide plains to the north. Tarsus in the days of Paul was a magnificent city of fully half a million population. Its citizens were supremely proud of their city—a pride which the great apostle to the Gentiles clearly shared. The energy which characterized the inhabitants, as a result of their successful struggle with adverse natural conditions, was also reflected in the character and work of its most distinguished citizen.
Influence of His Early Home Upon Paul.Probably from the days of Antiochus Epiphanes, Tarsus had been the home of a large and influential Jewish colony. They were doubtless permitted, as an independent social and religious group, to share in the citizenship of the proud Roman city. This Roman citizenship not only delivered Paul at many crises in his stormy career, but also brought him into intelligent and sympathetic touch with the great empire to which he bore the message of the cross. The atmosphere, therefore, of Paul's early life was distinctly Roman and cosmopolitan. The influence of this broad environment is traceable in all his work and teachings. From the port of Tarsus ships ran frequently to Cæsarea and Joppa, the ports of Jerusalem. Thus the journey was easy and natural for the young Jew of Tarsus as he went back to the sacred city of his race to study at the feet of Gamaliel, the greatest Jewish scholar of the age. His life in Palestine brought him into closest touch with the growing Christian church. The energy which he had inherited from his native city found expression at first in active persecution of the members of the new sect. The open-mindedness which he had acquired from his youthful environment, and which later led him to appreciate that which was good in the heathen religions, prepared the way for the supreme experience whichcame to him as he was crossing the desert on his way northward to Damascus.(42)
Work at Antioch.The history of the spread of Christianity for the next decade is chiefly a record of the work of the great apostle to the Gentiles. The graphic passages in the second half of the book of Acts present a remarkably vivid picture of his journeys and experiences. It was natural that Paul, a native of Asia Minor, should not remain in the narrower atmosphere of Palestine, but should find instead a congenial environment and field of work in Antioch, the great and opulent capital of Syria, the third metropolis of the Roman empire. Here he was able to observe the impression which Christianity made upon the heathen, and especially upon the Jews of the dispersion. Antioch was also the natural geographical centre from which to set out upon his missionary journeys.
Importance of the Pioneer Work of Paul.In all his missionary activity, Paul evidently followed a definite plan. He selected as the scenes of his work the great cities, situated on the main highways of communication and commerce. This choice was in part due to the fact that in the larger cities of this character were found Jewish communities, with synagogues which opened doors of opportunity to the pupil of the famous Rabbi Gamaliel. During the two preceding centuries the Jews of the dispersion had become an exceedingly active proselyting force. The influential and honorable position which they had won in many of the Græco-Roman cities, as well as the character of their faith, commended them to the most worthy of their heathen neighbors. The result was that many of the Gentiles had accepted the essentials of the Jewish religion and worshipped with the Jews in their synagogues. This class is ordinarily described in the narrative of Acts by the designation "devout Greeks." Thus Judaism had prepared the way for the spread of Christianity. From the ranks of the devout Greeks was drawn a large proportion of the converts, who responded to the early preaching of Paul and of the other Christian apostles.
Paul and Barnabas in Cyprus.With these conditions in mind, Paul and Barnabas planned their first missionary journey. Cilicia belonged within Antioch's sphere of influence and was indeed a part of the province of Syria. Paul and Barnabas turned to the immediately adjacent island of Cyprus and the Roman province of Galatia, lying respectively to the southwest and northwest. Cyprus possibly attracted them because Barnabas was a native of that island. Throughout all its history it had stood in close commercial relations with Syria. Salamis, its chief eastern city, was first visited. It lay at the mouth of the River Pediæus on the eastern edge of a fertile plain which extended far to the west. The Ptolemies, as early as 295B.C., had transported many Jews to Cyprus, and Herod the Great doubtless sent many more to work the copper mines there which he controlled.
At Paphos.From Salamis two Roman highways ran across the island to Paphos, the chief city on its western shores. The Roman city which Paul and Barnabas visited was the new Paphos. It was situated on the sea-coast, being in fact the seaport of the older inland city ten miles to the southwest. The older city had been famous throughout the ancient world as the seat of the corrupt worship of the Paphian goddess, whom the Greeks identified with Aphrodite. At the new city Paul came into contact both with the Roman ruler and a representative of the local superstitions.
Journey to Antioch in Galatia.From Paphos it was easy to secure a passage northward to the coast of Pamphylia, for along this course passed many of the merchant ships from Alexandria to Rome. The apostles probably landed at Attalia and thence went to Perga, the chief city of central Pamphylia. It lay five miles from the river, on a plain at the foot of a bold, extended acropolis. The climate of these low-lying coast plains was sultry and malarial. The city was dominated by the worship of a local goddess and there is no evidence that there was a Jewish synagogue at this point. Because of these unfavorable conditions, Paul and Barnabas simply passed throughthis southern city on their way to the great strategic centres farther north. The journey thither through the deep valleys and over the rough heights was exceedingly arduous. Here Paul doubtless experienced many of those perils of rivers and perils of robbers which he mentions in II Corinthians 11:26.
Conditions at Antioch.It was at the Roman colony of Antioch,(131)that the apostles found their first great field of activity in Asia Minor. The town lay about three thousand six hundred feet above the level of the sea, on an isolated plateau two miles in circumference, which rose from one to two hundred feet above the western plain. On the east it was protected by a rocky gorge through which flowed the River Anthios. The city was, therefore, a natural fortress, able to resist the frequent attacks of the warlike Pisidian mountaineers. It had been made a Roman colony by Augustus a little before the beginning of the Christian era and hence was an outpost of Rome itself and dominated the southern part of the great Roman province of Galatia. The worship of the local deity had recently been abolished, so that the city offered an unusual field for missionary work. The Jewish colony was apparently large and influential, for many Gentiles joined with the Jews in worship at their synagogue. From the first Paul and Barnabas appear to have made a profound impression upon the people of this important city. It was their success that aroused certain of the Jews and the Roman magistrates of the city so that the apostles were forcibly expelled.
At Iconium.From Antioch they turned eastward, following the Roman highway that led to Lystra. Instead, however, of going at once to Lystra, they turned to Iconium,(132)eighty miles east of Antioch. This town lay on a level plain three thousand three hundred and seventy feet above the sea. It was protected on the west by a lofty mountain range, from which emerged the river, which first irrigated and then lost itself in the wide, thirsty plain on which Iconium lay. Unlike Antioch, Iconium had no natural barriers. Great energy and skill were required to utilize successfully the waters of its mainstream and to protect it from the annual floods. Here grew up a flourishing commercial city with an active, resourceful population. A Jewish colony and a synagogue offered an excellent field for the apostles' work. Here they remained for a long time, preaching, teaching, and laying the foundations for the strong Christian church which made Iconium long after an important religious centre. In time, however, the opposition of the Jews crystallized and the apostles were driven forth by a mob.
At Lystra and Derbe.From Iconium they turned southward to Lystra,(133)twenty miles distant. It was a quiet town, situated in a pleasant valley in the midst of which rose a bold, elongated hill about one hundred and fifty feet high, which was the acropolis. The valley was watered by two streams which flowed from the western hills. While it was a Roman colony and connected with Galatian Antioch, it was aside from the great highways of commerce. The apostles evidently turned to it as a refuge. Antioch and Iconium were strong Græco-Roman towns, but at Lystra Paul and Barnabas came into contact with the native Lycaonian population. The readiness with which the natives identified the energetic spokesman, Paul, with Hermes, and the more reserved and dignified Barnabas with Zeus, reveals the naïveté of the small provincial town. Again the attack of a mob, incited by Jews who came from Antioch and Iconium, compelled the apostles to seek refuge in Derbe, on the southeastern end of the Lycaonian plain. The town was probably situated on a low hill that stands in the midst of the great plain about forty-five miles south of Iconium.(134)On the south the lofty range of the Taurus shuts it off from the sea. Here the apostles were among the native people, with little Roman, Greek, or Jewish influence to interfere with their work, which appears to have been successful and undisturbed by persecution. From this point they retraced their steps through all the cities where they had recently labored. Thence going southward they stopped for a short time at Perga and then sailed from Attalia back to Antioch.
Decision of the Great Council at Jerusalem.The successful work of the apostles, extending probably through two years, raised a great controversy in the church as to whether the Jewish institution of circumcision was necessary for salvation. Paul and Barnabas journeyed southward through Phœnicia and Samaria, telling the Christians on the way of the results of their work among the heathen. Fortunately the church met this great crisis wisely and in the spirit of Jesus. The narrow Jewish bonds were broken and Christianity went forth comparatively untrammelled on its world conquest.
Work of Paul and Silas in Asia Minor.Paul and Barnabas, accompanied by Judas and Silas, two representatives of the church at Jerusalem, devoted themselves for a time to the work at Antioch, the Syrian capital. They soon, however, felt the call to the larger field beyond. Barnabas, accompanied by Mark, returned to Cyprus, and Paul, taking Silas, set out on his second great missionary journey. His object was twofold; first to visit and encourage the churches already established, and second, to carry the message of the Gospel to Ephesus, the great commercial, political, and religious centre of western Asia Minor. They first visited the churches of Syria and of the sub-province of Cilicia. Thence they followed the great military road westward, stopping at Derbe, Lystra, Iconium, and probably Antioch.
Paul's Vision at Troas.Being prevented from entering the northern province of Bithynia, Paul and Silas went on through Mysia to Troas, on the extreme western boundary of Asia Minor. While at this seaport town, which stood at the end of the great overland route from Asia,(135)facing the Ægean and the continent of Europe beyond, a vision came to Paul which marked a new stage in the expansion of Christianity. The experience was remarkably similar to that which came to Peter at the port of Joppa. In response to this vision, Paul left behind his work in Asia Minor and took ship for Neapolis, the port of Philippi in Macedonia. In so doing he was following the most direct highways between Asia Minor and Rome (cf.p. 82).
Paul and Silas at Philippi.The city of Philippi lay about nine miles northwest of its seaport, Neapolis. It was on the southern side of a great plain that extended to the north and northwest. Its chief river flowed along its eastern side into a huge marsh that flanked the city on the south. Like many of the cities chosen by Paul as the scenes of his labors, it was a Roman colony. It was probably chosen because of its strategic value as one of the outposts of the great empire whose conquest for Christ was already the goal of Paul's endeavor. Also, as the event proved, Rome's protection was of great value to the apostle, who could claim citizenship in the imperial city. Apparently there was only a small Jewish colony at this point and no synagogue, so that Paul established connection with his countrymen at the open place of prayer beside the river and beyond the city walls. The success of their work aroused the inevitable opposition and led to their imprisonment; but on this occasion they were sent forth from the city at the request of the magistrates rather than by force.
At Thessalonica.From Philippi they proceeded westward along the well-travelled Egnatian Way to Thessalonica, the capital and chief commercial city of Macedonia. It lay at the northeastern end of the Thermaic Gulf, the present Gulf of Salonica, in a great ampitheatre formed by the surrounding hills, which were crowned by a strong citadel. Vast plains lay behind the city and it commanded the trade of the northern Ægean. Because of its loyalty to the cause of Octavius and Antony it had been made a free city, ruled by its own assembly and magistrates, called Politarchs. Here, as at Philippi, Paul succeeded in laying the foundations of a strong Christian church, composed largely of the Greek converts to Judaism. The hostile Jews soon charged Paul and Silas with stirring up sedition and rebellion, a charge to which the rulers of a free city like Thessalonica were especially ready to listen. Much to his regret, Paul was therefore obliged suddenly to leave the city.
Paul at Berœa.As in his flight from Iconium, he now found refuge at a quiet, retired town. Berœa lay fifty miles southwestof Thessalonica, in the midst of groves of trees and flowing streams. It was flanked by a bold mountain range on the west and faced toward the Ægean, with a broad expanse of plain lying in the foreground. Here Paul found a nobler type of Jews, probably untouched by the mercenary spirit of those who had been attracted to the great commercial centres like Thessalonica and Philippi. His work among both the Jews and Greeks was very successful until emissaries came from Thessalonica. Paul's heart was evidently set upon returning to take up his work at the Macedonian metropolis, but events had proved that this was impossible.
At Athens.Accompanied by the Christians of Berœa, Paul next went southward along the Ægean to the home of that civilization which had surrounded him in his boyhood days at Tarsus and profoundly influenced the fields in which he had done his work. Landing at the port of Piræus, he proceeded along the new road to Athens, beside which stood the altars to the unknown gods. On entering the city he naturally went to the Agora, on the south of which Mars Hill(136)rose abruptly. East of this was the Acropolis, crowned by that most peerless product of Greek art, the Parthenon. Athens was still at the height of its artistic splendor, but it had already ceased to be the political and intellectual capital of the Greek world. Superficial philosophy and sophistry had taken the place of real intellectual leadership. Athens, being aside from the world's commerce, had little attraction for the Jewish colonists. The city, therefore, lacked the religious background which Paul had found helpful in all his previous work. The critical, speculative atmosphere of the city was uncongenial. Paul was accustomed to addressing himself to the vital, crying needs of humanity. He made a strong effort to adapt himself to the new conditions, not without some success, but there is no record of a church at Athens, and he soon left to find a more promising field.
Importance of Corinth.Corinth, to which Paul next went, marks an important epoch in his ministry. The city was calledby the ancients the "Bridge of the Sea."(137)It lay on the narrow neck of land which connected the Corinthian with the Saronic Gulf. It was on one of the three great highways from the east to the west, and here all cargoes had to be trans-shipped. It was also the bridge that connected the Peloponnesus with northern Greece. By nature, therefore, it was destined to become a great and influential city. It was built on a broad terrace at the end of a gently sloping plain, with an almost impregnable acropolis rising one thousand eight hundred feet above the sea-level. When Paul visited the city it was the metropolis and Roman capital of the province of Achaia. From the days of Julius Cæsar it had been a Roman colony. Because of its commercial importance its population was cosmopolitan, including many Jews. Like most cities thus situated, it was exceedingly prosperous and profligate.
Paul's Work at Corinth.To this needy and important field Paul addressed himself with superlative devotion. Anxious regarding the results of his work in Thessalonica, harassed by poverty and weakened by sickness, he nevertheless devoted himself to teaching both Jews and Gentiles, at the same time plying his trade as a tent-maker. Finding the Jews hostile, he devoted his time almost entirely to the Gentiles, making his home with Titus Justus, whose name suggests Roman origin. Unable to visit the church at Thessalonica, Paul wrote to the Christian community there the two letters known as I and II Thessalonians. At about the same time he appears to have written his famous epistle to the Galatian churches. These letters mark the beginning of that remarkable correspondence which is recorded in the epistles of the New Testament. During this period or at a later visit Paul wrote from Corinth the letter known as the Epistle to the Romans, which contains the fullest and noblest résumé of his doctrines. Corinth was one of the few places which Paul was not compelled to leave under pressure of persecution. After a sojourn of about two years he departed for Syria, stopping for a short time at Ephesus, and finally landing at Cæsarea.
His Third Journey.After visiting the churches at Jerusalem and Antioch, Paul set out, probably early in the spring, on this third great missionary tour. As in his second journey, his aim was to visit the churches which he had established and to proclaim the Gospel in the city of Ephesus. He first revisited the region of Galatia and Phrygia, and thence, following westward the great caravan route, he apparently went on directly to Ephesus by the higher and more northern road. Ephesus, for the next year or two, became the head-quarters from which he made journeys to the churches in Macedonia and Achaia. Apparently at certain points, as for example at Illyria on the Adriatic, he extended still farther the sphere of his influence.
Situation and Importance of Ephesus.Ephesus was at this time the chief commercial city of eastern Asia Minor. Here converged the great highways from the east and north. The town lay opposite the island of Samos, on the bank of the Cayster River. Like most Greek cities, it was built on and about an imposing hill and was enclosed by a great wall. It was a characteristic Roman city, with a huge theatre,(138)a beautiful agora, a stadium seating over six thousand, a forum, and streets lined with colonnades; but its dominant life and ideas were Greek. This western culture was deeply influenced by that of the Orient, for Ephesus, by virtue of its position, was pre-eminently the place where the East and West met and blended. The population of the city was as cosmopolitan as its civilization. Here also Roman, Greek, Alexandrian, and oriental thought met and mingled. Next to Delphi, its temple was the most important religious force in the Greek world, but its influence, on the whole, was immoral and debasing. Here, in the face of active persecution, Paul and the Christian workers whom he gathered about him established what later proved to be the most influential church in Asia Minor. Paul did not leave the Ægean until he had established a Christian community at Troas, which he had visited on his second journey, and at the important cities of Colossæ and Laodicea, east of Ephesus, on the greatcaravan road from Syria and the Tigris-Euphrates Valley. The latter churches appear to have been established by his co-workers, for in his letter to the Colossians Paul implies that he had never personally visited their city.
Return to Palestine.Having planted the Christian faith in all the great strategic centres along the main thoroughfares which led to Rome, Paul set out by boat from Miletus(139)to return to Jerusalem. Following the usual course along the southern shore of Asia Minor, he landed at Tyre. Thence he went by land to Jerusalem, stopping at Ptolemais and Cæsarea. The bitter persecution which he experienced at the Jewish capital and his long, wearisome confinement at Cæsarea are familiar chapters in the life of the apostle.(115)They only intensified his oft-expressed desire to visit the capital of the great empire, whose strength and weakness he fully appreciated. Again his Roman citizenship enabled him to escape his persistent persecutors and to reach Rome, although as a prisoner.
Journey to Rome.In this last long journey his courage and faith, as well as his wide experience as a traveller, were dramatically illustrated. Sailing from Cæsarea, he, with his Roman guard, trans-shipped at Myra, a city of southern Lycia, on an Alexandrian merchant ship. Thence the usual sea route was followed along the southern shore of Crete until the storm drove them south of their course, past Sicily, to the island of Melita, the modern Malta. There the ship was wrecked and they were obliged to remain through the winter. Then by another Alexandrian merchantman they sailed northward, landing at Puteoli, and thence proceeded by land to Rome along the Appian Way.(140)At last at this goal of all his missionary journeying, Paul was able to extend widely the bounds of the church, already established in the capital, and through the medium of letters and messengers keep in close touch with the churches which he had founded.
The World-wide Conquests of Christianity.Whether or not Paul was able later to visit distant Spain, as certain early church traditions assert, cannot be definitely determined. Atleast it is certain that the goal which he had set before himself had been, in one sense, fully attained. Within less than thirty years after the death of Jesus, active, growing Christian communities were to be found in all of the important cities of the eastern and northern Mediterranean. Two or three centuries later heathenism was vanquished and Christianity was master of the empire. This marvellous achievement would have been impossible if Rome, in the course of its natural development, had not broken down all national and racial barriers and bound together the peoples of that ancient world into one great empire. It had opened and developed the natural highways, making communication comparatively quick and easy. The natural trend of civilization was also from the east to the west, and Christianity moved on the crest of a great wave which was sweeping over the western world. Thus the faith of the Hebrew prophets and of Jesus, first proclaimed among the hilltops of Judea and Galilee, was able to enter upon that world-wide conquest which is the most significant fact in human history.
THE PHYSICAL CONTOUR AND CHARACTERISTICS OF PALESTINE
Baedeker,Palestine and Syria, 1911.Buhl,Geographie des alten Palästina, 1896.Conder,Heth and Moab, 1883.——Tent Work in Palestine, 1895.Dawson,Egypt and Syria. Their Physical Features in Relation to Bible History, 1885.Dunning,To-day in Palestine, 1907.Forbush,The Travel Lessons on the Old Testament, 1900.Fullylove,The Holy Land Painted by John Fullylove.Described by John Kelman, 1902.Guérin,Description de la Palestine, 1868-89.Guthe,Palästina, 1908.Hull,The Survey of Western Palestine, 1888.Huntington,Palestine and Its Transformation, 1911.Libbey and Hoskins,The Jordan Valley and Petra, I, II, 1905.Lynch,Narrative of U. S. Exploration in 1848.MacMillan,Guide to Palestine and Syria, 1903.Masterman,Studies in Galilee, 1909.Meistermann,New Guide to Palestine, 1909.Merrill,East of the Jordan, 1870.Murray,Handbook for Travellers in Syria and Palestine, 1892.Oliphant,Land of Gilead, 1880.Petrie,Tell el-Hesy, 1891.Palestine Exploration Fund,Quarterly Statement, 1869-1911.——,Survey of Eastern Palestine, 1889.——,Survey of Western Palestine, 1888.Robinson,Biblical Researches in Palestine, Mount Sinai and Arabia Petræa, I, III, 1841.——,Later Biblical Researches in Palestine, 1856.Schumacher,Northern Ajlun, 1890.——,Pella, 1889.——,The Jaulan. Survey of the German Society for the Exploration of the Holy Land, 1888.Stanley,Sinai and Palestine, 1883.Stewart,The Land of Israel, 1907.Tristram,Bible Places, or the Topography of the Holy Land, 1897.——,Landscapes of the Bible, 1901.——,The Land of Israel, 1876.——,The Land of Moab, 1874.Warren,Underground Jerusalem, 1876.——,Plans, Elevations, etc., Showing Results of P. E. F. Excavations at Jerusalem, 1884.Wilson,Picturesque Palestine, I-IV, 1881-84.——,The Recovery of Jerusalem, 1871.
HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF PALESTINE
Besant and Palmer,Jerusalem, the City of Herod and Saladin, 1888.Calkin,Historical Geography of Bible Lands, 1904.Conder,A Primer of Bible Geography: Founded on the Latest Explorations, 1884.Geikie,The Holy Land and the Bible, 1897.Le Strange,Palestine under the Moslems, 1890.Macphail,Historical Geography of the Holy Land, 1900.Miller,Least of All Lands, 1901.Neubauer,La Géographie du Talmud, 1868.Sanday,Sacred Sites of the Gospels, 1903.Smith,Historical Geography of the Holy Land, 1894.——, ArticleJerusalemin Hastings'Dictionary of the Bible.——, Jerusalem, I, II, 1909.Stapfer,Palestine in the Time of Christ, 1886.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE APOSTOLIC AGE
Hausrath,Time of the Apostles, 1895.Ramsay,The Cities of Saint Paul: Their Influence on His Life and Thought, 1907.——,The Cities of Eastern Asia Minor, 1907.——,The Galatia of Saint Paul and the Galatic Territory of Acts, 1896.——,Saint Paul the Traveller, 1896.Wright,Cities of Paul, Beacons of the Past Rekindled for the Present, 1906.
BOOKS OF TRAVEL
Archbold,Under the Syrian Sun, The Lebanon, Baalbek, Galilee, and Judea, 1906.Buckhardt,Travels in Syria and the Holy Land, 1822.Curtis,To-day in Syria and Palestine, 1903.Doolittle,Forbidden Paths in the Land of Og, 1900.Goodrich,In a Syrian Saddle, 1905.Lees,Life and Adventures Beyond the Jordan, 1906.Neil,Rambles in the Bible Lands, 1905.Oliphant,Notes of a Pilgrimage to Jerusalem and the Holy Land, 1891.Rix,Tent and Testament, 1907.Scott,Christ's Own Country: a Pilgrimage through Palestine.Smith,Patrollers of Palestine, 1906.Sweetapple,The Earthly Footsteps of Jesus, 1909.Thomson,The Land and the Book, I-III, 1881-86.Van Dyke,Out-of-Doors in the Holy Land, 1908.Wright,Early Travels in Palestine, 1848.
MAPS
Armstrong,A Map of Palestine from the Surveys Conducted for theCommittee of the Palestine Exploration Fund; Reduced from theOne-Inch Map, six sheets, 1881.Photo-relief Map, from a Specially Prepared Copy of the RaisedMap of Palestine, 1902.Beazley,Medaba Map, 1905.Bible Atlas, Issued by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge,1903.Conder,Map of Western Palestine from Surveys Conducted for theCommittee of the Palestine Exploration Fund, 1890.Gage,Relief Map of Palestine, 1903.Kent and Madsen,Topographical and Historical Maps and ChronologicalChart for Biblical Students, 1905.——,Historical Maps for Bible Classes, 1911.Johnston,Map of Palestine, 1884.Palestine Exploration Fund,Map of Western Palestine in 26 Sheetsfrom Surveys, Conducted for the Committee of the Palestine ExplorationFund, 1880.Philip,Scripture Atlas, 1906.——,Imperial Atlas of the World, Vol. II.Sanders,Special Edition of the P. E. F. Maps.Part 1,Illustratingthe Divisions of the Natural Drainage and the Mountain Ranges(6 Sheets).——, Part 2,Illustrating the Old Testament, the Apocrypha and Josephus(6 Sheets).——, Part 3,Illustrating the New Testament, also the Talmud and Josephus, 1882.Smith, G. A.,A New Topographical, Physical, and Biblical Map ofPalestine. Prepared under the Direction of J. G. Bartholomew,1901.Standard Biblical Atlas, 1908.Stanforth,Atlas of Universal Geography, 1895.
The following stereographs (or stereopticon slides) have been prepared to illustrate the physical characteristics of the biblical world and the most important events of biblical history. Inquiries in regard to prices, methods of ordering, and other details should be sent directly to Underwood and Underwood, 3 West 19th Street, New York City or to Underwood and Underwood, 104 High Holborn, London, W. C., England. Through them a supplemental booklet (with three locating maps) may also be secured, that gives detailed descriptions of each of the views. Sixty of the most important, that may be used repeatedly to illustrate different subjects and events, have been starred.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
* 1.Relief Map of Palestine(cf.p. 15 in text)2.Ruins of Ancient Tyre(p. 22)3.Haifa and the Plain of Acre from Mount Carmel(p. 24)4.Eastward across the Plain of Sharon(p. 24)* 5.General View of Gaza from the Southeast(p. 26)6.Shephelah and the Philistine Plain from Tell Sandahannah(p. 26)7.Highlands of Upper Galilee about Safed(p. 29)8.Lower Galilee Northeast from Mount Tabor(p. 30)* 9.South from Mount Tabor toward Gilboa(pp. 30, 152)* 10.North from Gilboa over the Plain of Jezreel(pp. 31, 152)* 11.Plain of Esdraelon and Mount Carmel West from Gilboa(pp. 32, 173)12.Northwest from Bethshean up the Valley of Jezreel(p. 33)13.South from Gilboa over the Hills of Northern Samaria(p. 35)14.The Rocky Gorge of the Wady Farah(p. 35)15.The Plain of Dothan West from Tell Dothan(p. 35)16.The Barley Vale Leading to Shechem(p. 35)* 17.Mount Gerizim and the Hills of Southern Samaria(pp. 36, 241)18.Northeast from Mount Gerizim(pp. 36, 241)19.Hill Country of Ephraim(p. 37)* 20.Mizpah from the Southwest(pp. 38, 192, 213)21.Southeast from Mizpah toward Jerusalem(p. 38)22.Barley Harvest near Bethlehem(p. 38)* 23.Hills and Fields of Judea North from Bethlehem(p. 38)24.From the Mount of Olives toward the Wilderness of Judea(pp. 39, 243, 259)25.Wilderness of Judea and the Wady Kelt(pp. 39, 127, 258)* 26.Arabs in the Wilderness of Tekoa(pp. 40, 150)27.Mount Hennon from the West(p. 46)28.The Snow-clad Summit of Mount Hermon(p. 46)29.Sources of the Jordan at Banias(p. 47)* 30.Down the Upper Jordan Valley from Cæsarea Philippi(pp. 47, 257)31.Plain of the Jordan North from Lake Huleh(p. 48)* 32.West over the Sea of Galilee(pp. 48, 255)* 33.Plain of Gennesaret from Magdala(pp. 49, 247, 253)34.Southern End of the Sea of Galilee(p. 49).* 35.Plain of Jericho from the Northwest(pp. 50, 258)36.The Lower Bed of the Jordan(p. 50)37.The Dead Sea from the North(p. 51)* 38.The Dead Sea from Machærus(pp. 52, 230, 244)39.Wilderness from the South of the Dead Sea(p. 53)40.In the Heart of the Arabah(p. 53)41.South from Engedi(p. 53)* 42.Damascus and Its Gardens(pp. 55, 169, 268)43.The Life-giving Abana River(p. 55)* 44.The Ruins of Gerasa in Eastern Gilead(p. 59)45.Ford across the Brook Jabbok(p. 59)* 46.The Fields of Moab about Dibon(pp. 60, 122, 170)47.Bedouin Camp in the Mountains of the Abarim(p. 60)48.The Deep Valley of the Arnon(p. 61)49.View of the City and Stronghold of Kerak(p. 62)* 50.The Narrow Gateway to Petra(pp. 62, 184)51.The Rock-hewn Temple of Isis at Petra(p. 62)* 52.Front View of the Great High Place at Petra(pp. 62, 95)* 53.The Top of the Great Altars at Petra(pp. 62, 95)* 54.Jerusalem from the Valley of the Kidron(p. 64)* 55.Jerusalem from the South(pp. 65, 204)* 56.Jerusalem from the Northeast(pp. 67, 70, 202)* 57.Jerusalem on the West(pp. 69, 203)58.The Damascus Gate on the North(p. 70)* 59.General View of Samaria from the North(pp. 71, 170, 233)60.The Acropolis of Samaria from the East(p. 71)
HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY
* 61.The Mound of Gezer from the Northwest(pp. 88, 224)62.Baalbek and the Great Plain between the Lebanons(p. 91)* 63.The Mound of Megiddo from the Southeast(pp. 98, 131)64.The Ruins of Houses and Public Buildings at Megiddo(p. 99)65.The Brick Store Chambers at Pithom(p. 110)66.Mount Seir and the Eastern Borders of the South Country(p. 115)* 67.The Traditional Mount Sinai from the West(p. 116)68.Bedouin Gardens in the Wilderness(p. 117)* 69.Making Bread in a Bedouin Tent(p. 117)70.Bedouin Women Churning Milk(p. 117)71.A Powerful Bedouin Sheik and His Warriors(p. 117)72.Mount Nebo and the Road down to the Jordan(p. 124)* 73.The Ruins of Jericho and the Western Hills(p. 125)74.The Outer Wall of Ancient Jericho(p. 126)75.Road from Jericho to Ai(p. 127)* 76.General View of Hebron from the East(pp. 128, 153)* 77.Rocky Bethel from the South(pp. 129, 177)78.The Great Spring at Dan(p. 130)* 79.The Battle-field beside the Kishon(p. 132)80.General View of Shiloh from the Southeast(p. 141)81.Southeast from the Top of the Ruins of Shiloh(p. 141)82.Housetop at the Traditional Home of Samuel(p. 142)83.Gibeah of Saul(p. 142)* 84.The Pass of Upper Beth-horon from the South(pp. 144, 212, 220)* 85.Scene of Jonathan's Victory at Michmash(p. 145)* 86.David's City, Bethlehem from the West(pp. 147, 233)87.Shepherd Boy with his Flock near Bethlehem(p. 147)* 88.Scene of the Slaying of Goliath in the Valley of Elah(p. 148)89.The Priestly Town of Nob(p. 148)90.Wilderness East of Ziph(p. 150)91.Interior of a Cave at Endor(p. 152)92.The Great Pool at Hebron(p. 154)* 93.View from Mizpah Northward over Gibeon(pp. 154, 213)* 94.The Valley of Rephaim South of Jerusalem(p. 155)* 95.Southern End of the Jebusite City(pp. 157, 162)96.The Water City of Rabbath-Ammon(p. 159)97.The Oak near the Scene of Absalom's Death(p. 161)98.The Scene of Adonijah's Conspiracy(pp. 162, 219)* 99.Site of Solomon's Palace and Temple(pp. 164, 233, 260)*100.The Native Rock on the Temple Area(p. 164)101.Shechem, Where the Hebrew Empire was Divided(p. 166)102.Rock of Elijah's Altar on Mount Carmel(p. 172)*103.A Shepherd with His Flock near Tekoa(p. 177)*104.The Samaritan Passover on Mount Gerizim(p. 181)105.The Samaritan High Priest and Pentateuch(p. 181)106.Records of the Campaign of Shishak(p. 182)107.The Pool of Siloam(p. 185)*108.Mareshah and the Home of Micah(pp. 186, 198, 217, 226)*109.Modern Anathoth from the Southest(p. 189)110.The Jews' Wailing Place in Jerusalem(p. 192)111.Assuan and the Island of Elephantine(p. 195)112.Bazaars in Jerusalem(p. 205)*113.Modein, the Home of Judas Maccabeus(p. 211)114.Battle-field of Bethsura from the South(pp. 214, 223)*115.The Ruins of Cæsarea(pp. 233, 277)*116.Nazareth, Jesus' Home(p. 239)117.Fountain of the Virgin at Nazareth(p. 241)*118.Baptizing in the Jordan(p. 243)*119.Site and Ruins of Capernaum(p. 248)*120.The Fountain Tabighah and the Plain of Gennesaret(p. 249)*121.Ruins of Chorazin(p. 250)*122.Near the Site of Bethsaida(p. 251)123.Mending Nets near Bethsaida(p. 251)*124.Bethany, the Home of Jesus' Friends(p. 259)*125.Pilgrims in Passion Week in the Temple Courts(p. 260)126.The Traditional Garden of Gethsemane(p. 261)*127.The New Calvary Outside the Damascus Gate(p. 262)128.A Rock-hewn Tomb near Jeremiah's Grotto(p. 263)129.Interior of the Rock-hewn Tomb(p. 263)130.Jaffa, the Joppa of Biblical Times(p. 265)131.Antioch in Galatia(p. 270)*132.Iconium, Where Paul Labored(p. 270)133.The Mound of Ancient Lystra(p. 271)134.The Site of Derbe(p. 271)135.The Harbor and Site of Troas(p. 272)*136.Athens Old and New(p. 274)137.The Isthmus of Corinth(p. 275)*138.The Great Theatre of Ephesus(p. 276)139.Ancient Roman Theater at Miletus(p. 277)140.The Roman Forum and Colosseum(p. 277)