Most of the familiar or useful plants have had their origin or characteristics accounted for by myths or legends, whereby the ignorant and superstitious have attempted to explain such features as attracted their attention. Some of these ideas were creditable to the plant, while others were quite the contrary. The Mullen appears to have led a dual existence, seeking an alliance with the spiritual world and at the same time aiding and abetting the witches in their nefarious undertakings.
A very pretty story concerning the Mullen is attributed to the American Indian, but in some regards it seems to be a variant of the Scandinavian Tree of Life myth. It appears that the Great Spirit of the red men lived at the top of a high tree whose branches reached to the heavens; as no mortal could attain to this high attitude, a spirit of the woods, in the guise of a beautiful maiden, took pity upon the people and so fashioning a ladder from the stems of the wild grape vine, she fastened it to a star. In order that the Great Father might not be disturbed, the fair sylvan carpeted the steps of the ladder with the velvet leaves of the Mullen, upon which she noiselessly ascended and descended, bearing the petitions of the red men or bringing to them advice or admonitions.
Of the one hundred and twenty-five species of Mullen that are native to the old world, five have become naturalized in the United States. The Great Mullen (Verbascum thapsus), so familiar in dry, open fields, was originally christened by Pliny and has since received over forty English names of a less classical origin and significance. The name Verbascum is supposed to be derived from Berbascum, meaning a beard. Pliny doubtless selected this name, either because of the hairs on the stems of the plants or on account of the silky character of the leaves. The specific name, thapsus, is said to have been added, as the plants grew in considerable numbers in the vicinity of Thapsus.
One of the significant but impracticable common names of the Great Mullen is Hag-taper. The plant gained this unpleasant appellation by reason of the fact that if any one steps on a young Mullen plant after sundown, the witches will ride him as a horse until morning, lighting the way with Mullen stalks used for torches. These torches were also employed at the meetings of the hags and witches, when the leaves of the plant were an important element in the concoctions prepared in their cauldrons. Another name is Hare’s Beard, illustrating a class of plants that have weird names because of some fancied likeness to animals. The name Cow’s Lungwort, arose from the resemblance between the leaf and the dewlap of a cow, from which it was argued that the plant must be a specific for lung diseases. In England, where the Mullen is known as Blanket Leaf, the dried leaf is tied around the throat in cases of colds. It is believed that the leaf sets up a mild irritation which will be beneficial. The dried stalks of the plants were often used for torches at funerals which gave rise to the names High or Hedge Torch. The Great Mullen varies in height from two to seven feet. The stem is stout, very woolly, with branching hairs. The oblong, pale green, velvety leaves form a rosette on the ground or alternately clasp the stem. The flowers, which are about an inch in diameter, are clustered around a thick, dense spike, and have two long and three short stamens, so arranged as to materially assist the process of cross fertilization which is largely carried on by bees. It is interesting to note in connection with the thick woolly covering of the plant that many vegetable forms are so protected when exposed to intense heat or cold. This is true of most alpine and desert forms and the value of such a protection to the Mullen will be seen when it is remembered that the plants are always found in open, dry, stony fields exposed to the fierce heat of the sun, and afforded no protection for the rosettes of year-old plants which must survive the winter in order to send up the flower stalk the second spring.
GREAT MULLEN OR VELVET DOCK.(Verbascum thapsus).
GREAT MULLEN OR VELVET DOCK.(Verbascum thapsus).
MOTH MULLEN.(Verbascum blattaria).FROM “NATURE’S GARDEN”
MOTH MULLEN.(Verbascum blattaria).FROM “NATURE’S GARDEN”
The Moth Mullen (Verbascum blattaria) is a far more attractive and graceful plant than the form previously described. The specific name was derived from the idea that the plant would kill the cockroach (Blatta). It was supposed that moths would not go near the plant, and it was quite a general custom in New England to pack these plants or flowers with clothing or furs in order to keep out moths. The stamens are similar to those of the Great Mullen, except the filaments are tufted with violet hairs. The flowers are yellow or white on long, loose racemes. The erect, slender stem is usually about two feet in height, and as a rule there are no leaves present at the flowering time.
Charles S. Raddin.
The fields are wet, the fields are green,All things are glad and growing,And fresh and cool across the poolThe gentle wind is blowing.Tho’ humid clouds yet fill the sky,The rain has ceased its falling,And from his rail across the swale,I hear the partridge calling,The spotted partridge calling.
The fields are wet, the fields are green,
All things are glad and growing,
And fresh and cool across the pool
The gentle wind is blowing.
Tho’ humid clouds yet fill the sky,
The rain has ceased its falling,
And from his rail across the swale,
I hear the partridge calling,
The spotted partridge calling.
Through the silence not a noteHis listening ear is greeting.But hear! O hear—how loud and clearHis call he is repeating,What pleading lingers in his tone,What tenderness revealing.O, soft and sweet across the wheat,A timid answer’s stealing,The timid answer’s stealing.—Belle Hitchcock.
Through the silence not a note
His listening ear is greeting.
But hear! O hear—how loud and clear
His call he is repeating,
What pleading lingers in his tone,
What tenderness revealing.
O, soft and sweet across the wheat,
A timid answer’s stealing,
The timid answer’s stealing.
—Belle Hitchcock.
While much can be said about the beauty and grace of birds of brilliant plumage and those of soul-stirring song, there is as much to be written concerning those noted for their sagacity and cunning. Some have selected the parrot as the model in this particular and the choice is not a mistake.
There is, however, a tribe which all may observe more or less, while a story relating to their habits or pranks will ever find willing listeners. The Crow is the best known of this genus, and grouped with him are the chough, the raven, the rook and the jackdaw. All of these may be tamed, and afterward may be taught to use the language of man.
The plumage of the Crow in the northern parts of the world is black, and we are so accustomed to that color that to speak of a white or of a spotted Crow might subject one to ridicule, yet in many parts of the world such Crows are found. Some are gray and black, and some species are larger than others. They are characterized by a comparatively short tail, long wings, and a strong, rather conical beak.
Crows are distinguished from ravens by their smaller size, and by the feathers of the neck blending with those of the body, while on the ravens, the neck feathers are pointed and distinct. The Crow family is widely distributed, but Crows, as properly understood, are mainly inhabitants of the north temperate zone. They are intelligent, wary birds (when persecuted), and are practically omnivorous, feeding upon fish, fowl, eggs, snakes, frogs, crabs, shell-fish, grubs, fruits, seeds and berries. The common Crow of North America is particularly abundant in the Eastern United States, and is looked upon as the inveterate foe of the farmer on account of the amount of injury he inflicts on growing crops, and especially upon corn. There is, however, a credit side to the account in the destruction of grubs; but as the Crow is by nature such a pilferer, he must be regarded as harmful in many ways.
In the fall and winter these glossy birds assemble by thousands in great roosts, or rookeries; one of these roosts on the Potomac above Washington has been estimated to harbor 40,000 Crows, while others are still larger. In the gray of the morning the birds leave in clamorous crowds for their feeding-grounds, often many miles away, and in the afternoon may be seen winging their way homeward in long lines, high above the earth in fair weather, low down in foul. The eastern fish crow, frequently found in company with the others, is a smaller bird, and can readily be distinguished by its hoarse caw.
The Carrion Crow of Europe and Asia closely resembles the North American Crow in form, size and habits, but is perhaps a little more destructive, attacking and killing lambs, or even weakly sheep. The Hooded Crow, found in northern and eastern Europe and in many parts of Asia, is gray, with black head, throat, wings and tail. The Gray-necked Crow of India is a small but bold and mischievous species, often stealing the very food from the table. On the other hand, it does much good as a scavenger, forming an able adjunct to the vultures in this respect.
An interesting story is told of a Crow of this species which had been tamed and petted until it behaved much as would a spoiled child. “Old Crusty,” as he was called, would actually take the food away from the dog while he was eating, not by open encounter, for that would have deprived him of his fun. But he would tease the poor canine until he barked from vexation, then snatch up the prey and triumphantly bear it off to a neighboring tree, where he ate it at his leisure, while the dog stood looking at him and uselessly venting his rage in loud, threatening barks.
The annual “muster” of the Crows,like that of blackbirds, is a scene very amusing, as well as mysterious. It has been my privilege to witness a few such gatherings, but to me there seemed more noise than meaning. It is said by naturalists, however, that the most extraordinary meetings of the Crows occur in northern Scotland. There they collect in great numbers, as if they had all been summoned for the occasion; a few of the flock sit with drooping heads, and others seem grave as judges, while others again are exceedingly active and noisy. One authority says: “These meetings will sometimes continue for a day or so before the object, whatever it may be, is completed. Crows continue to arrive from all quarters during the session. As soon as all have arrived a very general noise ensues, and shortly after the whole fall upon one or two individuals and put them to death. When the execution has been performed they quietly disperse.”
The Chough is a red-legged Crow and is one of the most mischievous birds of his genus. He carefully examines everything he finds, then carries it away if he can. And if there be a collection of anything to which he has access, he is sure to scatter it in all directions. Those which have been converted into pets have proven very affectionate, but they are easily offended and will often vent their spite in a most annoying yet very amusing manner.
The Raven is very much like the Crow in his habits, but is more given to fighting and to burglary than his shy cousin. He is a great tease, also, and will often attack children and even grown up people just for fun. By this it can be seen that the Raven is more susceptible to taming than the Crow, while no old Crow can steal so many articles or hide them as completely as the Raven. They are quick to make friends with dog or man, but, like the Chough, are very troublesome foes when once offended.
The Rook is a European bird, and though the farmer recognizes in him a destroyer of his young crops, he must admit that without the Rook he would save little or none of his crop. Worms constitute the favorite food of this bird, wherefore many a husbandman has learned that it is best to endure the disadvantages of a rookery merely for the sake of his harvests. For one queer habit of Rooks is that they will frequent the same spot all their lives, and it is next to impossible to dislodge them from their abode.
The Jackdaws are the boldest of the genus, and have a very remarkable “don’t care” look. They frequent high towers, hollow trees, and even appropriate to their own use the loftiest parts of the English castles. They choose their mates for life, and do not live in communities. They assemble in flocks, however, when cherries begin to ripen and will soon rob a tree if the owner is not on guard.
An amusing story is told of a tame Jackdaw. While pilfering one day he found a half-glass of whisky which had been left upon a table, and on tasting it, he liked it so much that he drank a quantity. In a few moments symptoms of intoxication began to appear; his wings dropped and his eyes were half-closed. He staggered towards the edge of the table, probably intending to fly to the floor, but he had either lost the power of his wings or he was afraid to trust them. He stood, seemingly meditating what he should do, all the while reeling like a drunken man about to lose his balance. Presently his eyes were shut and he fell over on his back with his legs in the air, exhibiting every sign of death.
An attempt was made to put some water down his throat, but he could not swallow it. He was then rolled in a piece of flannel, laid in a box and locked away in a closet. All the family, with whom he was a great pet, never expected to see him on his legs again. Next morning about six o’clock the door was opened, with the expectation of finding Jackie dead, but he had freed himself from the flannel and as soon as the door was open he flew out and hurried away to a basin-shaped stone, out of which the fowls drank, and copiously allayed his thirst. He repeated this several times that day and was none the worse for his exploit, but, with more forbearance than those who are endowed with reason, he never again would touch whisky.
Claudia May Ferrin.
The wretch shall feelThe giddy motion of the whirling mill,In fumes of burning chocolate shall glow,And tremble at the sea that froths below!—Pope, “Rape of the Lock,” ii, 135.
The wretch shall feel
The giddy motion of the whirling mill,
In fumes of burning chocolate shall glow,
And tremble at the sea that froths below!
—Pope, “Rape of the Lock,” ii, 135.
The cocoa-yielding plant is a tree varying from fifteen to forty feet in height. The main stem or trunk is much twisted and knotty, from which the branches stand out almost horizontally. The bark is thick, rough and of a cinnamon brown color. The leaves are alternate, large, smooth, entire, and of a deep green color. Flowers occur singly, more usually in clusters, from those parts of the branches and trunk formerly corresponding to the axils of leaves. Calyx deeply five-cleft, pale red. Petals pink. Fruit solitary or several together, pendulous, large, pear-shaped; each pericarp enclosing numerous brown seeds about the size of a hickory nut or almond, from which the chocolate and cocoa are made.
The chocolate tree is a native of Mexico, Central America, Brazil and other South American countries. It is now extensively cultivated in most tropical countries of both hemispheres. The West Indian islands have numerous large plantations. It is also found in botanic gardens and greenhouses. There are several cultivation varieties.
The cocoa or cacao yielding plant must not be confounded with the coco-nut palm or the coca-yielding plant which has already been described.
The natives of Mexico used cocoa before the discovery of America by Columbus. The Toltecs cultivated the plant centuries before they were finally conquered by the more powerful and more progressive Aztecs in 1325. Cortez and Fernandez in their letters to Charles V. of Spain referred to the cultivation of cocoa by the Mexicans who used the seeds not only as a food but also as a medium of barter and exchange. It was apparently the only medium accepted in the payment of provincial taxes. Humboldt states that cocoa was similarly employed in Costa Rica and other Central American countries.
In remote times cocoa was somewhat differently prepared from what it is at the present time. The roasted and hulled seeds were coarsely pulverized in a stone mortar, strongly spiced by means of vanilla and other spices, boiled in water and when cold stirred to a frothy semi-liquid in cold water and eaten cold. The word chocolate is said to be derived from the Aztecchocolatl(choca, frothy andatl, water). Through Cortez and others who lauded very highly the value of cocoa as a nourishing food for those going on long journeys, it soon became widely known. In 1520 considerable quantities of it, pressed into cakes, were shipped to Spain. Remarkable as it may seem, it is stated that the Brazilians learned the use of cocoa from the Spaniards. The noted Italian traveler Carletti (1597-1606) introduced the use and preparation of cocoa into his native city, Florence. Not all Europeans gave favorable reports concerning the use of cocoa. Clusius stated that it was more suited to hogs than human beings. Acosta stated that the drink had “a nauseous aspect and caused heart troubles.” Cocoa was introduced into France about 1615, England about 1667, Germany about 1679. Somewhat later chocolate houses were established in various cities of Europe. William Homburg, a chemist, of Paris, extracted the fat from cocoa as early as 1695, and Quelus (1719) recommended its use as a salve and as an article of diet.
COCOA FRUIT.Fruit and seeds.FROM KŒHLER’S MEDICINAL-PFLANZEN.
COCOA FRUIT.Fruit and seeds.FROM KŒHLER’S MEDICINAL-PFLANZEN.
The fruit of the wild growing plants is small and the seeds exceedingly bitter, hence the cultivated cocoa is preferred. The seeds are prepared in two ways, fermented and unfermented. In the former the seeds are placed in heaps in holes in the earth, in boxes or barrels, covered with leaves. In the course of four or five days they begin to “sweat” or undergo a mild form of fermentation. During this time the seeds must be stirred about occasionally. At the close of the sweating process most of the bitterness is gone and they have lost about one-half in weight. Afterwards the seeds are rapidly dried in the sun or in ovens. The fully dried seeds have a rich brown color. The following are the more important market varieties of fermented cocoa:
1. Mexican or Soconusco Cocoa.—Seeds rather small, delicate flavor and of a golden yellow color. Since Mexico does not produce sufficient cocoa for home consumption this variety is rarely exported. This and the following varieties are said to be derived from Theobroma bicolor, Th. angustifolium and Th. ovalifolium.
2. Esmeralda Cocoa.—Similar to the Mexican; somewhat darker in color.
3. Guatemala Cocoa.—Seeds large, with mild flavor.
4. Caracas Cocoa.—From Venezuela. Color pale brown, with a mild, agreeable flavor. Usually coated with a film of soil due to their being buried in the earth during the sweating process. A very highly priced variety.
5. Guayaquil Cocoa.—From Ecuador. Seeds flattened, somewhat wedge-shaped, wrinkled, reddish brown. An excellent variety.
6. Berbice Cocoa.—From British Guiana. Seeds small, externally gray, internally reddish brown.
7. Surinam and Essequibo Cocoa.—Seeds rather large and more firm; externally a loamy gray, internally deep reddish brown. Taste somewhat bitter.
The unfermented cocoa, also known as sun cocoa and island cocoa, is dried rapidly without fermenting. It is of a beautiful reddish brown color and a bitter astringent taste. The following are the principal varieties:
1. Brazilian (Para, Bahia) Cocoa.—Seeds smooth, wedge-shaped, flattened. One edge nearly straight, the other convex.
2. Cayenne Cocoa.—Quite hard, externally grayish brown, internally purplish red.
3. Antilles Cocoa (Island Cocoa).—Of this there are the following varieties: a, Trinidad cocoa, with large, flat, almost black brown seeds; b, Martinique cocoa, with elongated, flattened, reddish brown seeds; c, St. Domingo cocoa, with small, flattened, dark purplish brown seeds.
Cocoa requires considerable care in cultivation. A moist atmosphere and uniform temperature of about 24 to 28 degrees C., with considerable shade, is best suited. The tall variety of banana and the tree-like Erythrina Corallodendron are the more common shade plants. The plants are grown from seeds which begin to germinate in eight days. The trees begin to bear fruit in about four years. More usually eight to ten years elapse before any considerable fruit is borne. Two crops are collected annually. It is stated that there is on an average only one fruit to every 3,000 flowers.
Chocolate and cocoa are prepared by roasting the seeds, removing the husks and crushing between hot rollers, which liquefies the solid fat and forms a paste. To make chocolate sugar is added and flavored with vanilla and cinnamon. Sometimes a coloring substance is added. The paste is finally moulded into cakes varying in size and form. Chocolate is frequently adulterated with lard, starches, rice flour and other substances. Cheap grades are usually flavored with sassafras nuts, cloves and other spices. In the manufacture of cocoa the husks are usually included and mixed with a variable quantity of sugar, starch, flavoring substances, etc. The roasted, hulled and coarsely broken seeds are known as cocoa nibs, and this is the purest kind of cocoa. The powder made from the seeds after the oil has been thoroughly expressed is known as broma.
The seeds contain about 50 per cent of fat. In the manufacture of broma and common cocoa most of this is removed and is placed upon the market as cocoa butter. The more or less broken hulls are sold as cocoa shells, from which a chocolate-like drink is made by boiling in water and sweetening with sugar.
There is perhaps no food substance which is more universally liked than chocolate. Mothers have no small amount of trouble in hiding the household chocolate from the children. With the omnipresent penny-in-the-slot machine more pennies are credited to it than to the chewing gum. The housewife and baker use it very extensively with chocolate cake. The confectioner uses it very freely, to the great delight of children.
The principal use to which cocoa is put is in the preparation of a beverage. For this purpose enormous quantities of chocolate, cocoa, broma and hulls are consumed annually. The word “Theobroma” is derived from the Greek, meaning drink for the gods. The drink is prepared by thoroughly triturating the desired amount of chocolate, cocoa or broma with a small quantity of water, then stirring this into the necessary quantity of boiling milk or water and boiling for a few minutes with constant stirring. The oil present gives the drink great nutritive value. It is also slightly stimulating, owing to the presence of an alkaloid theobromine which is closely similar in its properties to theine and caffeine, the active constituents of tea and coffee. The drink does not agree with some individuals, because the large amount of oil present causes indigestion. It is also highly probable that the indigestion or dyspepsia is due to the minute fragments of roasted cell-walls of the seeds, which are not only indigestible, but irritate the secreting mucous cells lining the inner surface of the stomach.
Cocoa butter, which resembles tallow in consistency and appearance, is used in medical and pharmaceutical practice as a salve, or pomade, for external application in eruptive diseases, as scarlet fever, etc., etc. Cocoa also finds extensive use in medical practice, though it has no marked curative properties. Cocoa from which the oil has been thoroughly expressed (broma) makes an excellent drink for convalescents. It is used to disguise the taste of disagreeable medicines, etc.
Albert Schneider.
Like polished marble their tall shafts gleamBeside some beautiful inland stream,And their heart-shaped leaves in autumn’s primeWear the golden tints of a fairer clime.As I touch the bark, white as driven snow,I dream of the seasons long ago,When the Red Man paddled his light canoeWhere the canopied birches pierced the blue!—George Bancroft Griffith.
Like polished marble their tall shafts gleam
Beside some beautiful inland stream,
And their heart-shaped leaves in autumn’s prime
Wear the golden tints of a fairer clime.
As I touch the bark, white as driven snow,
I dream of the seasons long ago,
When the Red Man paddled his light canoe
Where the canopied birches pierced the blue!
—George Bancroft Griffith.
Birds and Nature