FOOTNOTES:[3]To those who do not read French or do not possessLes Elzevier, Mr. Goldsmid'sThe Elzevir Presses, published as part of hisBibliotheca Curiosa, may be of some assistance. It is a species of compendium of the work of M. Willems, and was issued in 1889. It is somewhat faulty and incomplete; but not without its value to beginners in the study of the Elzevir press.
[3]To those who do not read French or do not possessLes Elzevier, Mr. Goldsmid'sThe Elzevir Presses, published as part of hisBibliotheca Curiosa, may be of some assistance. It is a species of compendium of the work of M. Willems, and was issued in 1889. It is somewhat faulty and incomplete; but not without its value to beginners in the study of the Elzevir press.
[3]To those who do not read French or do not possessLes Elzevier, Mr. Goldsmid'sThe Elzevir Presses, published as part of hisBibliotheca Curiosa, may be of some assistance. It is a species of compendium of the work of M. Willems, and was issued in 1889. It is somewhat faulty and incomplete; but not without its value to beginners in the study of the Elzevir press.
THE mould used by paper-makers is a kind of sieve of an oblong shape, bottomed with the very finest wire strands, all of which run horizontally from end to end. From top to bottom, and about an inch apart, are placed "chain wires," and on the right-hand side of the mould the wire water-mark, which, together with the wire-marks, appears semi-transparent. The reason of this is that both water-mark and wires are slightly raised, and of course the pulp is thinner there than anywhere else. Any ordinary sheet of paper held up to the light will show this, and serve to extra illustrate the following diagram.
Paper-maker's Mould: Jug Water-mark.Paper-maker's Mould: Jug Water-mark.
Here CDEF is the mould which the workman drops into a vat of pulp, the fine strands run from G to H all the way down the mould, AA, &c., are the chain wires, and B is thewater-mark, in this case a jug. The water in the pulp of course runs through the sieve, leaving a layer of soft matter, which after a while hardens into a sheet of paper. The water-mark was at one time the trade mark of the maker, but subsequently became merely a symbol denoting the size of the sheet of paper before it was folded. The smallest sheet was water-marked with a jug, as above, and termed "pot"; the next had a cap and bells, hence our term "foolscap"; the next a horn, hence "post". Others had a "crown," and so on. At the present day all water-marks have once more become trade symbols, and cannot be depended upon to afford any evidence of size; but at one time—i.e., before the year 1750—this was not so, and, therefore, these water-marks, irrespective of their antiquarian value, serve a useful purpose—namely, to point out in cases of doubt whether any given book is an octavo, quarto, or folio, or a variation of any of these sizes.
To refer once more to the diagram. Take a sheet of paper supposed to have come from the mould and double it in half at the line AX. The water-mark will in that event appear in the centre of the half sheet, and the folded paper is of folio size. Now fold the paper the contrary way, and the water-mark will appear at the bottom, but cut in half; the paper thus folded is quarto (4to). Now fold it the contrary way again, and a section of the water-mark will appear at the top; the paper thus folded is octavo (8vo). We can go on folding, and in every subsequent case the watermark will appear at the edges, while, as the paper gets smaller and smaller, the sizes are styled 12mo, 16mo, 32mo, and so forth.
In the example given, a book made of the sheet of paper in question would be a pot folio, pot 4to, pot 8vo, and so on; but as larger-sized papers were used, another book might be a post 8vo, or a crown 4to, &c., according to circumstances.
As stated, this is one way of finding out the size of an old book; but there is another way—by means of the "signatures," which consist of small letters or figures at the foot of the page of nearly every book. The leaves (not pages) must be counted between signature and signature, and then if there are two leaves the book is a folio, if four a 4to, if eight an 8vo, if twelve a 12mo, if sixteen a 16mo, and if thirty-two a 32mo. Take, as an example, this very book you hold in your hand,and it will be found that there are eight leaves between signature and signature; hence it is an 8vo, though a small one, owing, of course, to the small size of the paper from which it has been made,viz., crown. Had it been a little smaller (still preserving its oblong shape) it would have been a foolscap 8vo, if somewhat larger a demy 8vo, if larger still a royal 8vo, and largest of all imperial 8vo. The quartos and folios are governed by identical rules, and hence in the trade the sizes of books are very numerous.
Simple as this method of computation may appear, a great deal of controversy has taken place on the subject—so much so, indeed, that there are people to be found who stoutly maintain, and adduce proof to show, that what looks like a 4to is in reality an 8vo, orvice versâ. It would be out of place to enter into a discussion of this nature, and, therefore, I should advise the young collector to count the leaves between signature and signature, and to abide by the result, regardless of all the learned arguments of specialists. If there are no signatures, and the book is an old one, then study the position of the water-mark.
As examples, it will be sufficient to note that theIllustrated London Newsis folio,Punchis 4to, and theCornhilland nearly all the monthly magazines are large 8vos. There is a large number of varieties of each size, but on the whole books which approximate to the sizes of magazines are of the sizes named. Occasionally in judging by the eye in this manner a mistake may be made; but of one thing there is no doubt, that a vast amount of argument would have to be expended upon the subject before the judgment could be proved to be wrong.
Paper-makers at one period made their sheets in frames of a given size, so that it was a comparatively easy matter to distinguish the size of a book at a glance. Now-a-days, however, there appears to be but little uniformity in this respect, and the difficulty is consequently considerably increased. The following measurements will, however, be found approximately correct, and they may be utilised in a practical manner by taking a sheet of brown paper of the required size and folding it as previously mentioned, thus forming crown 8vos, crown 4tos, elephant folios, &c., at will. The practice is good, and it will not need to be often repeated.
a sheet offoolscapmeasures about17 in. x 13 in."post"19 in. x 15 in."crown"20 in. x 15 in."demy"22 in. x 17 in."royal"24 in. x 19 in."imperial"30 in. x 22 in."elephant"28 in. x 23 in."atlas"34 in. x 26 in.
The only paper used, as a general rule, for making up into 8vo books is foolscap, post, crown, demy, royal, and imperial; 4to books are made up of all the sizes; though elephant and atlas are chiefly devoted to folios.
I now take leave of this branch of the subject, and return to water-marks, which, as previously stated, were formerly used, as they are now, for trade marks, and as trade marks only.
Before the year 1320, paper was very rarely used to write upon, but still there are a few examples of it having been so employed extant, the chief of which is an account-book preserved at the Hague, commencing with the year 1301. The water-mark on the paper of this book is a globe surmounted by a cross, while on paper of a little later date the rude representation of a jug frequently appears. The globe and the jug are consequently the most ancient water-marks yet discovered, and these became the principal marks on paper, then exclusively manufactured in Holland and Belgium. The "can and reaping hook" appeared a little later, so did the "two cans," the "open hand," and the "halffleur-de-lis," all executed, as might be expected, in the rudest possible manner.
The Holbein family at Ravensburg—a town famous to this day for the manufacture of paper—used a "bull's head". Fust and Schœffer (circa1460) used a "clapper" or rattle, which has a somewhat curious history. At Ravensburg there was an hospital for lepers, and whenever any of the inmates had occasion to leave the building he was strictly enjoined to flourish a rattle with which he was provided, so that healthy folk could get out of his way. Paper made at the town is often found marked with the rattle, that having grown, by reason of its frequent use, into an institution of the place.
The next marks in point of date are in all probability the "unicorn," "anchor," and the "P" and "Y," the initials ofPhilip of Burgundy and his wife Isabella, who were married in 1430.
The famous English printer Caxton (c.A.D.1424-91)[4]used the "bull's head" paper from Ravensburg, the "P" and "Y," the "open hand," and the "unicorn"; sometimes even the "bunch of grapes," which came from Italy.
The first folio of Shakespeare's works (1623) has paper marked with a "fool's cap" among other devices. The "post horn," another favourite device, which has given the name to a particular size of paper—namely, "post"—was first used about the year 1670, when the General Post Office was established, and it became the fashion for the postman to blow a horn.
In modern times paper-marks have become so numerous that it would be next to impossible to classify them; nor would it be of much advantage to the book collector even if it could be done. With old marks it is different, forfac-similereprints of scarce and ancient volumes are frequently detected by looking at the water-mark on the paper. Of course, this also may be imitated, but there is often considerable difficulty in attaining the requisite degree of perfection; and, under any circumstance, some little knowledge of the early history and appearance of water-marks will be found useful as well as interesting. The best books to consult on the subject are Herring'sPaper and Papermakingand Sotheby'sPrincipia Typographica, 1858, the latter of which is a masterpiece of learning and constructive skill.
FOOTNOTES:[4]It is very improbable that Caxton was born in 1412, as nearly all his biographers state, but about ten or twelve years later. Evidence of this is contained in the records preserved at Mercers' Hall, Cheapside, London, where his name is inscribed as having been apprenticed in the year 1438, the age at which apprenticeship was entered upon being most commonly between twelve and fourteen years.
[4]It is very improbable that Caxton was born in 1412, as nearly all his biographers state, but about ten or twelve years later. Evidence of this is contained in the records preserved at Mercers' Hall, Cheapside, London, where his name is inscribed as having been apprenticed in the year 1438, the age at which apprenticeship was entered upon being most commonly between twelve and fourteen years.
[4]It is very improbable that Caxton was born in 1412, as nearly all his biographers state, but about ten or twelve years later. Evidence of this is contained in the records preserved at Mercers' Hall, Cheapside, London, where his name is inscribed as having been apprenticed in the year 1438, the age at which apprenticeship was entered upon being most commonly between twelve and fourteen years.
IT must be borne in mind that the title-page of a book, though constituting a very old method of showing at a glance the nature of the contents, together with the place of publication and frequently also the date, is by no means the earliest means of attaining that object. The title-page, such as we see it, was first adopted in England in 1490, the year before Caxton's death, having been introduced on the Continent in 1470;[5]but previously—and, indeed, for some years after that date—theColophonwas in general use.
The term "Colophon" has its origin in the Greek proverb, "to put the colophon to the matter," that is, the "finishing stroke," and contains the place or year (or both), date of publication, printer's name, and other particulars considered necessary at the time for the identification of the volume. It frequently commences somewhat after the following form:Explicit liber qui dicitur, &c.[6]The colophon, moreover, is always found on the last page, and sometimes takes the form of an inverted pyramid. In the early days, when the printer was not unfrequently author or translator as well, the completion of a work upon which he had probably been engaged for many months—or, perhaps, in some instances, years—was rightly regarded as matter for much self-congratulation, as well as for thanks to the Divine Power, by whose permission alone he hadbeen enabled to persevere. Hence thePsalteriumof Fust and Schœffer, a folio of 175 lines to the page, and remarkable as being the first book in which large capital letters, printed in colours, were employed, has for its colophon a very characteristic inscription, which may be translated as follows:—
"This book of Psalms, decorated with antique initials and sufficiently emphasised with rubricated letters, has been thus made by the masterly invention of printing and also type-making, without the writing of a pen, and is consummated to the service of God through the industry of Johann Fust, citizen of Mentz, and Peter Schœffer, of Gernsheim, in the year of our Lord MCCCCLVII., on the eve of the Assumption".
This Psalter is also the first known book which bears any date at all, and for that and other reasons is one of the most highly prized of volumes.
From what has been said, the reader will no doubt clearly understand that it does not follow that, because an old book is minus a title-page, it is necessarily imperfect. He should turn to the last leaf for the colophon; but should that be wanting also, it is probable that the book is deficient, though even this is not a conclusive test. In cases of doubt the volume must becollated, that is, critically compared with some other specimen: each leaf must be examined carefully, and notes made of any differences that may appear during the course of the examination. There is a business-like way and the reverse of tabulating these notes, so much so that an adept can see at a glance whether it has been performed by a competent man. The following is the collation of a copy of the first edition of the famous Genevan version of the Bible printed by Rowland Hall in 1560, 4to: "Four prel. leaves. Text, Genesis to ii. Maccabees, 474 ll. folioed, N. T. 122 leaves, 'A Briefe Table' HH h iii to LLl iii., 13 ll. followed by 1 p. 'The order of the yeres from Paul's conversion,' &c., rev. blank."
At first sight this may appear somewhat technical, but when a few of these collations are compared with actual copies of the works to which they refer, there will be no difficulty in understanding all the rest. The above, for instance, would read, when set out at full length, as follows: "There are four preliminary leaves, and then follows the Bible text proper, which, from Genesis to the 2nd of Maccabees, is on 474 numbered leaves. The New Testament, which follows, has 122 leaves;then comes 'A Briefe Table,' extending from signature HH h iii to LL l iii, and comprising 13 leaves, followed by one page, 'The order of the yeres from Paul's conversion,' &c. The reverse side of this page is blank." The words "page" and "leaf" have distinct meanings, the latter, of course, containing two of the former, unless, indeed, one side happens to be blank, as in the above example. If both sides are blank, the description would be simply "i 1 blank".
From 1457—the date of Fust and Schœffer's Psalter, already described as being the first printed book disclosing on its face the year of publication—until comparatively recent times, it was customary to use Roman numerals on the colophon or title-page, as the case might be. This system of notation is so well understood, or can be so speedily mastered from almost any arithmetical treatise, that it is hardly worth while to enlarge upon it here. On some old books, however, there is a dual form of the "D" representing 500, which is sometimes the cause of considerable perplexity; e.g., MIƆXL standing for the year 1540. In this example the I is equivalent to D; in fact, it would appear as if the former numeral were merely a mutilation of the latter. Again, the form CIƆ is equivalent to M or 1000. A few instances will make the distinction apparent:—
}
}
}
The only part of a title-page which gives any real difficulty to a person who has a fair knowledge of the Latin language, in which most of these old books were printed, is the name of the place of publication, which, being in a Latinised form, frequently bears but a slight resemblance to the modern appellation. Dr. Cotton, many years ago now, collected a large number of these Latin forms, partly from his own reading and partly from the works of various bibliographers who had chanced occasionally to mention them in their works, and at the present day his collection stands unapproachable in point of the number of entries, as well as in general accuracy. The use of this compilation will be apparent to those who have occasion to consult it even for the first time, while to advancedcollectors, who are not satisfied with mere possession, it will be found indispensable. The title-page of a book now before me runs as follows: "Kanuti Episcopi Vibergensis Quedam breves expositõs s legum et jurium cõcordantie et allegatiões circa leges iucie"; at the foot is "Ripis, M. Brand, MIƆIIII". The question immediately arises: Where is Ripis, the place where the book was evidently printed by Brand? The best gazetteer may be consulted in vain, for the title is obsolete now; it is, in fact, the Roman name for Riben, a small place in Denmark. In like manner, Firenze frequently stands for Florence, Brixia for Breschia, Aug. Trinob. (Augusta Trinobantum) for London, Mutina for Modena, and so on. This being the case, some kind of tabulation becomes absolutely necessary, and the best that occurs to my mind is to place the Latin titles of all the chief centres of printing in alphabetical order, and append to each the English equivalent. The date is that of the first book known to have been printed at the particular town against which it is set. As the list is not complete, and could not be made so without the sacrifice of a great deal of space, the reader is referred to Dr. Cotton'sTypographical Antiquitiesfor any further information he may require. The omissions will be found, however, to consist, for the most part, of unimportant places, from many of which only some half-dozen books or less are known to have been issued, so that the following list will be found sufficient in the vast majority of cases:—
1486.Abbatis VillaAbbeville.1621.AbredoniaAberdeen.1493.AlbaAcqui (in Italy).1480.Albani VillaSt. Albans.1501.AlbiaAlbia (in Savoy).1480.AldenardaOudenarde.1473.AlostumAlost (in Flanders).1467.Alta VillaEltville, or Elfeld (near Mayence).1523.AmstelœdamumAmsterdam.1476.AndegavumAngers.AnedaEdinburgh.1491.AngolismumAngoulême.1482.AntverpiaAntwerp.1482.AquilaAquila (near Naples).1456(?).Argentina, or ArgentoratumStrassburg.1477.AsculumAscoli (in Ancona).1474.Athenæ RauracæBasle.1517.AtrebatumArras.1469.Augusta VindelicorumAugsburg.1480.Augusta TrinobantumLondon.1481.AuracumUrach (in Wurtemberg).1490.AureliaOrleans.1490.AureliacumOrleans.1497.AvenioAvignon.1462.BambergaBamberg.1478.BarchineBarcelona.1497.BarcumBarco (in Italy).1474.BasileaBasle.1470.{Berona, orBeronis Villa }Beron Minster (in Switzerland).1487.BisuntiaBesançon.1471.BononiaBologna.1485.Bravum BurgiBurgos.1472.BrixiaBreschia.1475.BrugæBruges.1486.BrunnaBrunn.1476.BruxellæBrussels.1473.BudaBuda.1485.BurgiBurgos.1484.Buscum DucisBois-le-duc.1478.CabeliaChablies (in France).1480.CadomumCaen.1475.Cæsar Augusta, or CaragoçaSaragossa.1484.CamberiacumChambery.1521.CantabrigiaCambridge.1497.CarmagnolaCarmagnola.1622.CarnutumChartres.1494.CarpentoratumCarpentras.1486.Casale MajorCasal-Maggiore.1475.CasselaCaselle (in Piedmont).1484.ChamberiumChambery.1482.CoburgumCoburg.1466.ColoniaCologne.1466.Colonia AgrippinaCologne.1466.Colonia ClaudiaCologne.1460.Colonia MunatianaBasle.1466.Colonia UbiorumCologne.1474.ComumComo.1516.ConimbricaCoimbra.1505.ConstantiaConstance.1487.CordovaCordova.1469.CoriaSoria (in Old Castile).1500(about).CracoviaCracow (Poland).1472.CremonaCremona.1480.CulemburgumCulembourg (in Holland).1478.CusentiaCosenza.1475.DaventriaDeventer (in Holland).1477.DelphiDelft.1491.DivioDijon.1490.DolaDol (in France).1564.DuacumDouay.EblanaDublin.1509.EboracumYork.EdemburgumEdinburgh.1440(?).Elvetrorum ArgentinaStrassburg.1491.EngolismumAngoulême.1482.ErfordiaErfurt.1472.EssiumJesi (in Italy).1473.EsslingaEsslingen (in Wurtemberg).1531.EttelingaEtlingen.1471.FerraraFerrara.1471.FirenzeFlorence.1472.FivizanumFivzziano (in Tuscany).1471.FlorentiaFlorence.1495.Forum LiviiForli (in Italy).1504.Francofurtum ad MœnumFrankfort on the Maine.1504.Francofortum ad OderamFrankfort on the Oder.1495.FrisingaFreysingen.1470.FulgineumFoligno (in Italy).1487.GaiettaGaeta.1490.GanabumOrleans.1483.Gandavvm, or GandGhent.1478.GenevaGeneva.1474.GenuaGenoa.1483.GerundaGerona (in Spain).1477.GoudaGouda.1490.GratianopolisGrenoble.1493.HafniaCopenhagen.Haga ComitumThe Hague.1491.HamburgumHamburg.1491.HamnioniaHamburg.1483.Harlemum (probably earlier date)Haarlem.1504.HelenopolisFrankfort on the Maine.1479.HerbipolisWurtzburg.1476.Hispalis, or Colonia Julia RomanaSeville.1483.HolmiaStockholm.1487.IngolstadiumIngolstadt.1473.LaugingaLaugingen (in Bavaria).1483.LeidaLeyden.1495.Lemovicense CastrumLimoges.1566.LeodiumLiège.1503.LeucoreaWittemburg.1480.LipsiaLeipsic.1485.LixboaLisbon.1474(?).LondinumLondon.1474.LovaniumLouvain.1475.LubecaLubec.1477.LucaLucca.1473.LugdunumLyons.1483.Lugdunum BatavorumLeyden.1499.MadritumMadrid.1483.MagdeburgumMagdeburg.1442(?).MaguntiaMayence.1732.MancuniumManchester.1472.MantuaMantua.1527.MarpurgumMarburg.1473.MarsipolisMersburg.1493.MatiscoMaçon.1470.MediolanumMilan.1473.MessanaMessina.1500.MonachiumMunich.1470.MonasteriumMunster (in Switzerland).1472.Mons RegalisMondovi (in Piedmont).1475.MutinaModena.1510.NanceiumNancy.1471.NeapolisNaples.1493.NannetesNantes.1525.NerolingaNordlingen (in Suabia).1480.NonantulaNonantola (in Modena).1469.NorimbergaNuremberg.1479.NoviNovi (near Genoa).1479.NoviomagiumNimeguen.1533.NeocomumNeuchatel.1494.OppenhemiumOppenheim.1468.OxoniaOxford (the date is disputed).1477.PanormumPalermo.1471.PapiaPavia.1470.ParisiiParis.1472.ParmaParma.1481.PataviaPassau (in Bavaria).1472.PataviumPadua.1475.PerusiaPerugia.1479.PictaviumPoitiers.1483.PisaPisa.1472.PlebisaciumPiobe de Sacco (in Italy).1478.PragaPrague.1495.Ratiastum LemovicumLimoges.1485.RatisbonaRatisbon.1480.RegiumReggio.1482.ReutlingaReutlingen.1484.RhedonesRennes.1503.Ripa or RipisRipen (in Denmark).1467.RomaRome.1487.RothomagumRouen.1479.SaenaSiena.1480.SalmanticeSalamanca.1470.SavillianumSavigliano (in Piedmont).1474.SavonaSavona.1483.SchedamumSchiedam.1479.SenæSiena.1484.SoncinoSoncino (Italy).1514.SouthwarkSouthwark.1471.SpiraSpires (in Pavaria).1465.Sublacense Monasterium. An independent monasteryabout two miles distant from Subiaco, in theCampagna di Roma.1484.Sylva DucisBois-le-duc.1471.TarvisiumTreviso (in Italy).1474.TaurinumTurin.1468.Theatrum Sheldonianum (the date is disputed)Oxford.1521.TigurumZurich.1479.TholosaToulouse.1480.ToletumToledo.1473.Trajectum ad RhenumUtrecht.1504.Trajectum ad ViadrumFrankfort on the Oder.1471.Trajectum InferiusUtrecht.1470.TrebiaTrevi (in Italy).1483.TrecæTroyes.1440 (?).TribboccorumStrassburg.1483.TricassesTroyes.1476.Tridentum Trent (in the Tyrol).1498.TubingaTübingen.1521.TurigumZurich.1496.TuronesTours.1479.TusculanumToscolano (in Italy).1471(?).UlmaUlm.1471.UltrajectumUtrecht.1485.UlyssipoLisbon.1481.UrbinumUrbino.1474.ValentiaValentia.1474.Vallis S. MariæMarienthal (an Augustine monasterynear Mentz, now suppressed).1469.VenetiæVenice.1485.VercellæVercelli.1470.VeronaVerona.1487.VesontioBesançon.1473.VicentiaVicenza.1517.VilnaWilna (in Russia).1482.VindobonaVienna.1503.VitembergaWittemburg.1488.ViterbiumViterbo.VratislaviaBreslau.1474.WestmonasteriumWestminster.1475.WirceburgumWurtzburg.
FOOTNOTES:[5]VidePollard'sLast Words on the History of the Title-page(Lond., 1891).[6]Some recent French publishers, such as Quantin and Rouveyre, have imitated the practice in their editions for bibliophiles.
[5]VidePollard'sLast Words on the History of the Title-page(Lond., 1891).
[5]VidePollard'sLast Words on the History of the Title-page(Lond., 1891).
[6]Some recent French publishers, such as Quantin and Rouveyre, have imitated the practice in their editions for bibliophiles.
[6]Some recent French publishers, such as Quantin and Rouveyre, have imitated the practice in their editions for bibliophiles.
THE reasons which contribute to make up the pecuniary value of a book depend on a variety of circumstances by no means easy of explanation. It is a great mistake to suppose that because a given work is scarce, in the sense of not often being met with, it is necessarily valuable. It may certainly be so, but, on the other hand, plenty of books which are acquired with difficulty are hardly worth the paper they are printed upon, perhaps because there is no demand for them, or possibly because they are imperfect or mutilated.
One of the first lessons I learned when applying myself to the study of old books was never, on any account or under any circumstances, to have anything to do with imperfect copies, and I have not so far had any occasion to regret my decision. It is perfectly true that no perfect copies are known of some works, such, for example, as the first or 1562-3 English edition of Fox'sBook of Martyrs; but books of this class will either never be met with during a lifetime, or will form, if met with, an obvious exception to the rule. Fragments of genuine Caxtons, again, sometimes sell by auction for two or three pounds a single leaf, and even a very imperfect copy of any of his productions would be considered a good exchange for a large cheque; but these are exceptions and nothing more— exceptions, moreover, of such rare practical occurrence as to behardly worth noting. In the vast majority of instances, when a book is mutilated it is ruined; even the loss of a single plate out of many will often detract fifty per cent. or more from the normal value, while if the book is "cut down" the position is worse. This lesson as a rule is only learned by experience, and many young collectors resolutely shut their eyes to the most apparent of truisms, until such time as the consequences are brought fairly home to them. It is exceedingly dangerous to purchase imperfect or mutilated books, or to traffic in them at all. This position will be enlarged upon during the progress of the present chapter.
To return to the reasons which contribute to the value of a book, it may be mentioned that "suppression" is one of the chief. This is a natural reason; others are merely artificial, which may be in full force to-day but non-existent to-morrow, depending as they do upon mere caprice and the vagaries of fashion: with these I have, in this volume at any rate, nothing to do.
De Foe, in hisEssay on Projects, observes: "I have heard a bookseller in King James's time say that if he would have a book sell, he would have it burned by the hands of the common hangman," by which he presupposed the existence of some little secret horde which should escape the general destruction, and which would consequently rise to ten times its value directly the persecution was diverted into other channels. This is so, for where an edition has been suppressed, and most of the copies destroyed, the remainder acquire an importance which the whole issue would never have enjoyed had it been left severely alone. The Inquisition has been the direct cause of elevating hundreds of books to a position far above their merit, and the same may be said of Henry VIII., who sent Catholic as well as Protestant books wholesale to the flames; of Mary, who condemned the latter; of Edward VI., who acquiesced in the destruction of the former; and of Elizabeth and the two succeeding sovereigns, who delighted in a holocaust of political pamphlets and libels.
The Inquisition, with that brutal bigotry which characterised most of its proceedings, almost entirely destroyed Grafton's Paris Bible of 1538, with the result that the printing presses, types, and workmen were brought to London, and the few copies saved were completed here, to be sold on rare occasionsat the present day for as much as £160 apiece. There is nothing in the Bible more than in any other; it is not particularly well printed, but it has a history, just as the Scotch Bassandyne Bible has, though in that case the persecution was directed against persons whodeclinedto have the book in their houses, ready to be shown to the tax collector whenever he chose to call. One Dr. James Drake, who in the year 1703 had the temerity to publish in London hisHistoria Anglo-Scotica, which contained, as was alleged, many false and injurious reflections upon the sovereignty and independence of the Scottish nation, had the pleasure of hearing that his work had been publicly burned at the Mercat Cross of Edinburgh, a pleasure which was doubtless considerably enhanced when another venture—theMemorial—shared the same fate in London, two years later. Drake had the honour of hearing himself censured from the throne, of being imprisoned, and of having his books burned, distinctions which some people sigh for in vain at the present day. As a consequence, theHistoriaand theMemorialare both desirable books, and Drake's name has been rescued from oblivion.
William Attwood'sSuperiority and Direct Dominion of the Imperial Crown of England over the Crown and Kingdom of Scotland(London, 4to, 1705) is another book of good pedigree which would never have been worth the couple of guineas a modern bookseller will ask for it, had it not been burned by jealous Scotchmen immediately on its appearance.
The massacre of St. Bartholomew produced a large crop of treatises, and any contemporary book on the Huguenot side is worth preservation, for a general search was made throughout France, and every work showing the slightest favour to the Protestants was seized and destroyed. Among them was Claude'sDéfense de la Réformation(1683), which was burned not only abroad, but in England as well, so great an ascendency had the French Ambassador acquired over our Court.
Bishop Burnet'sPastoral letter to the Clergy of his Diocese(1689) was condemned and burned for ascribing the title of William III. to the Crown, to the right of conquest. TheEmilieand theContrat Socialof Jean Jacques Rousseau shared the same fate, as did alsoLes Histoiresof d'Aubigné and Augustus de Thou.
Baxter'sHoly Commonwealthwent the way of all obnoxious books, in 1688; theBoocke of Sportes upon the Lord's Day, in 1643; the Duke of Monmouth's proclamation declaring Jamesto be an usurper, in 1685; Claude'sLes Plaintes des Protestans, in 1686.
Harris'Enquiry into the Causes of the Miscarriage of the Scots Colony at Darien(Glasgow, 1700); Bastwicke'sElenchus Religionis Papisticæ(1634); Blount'sKing William and Queen Mary, Conquerors, &c. (1692); the second volume of Wood'sAthenæ Oxoniensis(1793); De Foe'sShortest Way with the Dissenters(1702); Pocklington'sSunday no Sabbath and Altare Christianum(1640); Sacheverel'sTwo Sermons(1710); and Coward'sSecond Thoughts concerning the Human Soul(1702), were all burned by the hangman, and copies destroyed wherever found.
Perhaps the most extraordinary instance of a work being destroyed for positively nothing at all is furnished by Cowell'sLaw Dictionary, which was sent to the flames by order of King James the First himself. This dictionary, and indeed every one of the books mentioned as having been subjected to the purification of fire, are now rare historical landmarks, and consequently both extrinsically and intrinsically valuable. Hence the reason of the high prices frequently demanded for them and for other works of this class.
The remaining copies of editions which were suppressed by their authors, or which have escaped accidental destruction, are frequently of considerable value. In the former class, Rochester'sPoemsand Mrs. Seymour'sAccount of the Origin of the Pickwick Papersare prominent examples; in the latter, the third folio edition of Shakespeare's Plays (1664), almost the entire impression of which was destroyed in the Great Fire of London. Dugdale'sOrigines Juridiciales(London, folio, 1666) was also almost entirely destroyed at the same time. Books coming under one or other of these classes are to be met with, and the note-book should always be at hand, so that a memorandum can be jotted down before the reference is lost. This course is adopted by the most experienced bibliographers, as well as by the amateur who wishes to become proficient in a study which is pleasant and profitable when conscientiously undertaken, but difficult and worse than useless to those who will not take the trouble to learn the rudiments of their science.
Works of limited issue are sometimes, but not always, nor indeed often, of especial value. It has been the practice for some years among publishers to issue works on whatis nothing more nor less than the old subscription plan; but, unlike the hungry poets of old, who trudged the streets taking the price of copies in advance, the publishers keep faith with their subscribers. The edition is limited to a given number of copies, after which the type is distributed, and the plates—if the work is illustrated—broken up. Many speculators in books have endeavoured from time to time to "corner" editions so limited in quantity, buying at the published price, and subsequently selling again at an increased amount. In this way considerable sums have beenlost, for works published on this plan have a decided tendency to fall in the market, and when this is the case they seldom if ever recover their former position. Hogarth's works, published in 1822, by Baldwin and Cradock, is a very good example of this tendency. The work was originally issued at £50, and the impressions, taken from Hogarth's original plates, restored, however, by Heath, are consequently of full size. There is a secret pocket at the end containing three suppressed and highly indecent plates, which considerably add to the value. I myself have many a time seen this large and sumptuous book knocked down in the auction room at sums varying from £3 to £5, and once bought a good copy by private contract for £4 10s. Ottley'sItalian School of Designis another example. This work when on large paper, with proof impressions of the 84 tinted fac-similes of original drawings by Cimabue, Giotto, Guercino, and other famous painters, is worth about £3 by auction. The published price in 1823 was no less than £25 4s. The issue of each of these works was limited, but neither have succeeded in retaining its position in popular favour, and in all probability will decline still further in the market as time goes on.
The lesson to be learned here is that such phrases as "only 100 copies printed," or "issue strictly limited to 50 copies," frequently to be observed in publishers' and auctioneers' catalogues, should be takencum grano salis. The description may be accurate, but it does not follow that the limitation necessarily increases the value of the book. On the contrary, it may be well imagined that the publisher hesitated to launch the book entirely on its own merits, seeking rather the extraneous inducement of a "limited number". The earlier editions of Ruskin's works are an exception to the rule, for that author's reputation is deservedly great, and he is, moreover,master of his own books, which from choice he has, until the last year or two, preferred to render difficult of access.
Volumes of transactions and proceedings of learned societies usually have a market value, which fluctuates much less than is usually the case. These being supplied to members only, and rarely published for purposes of sale, may be said to be both privately printed and limited in issue at the same time. As a rule they increase proportionately in value as the series becomes more complete, and a point once reached, they generally maintain it. Hence works of this character are safe investments—perhaps the safest of any.
The result of every investigation into the causes which regulate the value of books has shown conclusively that no publication is of great worth merelybecauseit is scarce. The scarcity is a secondary and not a primary cause. Highly appreciated English publications of the sixteenth and two following centuries may be counted by thousands; but the number of inferior treatises, which have long ago sunk into eternal oblivion, which never were of any value, and never will be, are as the sand on the sea-shore.
However scarce and valuable a book may be, it must be remembered that the element of perfection has yet to be taken into account. It does not by any means follow that, because a copy of one of Shakespeare's 4tos is worth £300, another copy of the same 4to edition will be of equal value. It may be worth more or less, and here it is that the critical eye of theconnoisseurand dealer tells. Defects, such as a tear in the cover or any of the leaves, stains, worm-holes, and the like, detract from the value; if these are entirely absent, the value may, on the contrary, be raised above the average. The fact of a rare book being "uncut," and in the original sound binding, clean, and free from blemishes, considerably add to its value.
The first part of a book to get worn out is the binding, for some one or more of its previous owners are almost certain to have ill-treated it either by bending the covers until they crack, or by leaving the work exposed to the rain and damp. When the volume is coverless, and usually not before, it will have been re-bound, and the binder will, in ninety-nine cases out of every hundred, have trimmed the edges, that is to say, planed them smooth with a machine he has for the purpose. Sometimes he will have cut as much as half-an-inch from the top, and nearlyas much from the other edges; on other occasions, he may have been more merciful; but the result is the same, the book is damaged beyond hope of redemption, and the only question is as to the extent of the injury. The term "uncut," so often seen in catalogues, is, therefore, a technical term, meaning that the edges are left in the same condition as they were when the book was originally issued. It does not mean that the leaves are "not cut open," as so many people appear to think, but simply that the binder, with a fine sense of what is due to a volume of importance, has for once kept his shears in his pocket. The value of a book which has been cut is reduced to an extent proportionate to the quantum of injury inflicted: from 50 to 75 per cent. is the usual reduction, but many works are altogether destroyed. If a scarce book is sent to be re-bound, the binder should have the clearest instructions, in writing, that he is not to trim the edges. Should he do so, notwithstanding the direction, a by no means impossible contingency, he will do it at his own risk, and can be made to suffer the consequences.
Imperfect volumes are always a source of great inconvenience to the collector. First-class bookselling firms will not allow an imperfect book to leave their hands without notice to the purchaser, and, as a consequence, they charge a higher price than would be the case if the latter exercised his own judgment. There are mutual advantages to be gained in dealing with first-class people, for, if a mistake is made on one side or the other, there is usually no difficulty in rectifying it afterwards. Fine old crusted book-worms of the John Hill Burton type prefer, however, to exercise their own discretion in these matters, looking upon that as no inconsiderable part of the pleasure to be derived from the pursuit of their favourite occupation. They do not care to pay for being taught, at least not directly, and make it part of their business to find out for themselves whether a copy offered for sale is perfect or the reverse. As each page is usually numbered, there is no difficulty in ascertaining whether any are missing; not so with the plates, for, unless there is an index to these, the loss of one or two may hardly be noticed until the book comes to be collated with another copy known to be complete. This is a risk which the book buyer has to run, though, as a matter of practice, he protects himself when the purchase is an expensive one, and the dealer a man of credit.
In buying books at a cheap rate, or, in other words, when making a bargain either at a shop or an ordinary street-stall, the purchaser will have to observe the maxim, "Caveat emptor," and it will probably not be until he arrives home with his treasure under his arm that he will have the satisfaction of ascertaining that his bargain is a real one, or the mortification of adding another imperfect book to the long row already on his shelf.
Imperfect books are frequently what is called "made up," that is, completed from other copies, themselves imperfect in other respects. One complete book is worth more than two incomplete ones, and many desirable specimens, in the public libraries and elsewhere, are made up so well that it is frequently impossible to detect the hand of the renovator.
So long as all the leaves of a made-up book are of the same measurement, there would not seem to be much objection to this practice, but there certainly is when the paper of the interpolated leaves is different from the rest, or smaller in size, which it will be if cut down by the binder. Great care must be taken to see that neither of these defects is present, especially when, from the value of a book offered for sale, it may have been worth anyone's while to perfect it.
Another point to be observed in the purchase of very expensive and valuable works is, that none of the leaves have been fac-similed. These fac-similes are done by hand, and frequently so well that they cannot be detected without the aid of a strong glass. The late Henry Stevens tells a good story of a customer of his—Mr. Lenox, of New York, the founder of the Lenox Library, and a most indefatigable collector up to the last hour of his life. "Mr. Lenox was," says Stevens, "principled against raffles, wagers, lotteries, and games of chance generally, but I once led him into a sort of bet in this way, by which I won from him £4. I had acquired a fair copy of that gem of rare books, the quarto edition ofHariot's Briefe and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginea(London, Feb., 1588), wanting four leaves in the body of the book. These I had very skilfully traced by Harris, transferred to stone, printed off on old paper of a perfect match, the book and these leaves sized and coloured alike, and bound in morocco by Bedford. The volume was then sent to Mr. Lenox to be examined by himde visu, the price to be £25; but, if he could detect the four fac-simile leaves, and wouldpoint them out to me without error, the price was to be reduced to £21. By the first post, after the book was received, he remitted me the 20 guineas, with a list of the fac-similes, but on my informing him that two ofhisfac-similes were originals, he immediately remitted the four pounds, and acknowledged his defeat."
This Harris, whose name is prominently mentioned, was probably the greatest adept at this species of imitation who ever lived, and many important but defective works, now in the British Museum, left his hands, to all appearance, in first-rate order and condition.
"Laying down" is a technical term used to express the process of re-backing a torn plate or engraving. Many of the Shakespeare folios have the portrait and verses by Ben Jonson laid down or "re-laid," as the catalogues generally describe it. This, of course, can be detected at a glance, and it may be stated positively that a laid-down plate, frontispiece, or title is looked upon as a serious blemish, inferior only to the entire absence of one or more of the three.
Worm-holes, stains, fox-marks, and other flaws also detract from value; but as many of these may be removed by a judicious application of proper remedies, a special chapter will be reserved for their consideration. The market value of a book is thus composed of many elements, the chief of which is "condition"—above all things, a broad margin, and next, to that, leaves of spotless white.
I have already stated that where editions of the works of famous modern authors containing plates were originally issued in parts, such parts should, on no account, be bound up in volume form. The result of such a course cannot be better illustrated than by taking the well-knownPickwick Papersas our example, and studying the following prices, all realised at auction quite recently:—
Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club, original ed., with illustrations by Seymour & Browne, and the Buss plates,complete in numbers, 1837, 8vo, £8 10s.; £12 14s.; £8 10s.; £6 5s.; £11 5s.
Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club, original ed. (bound), with illustrations by Seymour & Browne, and the Buss plates, 1837, 8vo, £1 (half calf), £1 1s. (half calf), £3 (calf extra), £2 12s. (half morocco extra), £2 5s. (half calf extra), £1 7s. (half morocco extra), £3 10s. (calf, gilt, an unusuallyclean copy, recently sold at the Mackenzie sale). The evidence furnished by these quotations is conclusive, and illustrates the principle better than anything else can do, that, in the present state of the English book market, it is the height of folly to bind up original parts of this nature. If, however, it must be done, the depreciation in value may be reduced to a minimum by binding in the best style, and taking care that not only all the covers, but even the pages of advertisements, are bound up also. On no account must the edges be cut, or in any way tampered with, or the value will sink from pounds to shillings on the instant.
I shall conclude this chapter by calling attention to the expression "large paper," so often noticed. It has been the practice for many years, on publishing certain classes of books, to print off a limited number of copies on "large paper," or paper of a larger size than that used for the ordinary copies. Thus, the second edition of Bewick'sBirds, in 2 vols., 1804, is found in no less than three sizes, ordinary copies in demy 8vo, large paper copies in royal 8vo, and largest paper in imperial 8vo. The text is in each instance precisely the same, but the books themselves are larger in size as we ascend the scale. The well-knownBadminton Libraryof sports and pastimes is printed in two sizes, and as large paper copies are invariably limited in number, their value is always greater than that of their more humble brethren. Whether they maintain their original published value is another question which can only be solved by reference to particular cases as and when they arise.