Fig. 118.—The Carnation.
Fig. 118.—The Carnation.
The Wild or Clove Carnation (Dianthus Caryophyllus), which may be considered the type of the order, has an erect stem, swollen at the joints, with connate leaves, (seeainfig.118). The flower, when single, consists of five petals, each with a very long narrow claw (b), and a rather broad limb or blade (c) serrated at the edge. The calyx (f) is tubular, with fivevandyked teeth, which are in fact the tips of five sepals, into which the tube of the calyx may be easily divided with a pin. The tubular formof the calyx is admirably contrived to support the long claws of the petals, and to keep them in their proper places; particularly when the flowers are double, as the weight of the petals in that case frequently bursts the tube of the calyx. Every one fond of pinks and carnations must have observed the miserable appearance of the flower when thus deprived of its natural support; and to prevent the premature destruction of prize-flowers by this misfortune, professed florists sometimes slip a curiously-cut piece of card-board over the bud, which remains on after the expansion of the flower, and prevents the petals from falling out of place. Some florists tie the calyx round with thread, instead of using a pasteboard ring, which answers the same purpose. At the base of the calyx are two, four, or six leafy appendages (g), resembling bracts, which are called the calycine scales. These imbricated scales are, however, only found in the genus Dianthus. There are ten stamens (d) unequal in height, but none of them longer than the ovary round which they are placed. The ovary and the stamens are concealed in the cup of the flower, but the former is furnished with two styles, terminating in two long stigmas (e), which project beyond the flower, and which, when magnified, appear delicately fringed.
The genus Dianthus includes the Carnation, the Pink (Dianthus plumarius), the Chinese Pink (D. sinensis), the Sweet William (D. barbatus), and many ornamental flowers. Of these the Sweet William has the claws of its petals bearded; the flowers are produced in bundles or fascicles; and the calycine scales are so numerous and awl-shaped, that they give a bristly appearance to the flowers. The different species of Soap-wort (Saponaria) differ from Dianthus, in having no calycine scales; and this is also the case with the berry-bearing Campion (Cucubalus baccifer), the fruit of which is a fleshy capsule or berry, which finally becomes black, and has a singular appearance in the centre of the cup-like calyx, which remains on till the fruit is ripe. The flower of this plant is white, and the petals have a two-cleft limb. All the numerous species of Catchfly (Silene) are also without calycine scales, and the petals are generally deeply two-cleft; but they are distinguished by having a crown of petal-like scales in the throat of the corolla. There are also three styles instead of two; and the capsules are three-celled at the base, ending in six teeth at the top. The species have frequently a glutinous frothy moisture on the stem, in which flies sometimes become entangled, and hence the English name of the genus. One species, theBladder Campion (S. inflata), has been used as food, and its young shoots, when boiled and sent to table like Asparagus, are said to have the flavour of green peas. The different species of Lychnis and Agrostemma resemble Silene closely in every respect, except in the styles, which are five, instead of three; these two genera, Viscaria, and Githago, differ very slightly from each other; and several of the species are known by different names: thus Ragged Robin (Lychnis flos cuculi) is made by some botanists an Agrostemma; the Corn-cockle is sometimes calledGithago segetum, and sometimesAgrostemma Githago; the common Rose Campion is called sometimes Lychnis, and sometimes Agrostemma; and the Rock Lychnis, or Red German Catchfly, sometimesLychnis Viscaria, and sometimesViscaria vulgaris.
ORDER XXVII.—LINACEÆ.—THE FLAX TRIBE.
Theorder Linaceæ is a very small one; and, indeed, it consists principally of the genus Linum. The Flax was formerly included in the Caryophyllaceæ, which it resembles in having five petals, five sepals, and five stamens; but it also resembles the Mallow in its capsules, and in its stamens growing together at the base;and the Cistus in its persistent calyx, and the disposition of its sepals. These links, which connect one order with another, and make them appear alike but not the same, form, I think, one of the most interesting parts of the Natural System. We are led on from one gradation to another, by scarcely perceptible shades of difference through the vegetable kingdom; and, indeed, through the whole system of creation: the beautiful harmony, and unity of design, visible throughout, bearing the strong impress of the Divinity whose power has made the whole.
The common Flax (Linum usitatissimum), though in its appearance only an insignificant weed, is a plant of great benefit to man. The fibres of the stem are used to make linen, and the seeds (linseed) are crushed for oil. The flowers are blue, and have five regularly-shaped petals, which are twisted in the bud; and a distinct calyx of five pointed sepals, two of which grow from a little below the others, as in the Gum Cistus; and, as in that plant, the calyx remains on till the seeds are ripe. There are five stamens, the filaments of which grow together slightly at the base, and there are five little points like filaments without anthers, rising between the stamens. The petals are connected with the ring formed by the united filaments,and sometimes the petals themselves grow slightly together at the base. The capsule consists of five two-celled carpels, grown together; each cell containing one seed, and each carpel terminating in a rather slender style, tipped with a ball-like stigma. When ripe, the capsule opens naturally, by dividing into ten valves, to discharge the seeds; which are flat and shining, with a large embryo. These seeds are called Linseed in the shops, from Linum, the botanical name of the plant; and, as is well known, they are not only used for various purposes, but oil is expressed from them. The stem of the common Flax, though it is only an annual, consists of woody fibre, like that of a tree in its young state; and it is this fibrous part that makes the yarn for thread, after it has been separated from the fleshy part, by steeping the stems for a long time in water. The perennial Flax (Linum perenne), which, as its name imports, lasts several years, differs in little else from the common kind, except that its sepals are obtuse, and its leaves are much smaller and narrower. Both these are natives of Britain. There are many other species, some of which have yellow flowers.
ORDER XXVIII.—MALVACEÆ.—THE MALLOW TRIBE.
Allthe plants belonging to Malvaceæ bear so much resemblance to each other, that this order may be considered a very natural one; and it is one very remarkable for the botanical construction of its flowers. In some respects it resembles Linaceæ, quite enough indeed to show clearly the chain by which they are so beautifully linked together; but in others, it differs so decidedly as to show how completely they are distinct.Fig.119, which represents theFig. 119.—The flower, stamens, and pistils of the Althæa frutex.flower and seed-vessel of the Althæa frutex (Hibiscus syriacus), will serve to show the chief peculiarities of this order. The calyx consists of five sepals, below which is an involucrum of six or seven leaflets, which have the appearance of a second calyx. The corolla is cup-shaped, and consists of five petals, which are close together at the base, and this is peculiar to the genus Hibiscus. The capsule is round and somewhat convex, being nearly in the shape of what is called a batch-cake, as shown atc;it consists of five carpels grown together, each containing many seeds; and when ripe, it bursts naturally into five valves, each of which has a dissepiment down the centre. The filaments grow together very curiously, inclosing the styles, and forming a column in the centre of the flower, which is the distinguishing mark of the Malvaceæ. Some of the stamens are shorter than others, and as part of each filament is detached, the anthers form the fringe-like border to the column, shown atd. The anthers are kidney-shaped and one-celled, and this is another of the characteristics of the order; but the styles are terminated by five ball-shaped stigmas, like those of the Linum. There are many kinds of Hibiscus; but perhaps the best known are:H. rosa sinensis, the species which is so often represented in Chinese drawings, and the petals of which are so astringent, that they are said to be used in China by the men to black their shoes, and by the women to dye their hair; and the Bladder Ketmia (H. Trionum), which takes its English name from its inflated capsule. All the plants belonging to the order Malvaceæ have a central column, round which are placed numerous carpels, which grow together and form a many-celled capsule; and they all have kidney-shaped, one-celled anthers. They have also always an involucrum below thecalyx, but this involucrum differs in the different genera. In the genus Malva, the involucrum consists of three leaflets, which in the common Mallow (Malva sylvestris) are oblong. The petals are wedge-shaped, and they are what botanists call auricled; that is, they are set so far apart at the base that light can be seen through them. The stamens are all of nearly the same height, and they form a kind of bunch round the styles, which are pointed. The capsule consists of a circle of woolly-looking carpels growing close together, but so as to be easily detached with a pin, and each fitting into a little groove in the receptacle, in which they are placed. As the seeds ripen, the involucrum falls off, but the large loose-looking calyx remains on. There is only one seed in each carpel; but as there are generally eleven carpels in each capsule, each seed-vessel contains this number of seeds. The leaves are lobed and toothed; and the whole plant is covered with long hairs, which are disposed in little star-like tufts.
The genus Malope closely resembles the Mallow; except that the petals are not wedge-shaped, and that it has a still larger calyx, the long sepals of which shroud the capsule as the involucre of the filbert does the nut. The involucrum is composed of three broad, heart-shaped leaflets, which remain on till the seed is ripe.The petals are also not so even along the margin; and the carpels are so disposed as to form a cone-shaped capsule, instead of a flat one.
The genus Lavatera has the leaflets of the involucre joined to the middle, so as to form a kind of three-cornered saucer below the capsule; and the capsule itself is completely covered with a part of the receptacle, which is dilated, and curved down over it. Lastly, the genus Althæa, the Marsh Mallow, has the involucrum cleft into six or nine divisions, and the carpels united into a globular capsule. The Hollyhock (A. rosea) belongs to this genus. Many other genera might be mentioned, but these will suffice to give my readers a general idea of the order, and of the points of difference which distinguish one genus from another. Among the exotic plants belonging to the order is the cotton tree (Gossypium herbaceum), the cotton being the woolly matter which envelops the seeds in the capsule. All the Malvaceæ abound in mucilage, and they all have woody fibre in their stems.
ORDER XXIX.—BOMBACEÆ.—THE SILK COTTON TREE TRIBE.
Thisorder is closely allied to Malvaceæ, and it differs principally in the tube formed by the stamens being divided into five bundles near the top. It includes the Baobab, or Monkey-bread(Adansonia digitata), said to be the largest tree in the world; the Screw tree (Helicteres Isora), so named from its curiously-twisted fruit;Carolinia princeps; the Silk Cotton tree (Bombax Ceiba); and the Hand-plant (Cheirostemon platanoides),—this is the Hand-plant so named from the lobes of its leaves resembling fingers,—all stove plants in Britain.
ORDER XXX.—BYTTNERIACEÆ.—THE BYTTNERIA TRIBE.
Thisorder is divided into five sections, which some botanists make distinct orders. It is very nearly allied to Malvaceæ, but the anthers are two-celled. The principal genus in the first section (Sterculieæ) is Sterculia, which has several carpels distinct and arranged like a star: the species are trees with large handsome leaves which are articulated at the base, and axillary panicles or racemes of flowers. The second section (Byttnerieæ) contains among other plantsTheobroma Cacao, from the fruit and seeds of which Cocoa and Chocolate are prepared. The third section (Lasiopetaleæ) is well known in England, by the pretty Australian shrubs included in the genera Thomasia and Lasiopetalum, the leaves of which have their under surface downy, and generally brown. The fourth section (Hermannieæ), and the sixth (Wallichieæ), contain noplant common in English gardens; and the fifth (Dombeyaceæ) is best known byAstrapæa Wallichii. The qualities of all the plants in this order are mucilaginous.
ORDER XXXI.—TILIACEÆ.—THE LINDEN TRIBE.
Theonly genus belonging to the natural order Tiliaceæ which is easily to be procured in Britain is that of Tilia, the Lime trees. The common Lime (Tilia europæa) is generally a tall, well-formed tree, with rather broad leaves, which are heart-shaped at the base, tapering at the point, and serrated at the margin: they are also smooth on the outer surface, thin, and of a light and delicate texture; below there is a little tuft of hair at the angle of the veins. The flowers are produced in cymes or compoundFig. 120.—The flowers and seed-vessel of the common Lime tree.umbels (seefig.120); and their main pedicel appears to spring from one long entire bract (a). The calyx is in five sepals, and it falls off before the corolla, which is composed of five pale yellow petals, which are very sweet-scented.
The stamens are numerous, and the filaments separate, bearing two-celled anthers, which burst by long slits. The ovary has only one style, the tip of which is cleft into five small stigmas; and it is divided into five cells, each containing one or two ovules. The fruit or capsule (b) is round, and has a leathery skin, covered with a soft down; and when ripe, the cells often become united so as to form one, with only one or two perfect seeds in the whole capsule, the other ovules proving abortive. The whole plant abounds in mucilage, and the sap when boiled affords sugar. The inner bark is so tough and fibrous, that it is used for making what are called bast mats: it being first rendered flexible by steeping it for a long time in water. The wood is of very fine texture, but soft and white, and it is thus admirably adapted for carving. The American Limes have a small scale at the base of each petal of the flower; but the other differences between the species are very slight.
ORDER XXXII.—ELÆOCARPÆ.—THE ELÆOCARPUS TRIBE.
East Indiashrubs and trees, little known in Britain. “The hard and wrinkled seeds of Elæocarpus are made into necklaces in the East Indies, and, set in gold, are sold in our shops.”—(Hook.)
ORDER XXXII*.—DIPTEROCARPÆ.—THE CAMPHOR TREE TRIBE.
There are two kinds of Camphor, one produced by boiling the branches of a kind of laurel, and the other (the Camphor of Sumatra) is found in large pieces in the hollow parts of the branches ofDryobalanops Camphora, one of the species included in this order. None of these trees have been introduced into Britain.
ORDER XXXIII.—CHELONACEÆ, OR HUGONIACEÆ.
Smalltrees and shrubs, natives of the East Indies and Madagascar; only the genus Hugonia is known in Britain.
ORDER XXXIV.—TERNSTRŒMIACEÆ.—THE TERNSTRŒMIA TRIBE.
Theprincipal plants in this order common in England are Gordonia, Stuartia, and Malachodendron.Gordonia Lasianthus, the Loblolly Bay, is a small evergreen tree, with white flowers, about the size of a rose. It is a native of America; and Stuartia and Malachodendron are beautiful low trees or shrubs, with large white flowers from the same country. The flowers have five large petals; the stamens arenumerous, with the filaments growing together at the base, and attached to the petals; and there are five carpels more or less connected. Gordonia has its five sepals leathery, and covered with a silky down; its stamens almost in five distinct bundles, a five-celled capsule, and its seeds each furnished with a wing. Stuartia has a permanent calyx, five-cleft, but not parted into distinct sepals, with two bracts at the base, and a woody five-celled capsule, with seeds without wings; and Malachodendron (which was formerly calledStuartia pentagynia) has a calyx similar to that of Stuartia, but the edges of the petals are curiously crenulated, and there are five distinct carpels, each containing only one seed. Some botanists include the Camellia and the Tea in the order Ternstrœmiaceæ.
ORDER XXXV.—CAMELLIACEÆ.—THE CAMELLIA TRIBE.
Thereare two genera in this order, the Camellia and the Tea. The flower-bud of the Camellia is inclosed in a calyx of five, seven, or nine concave sepals, on the outside of which are several bracts, which remain on till the flower has expanded, but which are distinguished from the sepals by their dark brown colour. The sepals and the bracts are laid over one anotherlike scales, and thus the flower lies encased in a complete coat of mail. The single flower is cup-shaped, with five, seven, or nine petals, which are sometimes joined together at the base. The stamens have long slender filaments, which either grow together at the base, or are separated into several bundles. The anthers are elliptical and versatile; that is, they are poised so lightly on the filament as to quiver with the slightest breeze. The ovary is of a conical shape, and it has three or five slender styles, ending in as many pointed stigmas, and growing together at the base. The capsule is three or five-celled; and when ripe it bursts into three or five valves, in the middle of each of which is a dissepiment, which, before the capsule opened, was attached to an axis or column in the centre. The seeds are large and few, and they are fixed to the central placenta. There is no albumen, but the embryo has two large, thick, oily cotyledons, which look as if they were jointed at the base. The leaves are leathery, dark-green and shining, and they are ovate in form, ending in a long point, and sharply serrated. The flowers spring from the axils of the leaves, and grow close to the stem without any footstalk; and the leaf-bud for the ensuing shoot grows beside the flower-bud.
I have above described theCamellia japonica,from which nearly all the Camellias in British gardens have sprung; but there are some other species. The finest of these isC. reticulata, which has very large, loose, widely-spreading flowers, of a remarkably rich crimson. The leaves are oblong, flat, and reticulately veined, being of a much finer texture than those ofC. japonica. The ovary is two or four-celled, and it is covered with fine silky hairs.C. maliflorais a very beautiful species with small semi-double flowers, coloured like an apple blossom. This Camellia is by some botanists thought to be a variety ofC. Sasanqua, an elegant species with white fragrant flowers; but the ovary of the first is smooth, and that of the second covered with hairs, which most botanists consider a specific difference.
The Tea tree (Thea viridis) is very nearly allied to the Camellia; but there are many points of difference. The flower of the Tea tree has a footstalk; the calyx has only five sepals; the filaments of the stamens do not grow together; the capsules are three-seeded; and the dissepiments are formed by the edges of the valves being bent inwards, instead of being attached to a central axis. The leaves are also much longer than they are broad, and they are of a thinner texture and pale green; and the outside of the capsule, which is furrowed in the Camellia, isquite smooth in the Tea tree. It is said that both the green and the black Tea are made from the leaves ofThea viridis; but there is another species calledThea Bohea, which has smaller leaves, and is a more tender, and less vigorous-growing plant. The young leaves ofCamellia Sasanqua, and some of the other Camellias, are also dried, and mixed with the tea. All these plants are natives of Japan and China, and require a slight protection in England during winter.
ORDER XXXVI.—OLACINEÆ.—THE OLAX TRIBE.
Exotictrees from the East and West Indies, little known in Britain.Heistria coccinea, a native of Martinique, is said to be the Partridge wood of the cabinet-makers.
ORDER XXXVII.—AURANTIACEÆ.—THE ORANGE TRIBE.
Fig. 121.—Flower and seed of the Orange.
Fig. 121.—Flower and seed of the Orange.
Thenatural order Aurantiaceæ contains fourteen genera; but the only one I think my readers will feel an interest in is the genus Citrus. This genus comprises, among several other species,C. medica, the Citron;C. Limetta, the sweet Lime;C. Limonum, the Lemon;C. Paradisi, the Forbidden fruit;C. decumana, the Shaddock;C. Aurantium, the Sweet Orange;andC. vulgaris, the Bitter or Seville Orange. to these may be addedC. nobilisthe Mandarin Orange, the fruit of which is reddish, and which parts naturally from its rind, which is sweet, and may be eaten. All the species agree in having a tube-like calyx, scalloped into five short teeth, and a flower of generally five fleshy petals, (seeainfig.121), though the number occasionally varies from four to nine. These petals are elliptic in shape, concave, and always widely opened. In the centre of the flower are the stamens, varying from twenty (which is the ordinary number) to sixty; the anthers are two-lobed, and oblong, and the filaments are somewhat thickened at the base, and united there into several small bundles (b), but free above. The pistil has a somewhat globular ovary, with a cylindrical style, terminating in a stigma, which is slightly raised in the centre. The disk in which the stamens are inserted, forms a ring round the ovary. The fruit (fig.122), which is considered bybotanists to be a kind of berry, is in fact a seed-vessel with numerous cells, divided by dissepiments and a central placenta (a); the cells being the quarters of the Orange, the dissepiments the divisions between them, and the placenta the central pith. When the flower first expands, the ovary, if cut open and examined, will be found to be divided into several cells, each containing two rows of ovules. As in the preceding genera, however, many of these ovules become abortive; and as the cells fill gradually with cellular pulp, the seeds become detached from the placenta, and buried in it. The seeds themselves are very interesting; they are covered with a thick wrinkled skin, and they show distinctly the hilum (cinfig.121), the chalaza (d) and the raphe or connecting cord between them, parts which are seldom to be distinguished in seeds with the naked eye.
Fig. 122.—Leaf and fruit of the Orange.
Fig. 122.—Leaf and fruit of the Orange.
The leaves, calyx, and petals of the Orange, if held up to the light, appear covered with little dots. These dots are cells, covered with a transparent membrane, and filled with a kind of oil, which is exceedingly fragrant. The rind of the fruit is covered with similar cells, filled with a pungent oily liquid. The leaves are smooth and shining; and they are articulated; that is, they can be separated from the petiole or footstalk without lacerating them. In mostof the species, the petioles are winged; that is, they are dilated into little leaves on each side (seedinfig.122). The different species vary chiefly in the number of stamens, the thickness of the rind, the shape of the fruit, and in the wings of the petioles. In the Citron these wings are wanting entirely, and instead of them there are spines in the axils of the leaves; there are generally forty stamens, and the rind of the fruit is very thick. In the sweet Lime, the petioles are slightly winged, and there are about thirty stamens; the fruit is small and round, with a slight protuberance at one end like that of the Lemon, and the pulp is sweet. In the Lemon the petioles are somewhat winged, the flowers have about thirty stamens; the fruit is oblong, with an acid pulp, and a thin rind. The Sweet Orange has winged petioles, about twenty stamens, and a fruit with a thin rind and sweet pulp; and the Seville Orange differs principally in having a thicker rind and bitter pulp. The China, St. Michael, and Malta Oranges, with many others, are all varieties of the Sweet Orange (Citrus Aurantium); and there are many other species, which I have not thought it necessary to describe.—All the species above-mentioned are natives of Asia, and most of them of China, but they have been so long cultivated in Europe and America, as to have become almost naturalised.
ORDER XXXVIII.—HYPERICINEÆ.—THE HYPERICUM TRIBE.
Thegenus Hypericum, or St. John’s Wort, agrees with the orange in having its leaves full of transparent cells; but these cells are filled with a yellow, resinous juice, resembling gamboge in its medicinal properties, and having a very disagreeable smell. There are five petals in the corolla; and the calyx consists of five sepals, which are unequal in size and shape, and joined together for only a short distance. Like the orange the filaments grow together at the base, in separate clusters or bundles; but in the Hypericum these clusters are so perfectly distinct, that the stamens may be readily separated into three or five bundles (according to the species), by slightly pulling them. The capsule is dry, and of a membrane-like texture, and it consists of three or five carpels, containing many seeds, and each having a separate style, and a pointed stigma. The flowers are very showy, from their large golden yellow petals and numerous stamens. The genus Androsæmum, the Tutsan, or Park-leaves, has been separated from Hypericum on account of its fruit being one-celled and one-seeded, with a fleshy covering, which yields a red juice when pressed.H. calycinum, with large yellow flowers and fivetufts of stamens, is the handsomest species; butH. perforatumis the true St. John’s Wort, which the country people used formerly to gather on midsummer eve, as a preservative against witchcraft.
ORDER XXXIX.—GUTTIFERÆ.—THE MANGOSTEEN TRIBE.
Theonly genus in this order that contains plants interesting to the English reader is Garcinia; and the most remarkable species areG. Mangostana, the Mangosteen, said to be the most delicious fruit in the world, andG. Cambogia, the tree producing the gamboge, which is a kind of gum that oozes out from the stem. Both are natives of the East Indies.
ORDER XL.—MARCGRAAVIACEÆ.
Exoticshrubs, mostly natives of the West Indies, with spiked, or umbellate flowers, and alternate leaves. Very seldom seen in Britain.
ORDER XLI.—HIPPOCRATACEÆ.
Exoticarborescent, or climbing shrubs, generally with inconspicuous flowers. Natives of the East and West Indies.
ORDER XLII.—ERYTHROXYLEÆ.—THE RED WOOD TRIBE.
Exotic shrubs, and low trees, remarkable from the redness of their wood, but with small greenish flowers. The leaves ofErythroxylon Cocapossess an intoxicating quality, and are chewed by the Peruvians, in the same manner as the Turks take opium.
ORDER XLIII.—MALPIGHIACEÆ.—THE BARBADOES CHERRY TRIBE.
Several species of Malpighia, the Barbadoes Cherry, are found occasionally in our stoves. The corolla of these plants, when closed, bears considerable resemblance to that of a Kalmia; but the flower when expanded is more like that of a Clarkia, from the long claws of the five petals, and the distance they are placed apart. Several of the species have their leaves and stems beset with stinging bristles, which adhere to the hands when touched. The fruit, which is eatable, but insipid, is a berry-like drupe, containing three one-seeded nuts. The species are natives of the West Indies, and they require a stove in England. The flowers are generally rose-coloured or purplish; but they are sometimes yellow. The common Barbadoes Cherryis calledM. glabra, and its leaves are without stings. In Hiptage, another genus of this order, four of the petals of the flowers are white, and one yellow; and in Banisteria, the species are generally climbing shrubs, always with yellow flowers. Some of the species of Banisteria are occasionally found in stoves in this country, where their beautiful feathery yellow flowers have very much the appearance of those of the Canary bird flower (Tropæolum peregrinum).
ORDER XLIV.—ACERINEÆ.—THE MAPLE TRIBE.
Fig. 123.—Flower and Samara of the Sycamore.(Acer Pseudo-Platanus.)
Fig. 123.—Flower and Samara of the Sycamore.(Acer Pseudo-Platanus.)
Thecommon Maple (Acer campestre) and the Sycamore (A. Pseudo-Platanus) are the only plants belonging to this order, that are natives of Britain; though so many kinds of ornamental Acers are now found in our parks and pleasure-grounds. Few trees are indeed more deserving of culture than the American Maples, both for their beauty in early spring, and for the rich shades of yellow and brown which their leaves assume in autumn. The Maple tribe is a very small one; it consists indeed of only the genera Acer and Negundo, and an obscure Nepal genus, of which there are no plants in Britain. Of all the Acers, one of the handsomest is the Sycamore tree (A.Pseudo-Platanus); the flower of this species (seeeinfig.123) is of a yellowish green; and as in early spring, when it appears, we are delighted at the sight of any thing in the way of flowers, it really looks very beautiful. Before I began to study botany, I had never noticed the blossoms of the forest trees, and when I was shown thelight-feathery flowers of the Lime, and the gracefully-drooping ones of the Sycamore, I was quite astonished. The flowers of the Sycamore grow in a drooping raceme; the calyx is divided into five parts, but as it is scarcely distinguishable from the petals, which are five in number, and placed alternately with the sepals, it appears to be in ten divisions (seea). These flowers are partly male and female (seebandc), and partly perfect. In the perfect flowers there are eight stamens, and two stigmas; and the ovary when ripe expands into a curiously winged pod, called a samara (d), but differently shaped to the samara of the Ash, the thickened parts at the base of which contain the seeds. There is no albumen in the seed, which, when put into the ground, expands into two long thin cotyledons, (ainfig.124) which, if once pointed out, will always be known again instantly. If a ripe seed be opened when quite fresh, the cotyledons or seed leaves will be found within it, fresh, green, and succulent; and these leaves (ainfig.124), which rise above the ground as soon as the seed begins to germinate, differ widely in shape from the true leaves (b) which are serrated, and of a much thicker texture. The bracts of the Sycamore (finfig.123) are thick and leathery, and of a rich dark brown. The leaves are serrated at the margin;and the lower ones are cut into five lobes; but those near the flowers have generally only threelobes (e), and in all the leaves, two of the lobes are not so deeply cut as the others.
Fig. 124.—Young Sycamore.
Fig. 124.—Young Sycamore.
There are many species of Acer, most of which are tall trees; and they are chiefly distinguished from each other by the shape of the leaves and of the samaras, or keys, the wings of which, in some species, are near together, as shown atdinfig.123, and in others widely apart, as in the common hedge Maple (A. campestris), and in the Norway Maples, as shown atainfig.125. This figure represents the flowers of the Norway Maple (Acer platanoides), which are in what botanists call a corymb, and stand erect, instead of drooping like those of the sycamore. The leaves are deeply five-lobed, and the lobes are so coarsely toothed, that the teeth have almost the appearance of lobules. The buds of this plant in winter are large and red, and when they open in spring, the bracts (b) curl back over the scales (c). The leaves become of a clear yellowish red in autumn, and the whole plant is very ornamental. When a leaf of this tree is broken off, a milky sap issues from the broken petiole or leaf-stalk, which is of an acrid nature; differing in this respect, materially from the sap of the trunk, which is very sweet. Sugar indeed may be made from the sap of the trunk of almost all the Maples; but particularly in America, from that of the SugarMaple (Acer saccharinum). The flowers of the red American Maple (Acer rubrum) are red, and as from their colour, and their appearing a fortnight before the leaves, they are very conspicuous, I have given a magnified representation of them infig.126, that my readers may have an opportunity of examining the maleand female flowers from a living tree. Infig.126,a aare male flowers, having no stigmas; andb bare female ones, having no stamens.
Fig. 125.—Flowers and Samara of the Norway Maple.
Fig. 125.—Flowers and Samara of the Norway Maple.
Fig. 126.—Flowers of the Red Maple(Acer rubrum).
Fig. 126.—Flowers of the Red Maple(Acer rubrum).
The leaves ofAcer rubrumbecome red in autumn. The Tatarian Maple differs from the other species in having entire leaves, and the samaras are red when young; but all the other kinds of Acer common in British gardens bear a strong family likeness to each other. The Ash-leaved Maple is now made into a separate genus, and is calledNegundo fraxinifolia. This tree is easily distinguished from the Maples by its compound leaves, which resemble those ofthe Ash, and its long pea-green shoots, which have very few buds. The male and female flowers of the Negundo are on different trees, and they are so small as to be seldom seen, though the racemes of samaras or keys which succeed the flowers are very conspicuous. The Negundo is a native of America, and its leaves turn yellow in autumn.
ORDER XLV.—HIPPOCASTANEÆ, OR ÆSCULACEÆ. THE HORSE-CHESTNUT TRIBE.
Fig. 127.—Flowers of the Horse-chestnut.
Fig. 127.—Flowers of the Horse-chestnut.
Fig. 128.—Horse-chestnut.
Fig. 128.—Horse-chestnut.
Thisorder contains only two genera; viz., Æsculus, the Horse-chestnut, and Pavia, the Buckeye; both of which are generally called Horse-chestnuts, though the genera are easily distinguished by their fruit, the husk of which is smooth in the Pavias, but rough in the true Horse-chestnuts. The buds of all the species of both genera are covered with bracted scales, most of which fall off when the leaves and flowers expand; and those of the common Horse-chestnut (Æsculus Hippocastanum) are very large, and covered with a kind of gum. Four large compound leaves, each consisting of five or seven leaflets, and a raceme of sixty-eight flowers, haveFig. 129.—Young plant of Horse-chestnut.been unfolded on dissecting one of these buds, before the leaves unfold in spring. The flowers of this species are produced in large, uprightpanicled racemes (seeainfig.127); and the leaves (b) are compound, consisting of five orseven leaflets, disposed in a palmate manner. Two of the inner bracts, which remain after the outer scales (which are very numerous) have fallen, are shown atc. I mention this particularly, as these remaining bracts have very much the appearance of stipules, and it is one of the characters of the Horse-chestnuts that their leaves are without stipules. The flowers consist of five petals, two of which (dinfig.128) are somewhat smaller than the others. Each petal consists of a broad blade or limb (e), and a very narrow claw (f). There are seven stamens, three of which (g) are shorter than the others. The filaments are inserted inthe receptacle (h), and surround the pistil, which is hairy, and has a long style and a curved stigma (i). The ovary is two-celled, and each cell contains two ovules, but seldom more than one seed ripens. The nut (k) is large, and covered with a shining brown skin, which is strongly marked with the hilum. When put into the ground, the cotyledons do not appear in the shape of seed-leaves, but remain in the ground, and the plumule and radicle are protruded as shown infig.129. The Acorn germinates in a similar manner, as already shown infig.86 in p. 192.
The flowers of the different species of ÆsculusFig. 130.—Scarlet Horse-chestnut.Fig. 131.—Yellow Horse-chestnut.Fig. 132.—Nut of the Buckeye.vary considerably; as, for example, in the Scarlet Horse-chestnut (Æ. rubicunda), the calyx is tubular (seeainfig.130), and there are but four petals, the upper two of which (b) are narrower than the lower ones (c), and have beardedclaws. This species has sometimes eight stamens. In the Yellow Horse-chestnut, or yellow flowered American Buckeye, the upper petals (ainfig.131) are very much smaller than the lower ones (b), and both have very long claws. There are four petals, which conceal the stamens, of which there are frequently only six. The seed of Pavia has only a small hilum, which resembles the pupil of an eye (seefig.132); and hence the genus has received its American name of Buckeye. In one species (P.macrostachya), the nut is eatable, and very much resembles that of a Sweet Chestnut when boiled in milk. The stamens in this species are much longer than the petals, and they give a peculiarly light and elegant appearance to the flowers; which, unlike those of the other species, do not appear till the latter end of summer or autumn.
ORDER XLVI.—RHIZOBOLEÆ—THE CARYOCAR TRIBE.
Treesof large size, natives of tropical America.Caryocar nuciferumproduces the Suwarrow, or Butter-nut of the fruiterers’ shops.
ORDER XLVII.—SAPINDACEÆ.—SOAP-TREE TRIBE.
Theonly plant in this order which will grow in the open air in England isKölreuteria paniculata, a beautiful tree, with very elegant leaves, and panicles of yellow flowers, which are succeeded by a bladdery capsule, which is divided into three cells in its lower part, though it is only one-celled above. The rind and pulp of the fruit ofSapindus Saponariaare used assoap in those countries of which it is a native. The nuts of this plant are round and hard, and of such a shining black that they are made into buttons and beads by the inhabitants of Spanish America. The whole plant, if thrown into ponds containing fish, will intoxicate, and sometimes kill them. Another interesting plant belonging to this order is the Chinese fruit called Litchi (EuphoriaorNephelium Litchi); which has its sweet eatable pulp enclosed in a kind of nut, much wrinkled on the outside; so that the fruit lies within the stone, instead of being on the outside of it. These hard, stone-like berries grow in loose racemes.
ORDER XLVIII.—MELIACEÆ.—THE BEAD-TREE TRIBE.
Melia Azederach, the Pride of India, or Indian Lilac, or Bead-tree, for it is known by all these names, is a native of Syria, which has become almost naturalised in the South of Europe, particularly near the Mediterranean. The leaves are bi-pinnate, the flowers are violet-coloured, and the fruit, which resembles that of the cherry, is of a pale yellow when ripe. The pulp is poisonous, and the stones are used for making rosaries in the Roman Catholic countries.
ORDER XLVIII*.—CEDRELEÆ.—THE MAHOGANY TRIBE.
Thisorder was at first united to Meliaceæ by De Candolle, but it has been separated on account of its winged seeds. It contains, among other genera, the Mahogany tree (Swietenia Mahagoni), and the West Indian Cedar (Cedrela). The leaves of these trees are alternate and pinnate, with unequal-sided leaflets; and the flowers are in large spreading panicles composed of numerous little cymes. The fruit is capsular, and the seeds are winged. The genera contained in this order, all require a stove in Great Britain.
ORDER XLIX.—AMPELIDEÆ.—THE VINE TRIBE.
Thenatural order Ampelideæ contains several genera, but of these only the Vine and the five-leaved Ivy are common in British gardens. It seems almost ridiculous to talk of the flowers of the Vine, as the bunches, even when they first appear, seem to consist of only very small grapes, which gradually become large ones. The flowers, however, though small and insignificant, are perfect, and they have each a distinct and regularly formed calyx and corolla. The calyx of the common Grape (Vitis vinifera) is very small, and remains on till the fruit isripe; there are five petals (ainfig.133), which never expand, but remain fastened together at the tip, detaching themselves at the base, whenFig. 133.—Flowers of the Vine.it is necessary that they should give room to the ripening stamens (b). The petals, which form a kind of extinguisher, when they are raised by the five stamens, fall off (c), and occasion the chaffy appearance observable in clusters of Vine-flowers. The ovary is, when young, in two cells, each containing two seeds; and it is crowned with a nearly flat, round stigma, without any style. When the fruit begins to swell, the ovary becomes filled with a pulp, which is solid, and not contained in bags like that of the Orange; and the dissepiment that divided the two cells gradually wastes away. Two, and sometimes three of the seeds also frequently disappear, so that four seeds are rarely found in the ripe grape. The seeds themselves are bony, and covered with a jelly-like matter; and when they are cut open, they are found to consist of a large quantity of hard albumen, with a very small embryo at the tip. The Vine is a climbing shrub, with lobed leaves, whichare frequently deeply cut; the bunches in which the grapes are disposed are called branched or thyrsoid racemes (see 137), and the tendrils, by which the plant climbs, are supposed to be abortive peduncles, drawn out into these long, flexible, curling bodies, instead of producing bunches of grapes. The footstalks of the leaves are articulated, and will separate from the branch without tearing them. The different species of vines differ from each other chiefly in their leaves; but in the American grapes the calyx is sometimes entire, and sometimes the stamens and pistils are in different flowers.
The five-leaved Ivy, or Virginian Creeper (Ampelopsis hederacea), differs very little from the Vine in the botanical construction of its flowers. The calyx is, however, almost entire, and the five petals separate in the same way as those of other flowers; but in other respects they closely resemble those of the Vines. The berries are small, and not palatable, though they might be eaten with perfect safety. The leaves are palmate, and they are divided into three or five stalked leaflets. The stems are climbing and rooting; and the leaves take a beautiful deep red in autumn. The genus Cissus also belongs to this order.
ORDER L.—GERANIACEÆ.—THE GERANIUM TRIBE.
Theorder Geraniaceæ contains several genera of well-known plants, the most popular of which arePelargonium,Erodium, andGeranium, signifying Stork’s-bill, Heron’s-bill, and Crane’s-bill, which differ very slightly from each other. The greenhouse Geraniums, which are all either natives of the Cape of Good Hope, or hybrids raised in Europe from the species originally imported, were, till lately, all included in the genusPelargonium; but what were sections of that genus have, by some botanists, been now made separate genera. As probably, however, this rage for giving new and different names to divisions and subdivisions will not be generally adopted, I will not trouble my readers with any other distinctions than those between the three leading genera; and even these, I think they will allow, appear very trifling. The calyx of the Pelargonium is in five sepals, and two of them end in a kind of spur; which is, however, not very perceptible, as it runs down the peduncle or footstalk of the flower, and grows to it, so as to seem only a part accidentally enlarged. The corolla is in five petals, the upper two of which are generally larger, and differently marked to the others. Sometimes there are only four, and sometimes there are six petals;but these are exceptions to the general rule. The perfect stamens vary in number from four to seven; but there are always ten filaments, which are dilated, and grow together at the base; and I was quite delighted with the sparkling gem-like appearance of the membrane which they form when thus united, when I looked at it through my little microscope. In the plant now before me (a hybrid called the Duke of Sussex), the upper parts of some of the stamens have turned into little petals, retaining the white membrane-like part at the base, and thus curiously exemplifying the manner in which double flowers are formed, which is always by the metamorphosis of the stamens, or of the stamens and pistil, into petals. The pistil of the Pelargonium appears, when young, to consist of a five-celled ovary, with a long slender style, the tip of which is divided into five slender curved stigmas. The cells of the ovary are, however, five one-seeded carpels, each having a separate style; and though both the carpels and styles appear firmly grown together when young, yet, in fact, they only adhere to an elongation of the receptacle (seeainfig.134), which is here called the central axis, and from which, when ripe, they part with elasticity, and curl up, as shown atb; the styles, or awns, as they are sometimes called, being hairy inside.
The shape of the unripe seed-vessel, with its persistent calyx, is shown atc, and a detachedFig. 134.—Seed-vessel of a Pelargonium.seed atd. No plant hybridises more freely than the Pelargonium; and thus, the number of new kinds raised every year defies all description, and they have been so mixed and intermixed with each other, that it is not easy to say to what species the most splendid hybrids are allied. A few species, however, remain nearly unchanged, and the best known of these areP. zonale, the Horseshoe Geranium;P. inquinans, the common scarlet, the juice of the leaves of which is said to stain the fingers brown;P. graveolens, andP. capitatum, the rose-scented Geraniums, andP. tricolor. All the Pelargoniums have their flowers in heads or umbels; and the calyx in all of them remains on till the seeds are ripe. The seed-vessel, or fruit, as it is called by botanists, is long and pointed, forming some resemblance to the head of a stork; the ovary shrouded in the persistent calyx, representing the headof the bird, and the long styles the beak. The leaves vary in shape in the different kinds: sometimes they are roundish, as in the Horseshoe Geranium, and marked with a dark band or zone, whence the specific namezonale; and sometimes they are deeply cut, as in the rose-scented kinds: some are shrubby, and some herbaceous; and the stems of some species are warted, and the roots of others tuberous.
The genus Erodium consists principally of European plants, three of which are natives of England. The commonest of these (Erodium cicutarium) is called in many parts of England the Wild Geranium; and nearly allied to it, but less common, isE. moschatum. The principal points in which this genus differs from Pelargonium are, that the filaments of the stamens are very little united at the base; that there are always five filaments which bear anthers, and five that are sterile, and that the latter have each a gland at the base. The calyx is also without the spur, and the seed-pod is thought to resemble a heron’s head more than that of a stork. When it bursts, also, the styles, which are hairy inside like those of the Pelargonium, do not curl up in the same manner as in that genus, but spirally.
The genus Geranium differs from Erodium principally in having the stamens all perfect;but the alternate ones are longer than the others, and have a gland at the base of each. The seed-pod is said to resemble the head of a crane, and when it bursts, the styles, which are smooth inside, curl up round and round like the coil of a rope. The seeds of many of the kinds are beautifully netted. Many of the species are British weeds, and among the commonest of these may be mentioned Herb Robert (Geranium Robertianum), and the Meadow Crane’s-bill (G. pratense). Dr. Lindley, in his Ladies’ Botany, mentions a curious and beautiful experiment which may be performed by pressing the petals of a Geranium between two pieces of glass which have been previously wetted. He says, that by pressing the two glasses firmly together, all the air may be squeezed out of the petal, and it will become transparent. “You may then,” he adds, “with a pretty good magnifying power, observe all the air-vessels of the veins distinctly, looking like fine threads of silver-wire twisted up like a spiral spring. It is on account of this appearance that the air-vessels are called, technically, spiral vessels.” The experiment appeared to me so easy, and at the same time so interesting, that I tried it, but unfortunately without success; probably owing to the want of power in my microscope.
ORDER LI.—LIMNANTHEÆ.
Thislittle order contains only one plant,Limnanthes Douglassi, a pretty Californian annual, with yellow and white flowers. It resembles Geraniaceæ in its botanical construction, but it does not discharge its seeds with elasticity.
ORDER LI.—TROPÆOLACEÆ.—THE NASTURTIUM TRIBE.
Thewell-known flowers called Nasturtium, or Indian Cress, give their name to this order; which, in fact, consists only of the genus Tropæolum, and an obscure genus not yet introduced. In the flowers of the Nasturtium, the calyx and corolla are of nearly the same colour, but they may be easily distinguished from each other. The calyx is drawn out into a spur behind, and the petals, which are unguiculate, or claw-shaped, are fringed at the base. The leaves and stem are succulent, and have the taste of cress, and hence the plant has received its popular name,—Nasturtium being the botanic name of the water-cress. The Tropæolum has five petals, eight stamens, and three carpels, which are joined together into a trigonal fruit, each carpel containing one seed, which adheres to it. The embryo is large, and fills the wholeseed, which is without albumen. The unripe carpels are sometimes pickled, and used as a substitute for capers. The whole plant has not only the taste, but the properties, of cruciferous plants; and even the caterpillars of the cabbage-butterflies feed upon it.
ORDER LII.—BALSAMINEÆ.—BALSAM TRIBE.
Nearlyallied to the Geraniums, and resembling them, in the opening of the seed-pods, are the beautiful plants contained in the order Balsamineæ. The two genera best known in British gardens are Balsamina and Impatiens. The common Balsam (Balsamina hortensis), has a small green calyx of two sepals; there are four petals, one of which is drawn out into a short spur at the base. There are five stamens, each bearing a two-celled anther. The ovary is one-celled, but it separates into five valves, when the seeds are ripe, bursting with elasticity, and the valves curling inwardly from the apex to the base. There are five stigmas, quite distinct from each other, and appearing just above the ovary, without any style; and the peduncles are simple and one-flowered.
The genus Impatiens, which contains the common Noli-me-tangere, or Touch-me-Not, and other similar plants, though it agrees withBalsamina in having five anthers, has only three of them with two cells, the others having one cell each. The stigmas also are joined together at the base, and the capsule bursts at the slightest touch, the valves coiling up spirally from the base to the apex, and detaching themselves from the plant at the same time that they expel the seeds. The peduncles grow from the axils of the leaves, and they are branched and many-flowered. A separate order, called Hydrocereæ, has been made of one of the species of Impatiens (I. natans). It is an aquatic plant, a native of the East Indies.
ORDER LIII.—OXALIDEÆ.—THE WOOD-SORREL TRIBE.
Theflowers of all the species of Oxalis, the Wood-sorrel, are very pretty. The flowers have five regular petals, each furnished with a claw; and the petals are spirally twisted in the bud. There are ten stamens, and five styles. The capsule is five-celled, and five or ten valved, the valves opening lengthways. Most of the species are natives of South America, and greenhouse plants in England.
ORDER LIV.—ZYGOPHYLLEÆ.—THE BEAN-CAPER TRIBE.
Theflowers of the Bean-caper are usually yellow; and the five petals are long, narrow, and placed widely apart. The botanic name of Zygophyllum signifies “with the leaves in pairs,” and this is the case to a remarkable degree.Fagonia creticais a very pretty plant, with purple flowers very much like those of Clarkia; andGuiacum, the Lignum Vitæ, is remarkable for the hardness of its wood and the gum it produces. Melianthus belongs to this order.
ORDER LV.—RUTACEÆ.—THE RUE TRIBE.
Thisorder has been divided into four sections; three of which contain well-known plants, and have been divided into three orders by many botanists. The Rue (Ruta graveolens) is well known from its strong and disagreeable smell, which is produced by the oil secreted in transparent cells in the leaves, which have the appearance of dots, when the leaves are held up to the light. The leaves are of a bluish green, and the flowers of a greenish yellow; the latter growing in cymes at the end of the branches. There are four sepals, four petals, and eight stamens. There are four carpels, seated on an elevated receptacle, and each containing one cell,which grow into a four-celled fruit. In Fraxinella (Dictamnus) the petals are unequal; there are ten stamens, one style, and the carpels are two-seeded. In Diosma there are only five stamens, the style is arched, and the capsule consists of five-horned carpels. In Corræa the leaves are opposite; there are eight stamens, and the four petals grow together into a tube at the base; and in Crowea there are five sepals, five petals, and ten stamens; the leaves are also alternate. The Diosmas have as strong a scent as the Rue, and a perfume is made from them called Bucku at the Cape of Good Hope, of which country they are natives.
The section Zanthoxyleæ contains the Zanthoxylum, also called the Toothache Tree, or Prickly Ash, a native of North America, the bark of which is very fragrant, and is said to be a cure for toothache and rheumatism; Ptelea or Shrubby Trefoil; andAilantus glandulosa.Zanthoxylum fraxineumhas very pretty pinnate leaves, and small purple flowers;Ptelea trifoliatahas curiously winged fruit, which resemble those of the elm; and the Ailantus has remarkably long compound leaves, one leaf having been known to have fourteen pairs of leaflets, and to be upwards of three feet long. The two following orders are included in Rutaceæ by some botanists.
ORDER LVI.—SIMARUBACEÆ.
Quassia amara, the bark of which is sometimes used as a substitute for hops, is perhaps the best known plant belonging to this order. All the species are trees or shrubs, natives of tropical America, with bitter bark, milky juice, and pinnated leaves.
ORDER LVII.—OCHNACEÆ.
Tropicalshrubs with yellow flowers and shining leaves; seldom seen in British hothouses.
ORDER LVIII.—CORIAREÆ.
Onlyone species of this order is common in British gardens, viz.Coriaria myrtifolia; the leaves of which are astringent, and used in dyeing black, and the berries are poisonous.
§ II.—Calycifloræ.
The plants comprised in this division have their petals and stamens inserted in the calyx, or in a lining of it formed by the dilated receptacle.
ORDER LIX.—CELASTRINEÆ.