PART I.

MODERN BOTANY FOR LADIES.

Thefollowing pages are intended to enable my readers to acquire a knowledge of Botany with as little trouble to themselves as possible.

As, however, Botany is a “wide word,” I must here premise that I only propose to treat of that part of the science which relates to the classification of plants, according to the natural system of Jussieu, as improved by the late Professor De Candolle; and that the grand object I have in view is to enable my readers to find out the name of a plant when they see it for the first time; or, if they hear or read the name of a plant, to make that name intelligible to them. Nothing is more natural than to ask the name of every pretty flower we see; but unless the inquirer knows something of botany, the name, if it be a scientific one, will seem only a collectionof barbarous sounds, and will convey no ideas to the mind. Half the interest of new greenhouse plants is thus destroyed, as few of them have English names, and strangers will soon cease to make any inquiries respecting them when they find they can obtain no answers that they can understand. Now, a very slight knowledge of botany will take away this mortifying feeling; and the name of a new plant, and the ascertaining the order to which it belongs, will recall a variety of recollections that will open up a new source of interest and enjoyment even in such interesting and enjoyable things as flowers—for we never can enjoy thoroughly anything that we do not understand.

It now only remains for me to say why I have divided my work into two parts. My reason is my belief that a student will always remember more easily a few strongly marked divisions than a number of smaller ones, the differences between which are only faintly perceptible. In a more advanced state of knowledge, it is delightful to trace the minute shades of difference by which the numerous orders are united, so as to form one great whole; but these gentle gradations confuse a beginner. On this account I have thought it best to devote the first part of my work to a few of the more important orders, which differ most widely from each other, andwhich I have described at a greater length than my space will allow me to bestow upon the whole; and in the second part of my work, I shall give a short account of the whole natural system, introducing the orders described in the first part, in their proper places, so that my readers may see how they are connected with the others.

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS.

Inthis first part I shall endeavour to familiarise my readers with botanical details, as all the orders I shall describe contain a great number of genera; and to begin at the beginning, I must first tell them what is here meant by an order, and what by a genus of plants. A genus then may be compared to a family of children, all the plants in it being known by one common or generic name, in addition to their particular or specific one. Thus, if Rosa alba be spoken of,Rosais the generic name which is common to all roses, butalbais the specific name which is only applied to the white rose.

An order includes many genera, and bears the same affinity to a nation as a genus does toa family. In many cases the resemblance which the plants in each order bear to each other is sufficiently strong to enable the student to recognise them at first sight; in the same manner as you may generally know a Frenchman or a German from an Englishman, even before you hear him speak. But unfortunately this general outward resemblance does not always exist, and it is necessary for the student to become acquainted with the general construction of flowers before the points of resemblance which have occasioned certain genera to be linked together to form orders, can be understood.

It is thus evident that the first step towards a knowledge of systematic botany is to study flowers thoroughly, and few objects of study can be more interesting, whether we regard the elegance of their forms or the beauty and brilliancy of their colours. My readers may perhaps, however, be as much surprised as I was, to learn that the beautifully coloured parts of flowers are the least important; and that, as they only serve as a covering to the stamens and pistil, which are designed for the production of seed, they may be, and indeed actually are, wanting in a great many of what are considered perfect flowers. In examining a flower, therefore, it must be remembered that the production of seed is the object, for which all the curious contrivances we discover are designed. The germen or ovary (ain fig. 1) is protected by a thick fleshy substance (b), called the receptacle or disk, which serves as a bed or foundation on which the other parts of the flower rest, and which is thence frequently called a thalamus or torus, both words signifying a bed. The ovaryFig. 1.—Stamen and Pistil.itself is hollow, and it is sometimes divided into several cells, each inclosing a number of ovules, which are afterwards to become seeds; but sometimes there is only one cell, and sometimes only one seed in each cell. The ovary is juicy and succulent when young, and very different from what it afterwards becomes when the seeds are ripe. Rising from the ovary in most flowers, is a long and slender stalk called the style (c), which supports a kind of head, called the stigma (d). The ovary, the style, and the stigma, constitute what is called the pistil; but the style is not so essential as the other parts, and indeed it is wanting in many flowers. Sometimes there are many styles, each with a stigma at its summit, forming the pistil; and when this is the case, the ovary will have as many cells as there are stigmas, or each stigma will have a separate ovary to itself. There are generally several stamens in a flower,each perfect stamen consisting of three parts,—the Filament, the Anther, and the Pollen. The filament (e) is, however, often wanting, and it is only the anther (f), and the powder called the pollen which it contains, that are essential. The anther, when the flower first expands, appears like a little oblong case with a deep groove down the centre, or rather like two oblong cases stuck together. When these cases become ripe, they burst and let out the pollen which was inclosed within them. The pollen is generally very abundant, and it is often seen in the form of yellow dust descending from the catkins of the cedar of Lebanon, or the Scotch fir, or of orange powder, as on the stamens of the orange lily, when it sticks to everything it touches. About the time of the bursting of the anthers, the stigma becomes covered with a glutinous moisture, which absorbs the pollen that falls upon it. The pollen, when absorbed by the stigma, is conveyed down the style to the ovary, where it falls upon and fertilises the ovules or incipient seeds. Nothing can be more beautiful or more ingenious than the mechanism by which this process is effected. It is necessary that the grains of pollen should be separated before they reach the ovary, and they are so in their passage down the style in a manner more fine and delicate than could be done by any exertion ofmere human skill. We know that we ourselves are “fearfully and wonderfully made,” but how few of us are aware that every flower we crush beneath our feet, or gather only to destroy, displays as much of the Divine care and wisdom in its construction, as the frame of the mightiest giant!

I have already mentioned that the most conspicuous part of the flower is merely a covering to protect the seed-producing organs from injury. In most flowers there are two of these coverings, which form together what is called the perianth; the inner one, when spoken of separately, being called the corolla, and the outer one the calyx. The corolla is generally of some brilliant colour, and in most cases it is divided into several leaf-like parts called petals, (seegin figs. 2 and 3); and the calyx, which is commonly green, is divided into similar portions called sepals (seeh). Sometimes there isonly one of these coverings, and when this is the case it is called by modern botanists the calyx, though it may be coloured like a corolla; and sometimes the calyx and corolla are of the same colour, and so mixed as hardly to be distinguished from each other, as in the crocus and the tulip; in which case the divisions are called the segments of the perianth.

THE ORDER RANUNCULACEÆ: ILLUSTRATED BY THE RANUNCULUS, THE BUTTERCUP OR CROWFOOT, THE PEONY, THE ANEMONE, THE HEPATICA, THE CLEMATIS, THE CHRISTMAS ROSE, THE WINTER ACONITE, MONKSHOOD, THE LARKSPUR, AND THE COLUMBINE.

Suchof my readers who may have formed their first ideas of the natural system from some order, the flowers of which bear a strong resemblance to each other, will be surprised at reading the names of the heterogeneous assemblage of plants at the head of this chapter; for surely no flowers can bear less resemblance to each other than the buttercup and the peony do to the columbine and the larkspur. There are, however, striking points of resemblance which link these flowers together; the principal of which are the number and disposition of the ovaries, or carpels as they are called in this case, which, though they grow close together, and sometimes even adhere to each other, are yet perfectly distinct; in the number and position of the stamens, which grow out of the receptacle from beneath the carpels; and in the leaves andyoung stems, when cut or pressed, yielding a thin yellowish juice, which is extremely acrid, and, in most cases, poisonous. The flowers of the plants belonging to Ranunculaceæ differ widely in their shapes; and all the incongruities that are only sparingly met with in other orders, are here gathered together. Some of the flowers have only a coloured calyx, as in the clematis; in others the calyx and corolla are of the same colour, as in the globe-flower, or so intermingled as to seem all one, as in the columbine; and in others the calyx forms the most ornamental part of the flower, as in monkshood and the larkspurs. In short, modern botanists seem to have placed this unfortunate order first, as though to terrify students on the very threshold of the science, and to prevent them from daring to advance any farther to penetrate into its mysteries.

THE GENUS RANUNCULUS.

Theword Ranunculus will doubtless conjure up in the minds of my readers those very showy, double, brilliantly-coloured flowers, which flower in spring, and are generally grown in beds like tulips. These flowers form a species of the genus, under the name ofRanunculus asiaticus; and having been introduced from Asia, they have retained their botanic name from nothaving any English one. The honour of giving a name to the genus does not, however, rest on them, but belongs to a common English weed.

Every one who has travelled through England in the months of June and July, must have remarked the almost innumerable buttercups which glitter among the long grass of the meadows at that season; and those who observe closely, will have noticed that these brilliant little flowers are never found in poor soil, or in hilly situations, but in rich valleys where the grass is rank and luxuriant from abundance of moisture. It is this circumstance that has obtained for the buttercup the botanical name of Ranunculus, the word being derived from Rana, a frog, a creature that delights in moist places.

The buttercup being the type of the genus Ranunculus, and the order Ranunculaceæ, a close examination of its flowers will show the peculiarities which distinguish both the genus and the order. The characteristics of the order, as far as regards the number and position of the carpels and stamens, are shown in the section of the flower in the lower part offig.4; and those of the genus are, a green calyx of five sepals, and a bright coloured corolla of five petals (seeainfig.4); numerous stamens, the anthers of which are adnate, that is, with the filament growing up the back (seeb); and numerous carpels (c)affixed to the upper part of the receptacle, which is drawn up in the shape of a cone to receive them. The flower shown infig.4, and the detached petal (e), given separately to show the little scale atFig. 4.—The flower of the common Butter-cup.its base, are of the natural size; but the antherbis magnified to show the curious manner in which it is affixed, for its whole length, to the filament. The section of the flower is also magnified to show the elevated receptacle, and the position of the carpelscand the stamensdwith regard to each other. The linegshows the position of the corolla, andfthat of the calyx, while the short line between the corolla and the stamens indicates the scale, which, from its being supposed to serve as a receptacle for honey, is sometimes called the nectary. The carpels, it will be observed, each consists of a broad part swollen in the centre, which is the ovary, with a curved part or beak at one end, terminating in a sharp point, which is the stigma. Eachovary contains only one ovule, and when the seed ripens, the carpel does not open to discharge it, but drops with the seed. When the flower is fully expanded, the green carpels may be seen in the centre, surrounded by the stamens, as shown athinfig.5; but after the petals drop, the stamens also disappear, and the carpels increase in size, till they assume the appearance shown ati, which shows the kind of head formed by the carpels on the receptacle after the flower has faded.

Fig. 5.—Flower and ripe carpels of the Butter-cup.

The plant from which my drawings were made was a common buttercup,Ranunculus acris, which my readers will easily recognise if they should meet with it, by its erect flower-stem, deeply cut leaves, and fibrous root. Another species (Ranunculus bulbosus) is, also, sometimes called the buttercup; but it is easily distinguished by its bulbous root. Both these, and several other species, have deeply cut leaves,which somewhat resemble the feet of a bird, and hence the name of crowfoot is often applied to them. Others, such as the greater spearwort (Ranunculus lingua), have long tongue-shaped leaves. In all, the footstalks of the leaves are somewhat folded round the stem at their base.

Such of my readers as reside in the country will find it very amusing to gather all the kinds of crowfoot, buttercup, goldilocks, and spearwort, they can find in the fields and lanes; and after having compared the flowers with the description I have given, to try to find out the specific names, by comparing the other particulars with the descriptions in Hookers or Lindley’s British Botany, or with the plates and descriptions in the new edition of Sowerby’s English Botany. In a short time they will not want these aids, but will be able to name the plants at once, and to tell in what they differ from each other by memory. I shall never forget the pleasure I once had in finding out the name of a plant myself. I happened to be waiting for Mr. Loudon, (who had gone to examine some new pines and firs,) in the pleasure-grounds of a villa, just opposite a small pond, which was covered by some white flowers that I did not know. The flowers were small, but very beautiful, and as they shone with almost a metallic lustre in the sun, they looked like a silverymantle thrown over the water. I was curious to know what they were, and having got one with some difficulty, and by the help of my parasol, I began to examine it botanically. The leaves at first told me nothing as to the genus, for the upper ones were nearly round, and only slightly cut into three lobes, while the lower ones were almost as much divided as fennel; but on examining them closely, I found their stalks sheathed the stem at the base. This gave me the first idea of the plant being a Ranunculus, for I remembered the leaves of that genus were stem-clasping. I then looked at the plant again, and wondered at my own stupidity in not having before observed its resemblance to the genus. There was the cup-shaped flower of five petals, the green calyx of five sepals, the numerous stamens and carpels, the elevated receptacle, and even the fine texture and glossy surface of the petals. Nothing was different but the colour; and yet it was the want of the bright golden yellow of the common buttercup, that prevented me from even thinking of that genus, when pondering on the name of my water-plant. I should add, that I would not ask any help from Mr. Loudon, but identified my plant myself on my return home; when, by comparing it with the description in Hooker’s British Flora, which happened to be the first botanical work I hadat hand, I found it wasRanunculus aquatilis, the water crowfoot.

In a similar manner my readers may amuse themselves, by identifying the plants they meet with, and they will be surprised to find how easy the task will soon become. I must warn them, however, that they will not find double flowers quite so easy to recognise as single ones. In double flowers the stamens and carpels are entirely or partially changed into petals; as may be seen in the florists’ varieties of Ranunculus, in the yellow bachelor’s buttons, which is a variety of the common buttercup, and in the Fair Maid of France, which is a variety ofRanunculus platanifolius, a species found wild on the mountains of Germany.

THE GENUS FICARIA.

Pansies, lilies, kingcups, daisies,Let them live upon their praises;Long as there’s a sun that sets,Primroses will have their glory;Long as there are violets,They will have a place in story.There’s a flower that shall be mine,’Tis the little Celandine.Ill befall the yellow flowers,Children of the flaring hours,Buttercups that will be seen,Whether we will see or no;Others, too, of lofty mien,They have done as worldlings do,Stolen praise that should be thine,Little humble Celandine.

Pansies, lilies, kingcups, daisies,

Let them live upon their praises;

Long as there’s a sun that sets,

Primroses will have their glory;

Long as there are violets,

They will have a place in story.

There’s a flower that shall be mine,

’Tis the little Celandine.

Ill befall the yellow flowers,

Children of the flaring hours,

Buttercups that will be seen,

Whether we will see or no;

Others, too, of lofty mien,

They have done as worldlings do,

Stolen praise that should be thine,

Little humble Celandine.

Inthese verses, and several others in the same strain, Wordsworth sings the praises of the pretty little British plant called pilewort, or the lesser celandine. This plant botanists formerly included in the genus Ranunculus, but De Candolle, finding that instead of having five sepals and five petals like all the kinds of Ranunculus, it has three sepals, and nine petals, which are narrow and pointed, instead of being broad and somewhat rounded, made it into a new genus under the name of Ficaria ranunculoides—its old name having been Ranunculus Ficaria. Its flowers are of a bright yellow, like those of the buttercup, and of the same delicate texture and glossy surface; but they are distinguished, not only as I have just observed, by having nine narrow pointed petals, and only three sepals, but by the leaves, which are roundish and shining, and not stem-clasping. These peculiarities are so striking, that I knew the Ficaria the first time I saw it in a growing state, merely from having read a description of it. Even when not in flower it may be known, by its roundish smooth leaves, and by the petioles or footstalks of its leaves being the same throughout; whereas those of all the kinds of Ranunculus are dilated at the base, to enable them to enfold the stem.

THE GENUS PÆONIA.

Fig. 6.—Flower of the male Peony, with detached carpel and stamen.

Theflowers of the Peony bear considerable resemblance to those of the buttercup, but every part is on an enlarged scale; and there are some important differences—one of which is, that the Peony retains its calyx till the seeds are ripe, while in all the kinds of Ranunculus the calyx drops with the corolla. The carpels of the Peony are also many-seeded, while those of the Ranunculus contain only one seed in each. In the male Peony (P. corallina) there are five petals and five sepals, (seeainfig.6,) with numerous stamens, forming a ring round four large woolly carpels in the centre of the flower. The stamens (c) are adnate, like those of the Ranunculus; and the carpels (b) are each terminated by a thick, fleshy, hooked stigma. Thesecarpels open naturally on the side when ripe, to discharge their seeds. The herbaceous Peonies with double flowers, now so common in our gardens, have generally only two carpels, each containing about twenty seeds, arranged in two rows; and the Chinese tree Peony (P. Moutan) has from five to ten carpels, with only a few seeds in each. This last species is distinguished by the receptacle being drawn out into a thin membrane-like substance, which rises between the carpels like the remains of withered leaves, and partially covers them.

THE GENUS ANEMONE.

I havealready mentioned (p.10) that some of the genera included in the order Ranunculaceæ have only a coloured calyx and no corolla; and the Anemone is an example of this peculiarity of construction. The pasque-flower (Anemone pulsatilla) is divided into six dark purple sepals, which are covered on the outside with long silky hairs. The leaves are so much cut as almost to resemble those of parsley; and at a short distance below the flowers there are three small floral leaves, or bracts, which grow round the stem, and form what is called an involucre. The carpels are small, oblong bodies, pressed close together, and each is furnished with a long, feathery point, called an awn. Thecarpels, though lying so close together, are perfectly distinct, and part readily at the slightest touch; and each contains only one seed.

It will be seen from this hasty sketch, that the principal point of resemblance between the genera Anemone and Ranunculus, in a botanical point of view, lies in the carpels, which are close together, and are yet so distinct as to part at the slightest touch. There is, however, a general resemblance in some of the flowers, from their five sepals, and numerous stamens, that renders it difficult for a beginner to distinguish an Anemone from a Ranunculus. In many of the British species, also, the carpels are not awned, but slightly curved, very like those of a buttercup. I remember being once very much puzzled with a beautiful little bright yellow flower, that I found in a wood. At first I thought it was a Ranunculus, but the petals were pointed and not roundish; and it could not be a Ficaria, because it had only five petals. At last I looked to see what kind of calyx it had, and found none, that is, no green calyx; and then, observing the involucre of three leaves growing in a whorl round the stem, at some distance below the flower, I knew it was an Anemone; and on comparing it with the plates in Sowerby’s English Botany, on my return home, I ascertained that it wasAnemone ranunculoides.

My readers will therefore observe that Anemones may be always known by their involucre, and by their having only one covering (a showy, coloured calyx) to the flower. The number of sepals in this calyx varies in the different species. The pasque-flower has six; the white wood Anemone generally five; and the Blue Mountain Anemone from twelve to twenty. The involucre also sometimes grows a long way from the flower, as in this last-mentioned species; and sometimes so close to it, as in the Garland, or Poppy Anemone (A. coronaria), as to look almost like a green calyx to the flower. The awns, or feathery tails, are also not found attached to the carpels of all the species; and this distinction is considered so important, that some botanists make those plants which have awned carpels into a separate genus, which they call Pulsatilla, and of which the pasque-flower is considered the type. This genus, however, has not, I believe, been generally adopted.

I have now only a few words to say on florists’ Anemones, the tuberous roots of which most of my readers must have seen in the seed-shops. Most of these are varieties of the Garland Anemone, already mentioned as having its involucre close to the flower. The sepals of this species are roundish, six in number, and when the flower is in a single state, there are a greatnumber of stamens, bearing dark purple anthers in the centre of the flower. When the flower becomes double, the sepals, which retain their form and number, only becoming somewhat more spread out and flattened, are called by florists the guard-leaves; and the stamens in the centre are metamorphosed into petals, which generally retain their dark purple colour, or at any rate are much darker than the sepals. The other florists’ Anemones spring fromA. stellata, orhortensis, and they are distinguished by having pointed sepals, and a white spot at the base of each, so as to form a white circle inside the cup of the flower. The involucre is a long way from the calyx, and when the flowers become double, the sepals can scarcely be distinguished from the metamorphosed stamens.

The hepatica or liverwort, the varieties of which look so pretty in our gardens in spring, was formerly considered to be a species of Anemone, and indeed the genus Hepatica appears to rest on very slight grounds. It has, however, been adopted by most modern botanists, and theAnemone Hepaticaof Linnæus is now generally calledHepatica triloba. The normal form of the species is the single blue; and the double blue, the single and double pink, and the single and double white, are all only varieties of this. The hepatica agrees in all points with theAnemone, except in the involucre, which is so very like a green calyx, from the manner in which it enfolds the flower in the bud, as scarcely to be distinguished. I could not, indeed, be persuaded that this calyx-like covering was an involucre, till I turned back the apparent sepals, and found that their glossy surface was within: I also found that there was a very small portion of the stem between them and the flower, a circumstance which always distinguishes an involucre from a calyx, the latter forming part of the flower, and being always in some manner attached to the receptacle.

THE GENUS CLEMATIS.

Thisgenus resembles the Anemone in having only one covering, an ornamental calyx, to its seed-producing organs. It has not, however, any distinct involucre; though in one species,C. calycina, there are two bracts, or floral leaves, which bear some resemblance to one. The flowers of the different species vary considerably in form, colour, and the number of the sepals;C. calycinaandC. viticellahaving four,C. floridasix,C. vitalbafive, &c. All the species agree, however, in the seeds, which are produced singly, each in a separate awned carpel, which does not open, but drops with the seed, and is sown with it. These carpels, which are commonto the genera Ranunculus, Anemone, Adonis, and many other kinds of Ranunculaceæ, are called caryopsides, and seeds thus enclosed are always much longer in coming up than any others. In some species of Clematis the awns of the carpels are smooth; but in others they are bearded or feathered, as in those of the traveller’s joy (C. vitalba), shown infig.7. The leaves of the Clematis vary considerably in form and arrangement; but the stems of the climbing species are furnished with tendrils, or slender twining leafless stems, which some botanists suppose to be metamorphosed leaves.

Fig. 7.—Carpels of the Clematis Vitalba.

The plants composing the genus Atragenè have been separated from Clematis; because they are said to have petals, which the genus Clematis has not. It must not, however, be supposed that the petals of the Atragenè bearany resemblance to what is generally understood by that word. On the contrary, the showy part of the Atragenè is still only a coloured calyx; while the petals are oblong, leaf-like bodies in the centre of the flower, which look like dilated stamens. In other respects the two genera are scarcely to be distinguished from each other.

THE GENUS HELLEBORUS, &C.

TheChristmas rose (Helleborus niger) bears considerable resemblance in the construction of its flowers to the Atragenè, for it has a showy calyx, and narrow oblong petals, encircling the stamens in the centre of the flower. The calyx of the Christmas rose is white, delicately tinged with pink, and the petals are green. The carpels are erect and long, swelling out at the base, and each ends in a curved style with a pointed stigma. The Christmas rose takes its specific name of niger (black) from the root, which is covered with a thick black skin. The common Hellebore takes its name ofH. viridis, from its flowers, which are green. The carpels of this plant frequently grow slightly together, and their styles curve inwardly.

The British species of Hellebore have no involucre, and the Christmas rose has only two bracts or floral leaves, which form a calyx-like covering to the bud; but the little yellowgarden plant, called the Winter Aconite, which was included by Linnæus in the genus Helleborus, has a decided involucre, on which the little yellow, cup-shaped flower reposes, like a fairy bowl upon a leafy plate. The conspicuous part of this flower, like the others, is the calyx, which encloses a number of short tubular petals. This little plant is now separated from Helleborus, and formed into a distinct genus, under the name ofEranthus hyemalis, from its carpels being each furnished with a very short footstalk, by which they are attached to the receptacle, instead of growing upon it as in the other genera. The root is tuberous, or rather it forms a kind of underground stem, sending up tufts of leaves and flowers from the different buds. Thus we often see several tufts of the Winter Aconite growing so far from each other as to appear distinct; but which, in fact, all spring from the same root. The Globe-flower (Trollius europæus), which has a golden yellow, globe-shaped calyx, enclosing a number of small oblong petals, is nearly allied to the Winter Aconite; and the Fennel-flower, or Devil in a Bush (Nigella damascena), agrees with the common Hellebore in the adhesion of its carpels.

THE GENUS ACONITUM.

Fig. 8.—Flower and seed-vessels of the Monkshood.Fig. 8.—Flower and seed-vessels of the Monkshood.

Fig. 8.—Flower and seed-vessels of the Monkshood.

Weare so accustomed to see in our gardens the tall showy perennial called monkshood or wolfsbane (Aconitum Napellus), that few persons think of examining the flowers in detail. They well deserve, however, to be examined, as they are very curious in their construction. The showy part of the flower is an ornamental calyx of six sepals, but the upper two of these arelarger than the others, and adhere together so as to form a singular sort of covering, like a monk’s cowl or hood. (Seeainfig.8.) The stamens are numerous, and they encircle three or five oval carpels, with thread-like styles, and pointed stigmas, as shown atb; which when ripe burst open at the top (c) to discharge the seed, without separating. Carpels of this kind are called follicles. Under the hood, and entirely concealed by it, are the petals (seefig.9),Fig. 9.—Petals of the Monkshood.Fig. 9.—Petals of the Monkshood.which form what may certainly be considered the most remarkable part of the flower, as they are so curiously folded up that they look more like gigantic stamens than petals. The older botanists described these petals as nectaries, with crested claws. The leaves are divided into from three to five principal segments, which are again deeply cut into several others. The stem of the common Monkshood is thickened at the base, or collar, where it joins the root, so as to give it somewhat the appearance of celery; and hence ignorant persons have been poisoned by eating it. This knotted appearance of the stem is not common to all the species, and it gives rise to the specific name of Napellus, which signifies a little turnip.

THE GENUS DELPHINIUM.

Fig. 10.—The flowers of the Branching Larkspur.Fig. 10.—The flowers of the Branching Larkspur.

Fig. 10.—The flowers of the Branching Larkspur.

Theplants belonging to the genus Delphinium, that is to say, the Larkspurs, have their flowers constructed in nearly as curious a manner as those of the different kinds of Monkshood; but they differ in the sepals and petals both forming conspicuous parts of the flower, though they are generally quite distinct both in form and colour, and may be easily traced through all the different forms they assume in the various species. They are, however, perhaps most easily distinguished in the branching or autumnal Larkspur (Delphinium consolida). In the flower of this plant the spur (ainfig.10) is the upper sepal of the calyx, and it serves as a cover to part of the petals. There are four other portions of the calyx (b), which assume the appearance of ordinary sepals. The petals are four in number;Fig. 11.—Tap root of the Branching Larkspur.Fig. 11.—Tap root of the Branching Larkspur.and they are united at the lower part, and drawn out into a sort of tail, as shown atc; while the upper part of two of them stands up like asses’ ears (d) in the centre of the flower; and the others are curiously folded, so as to form a hood over the stamens and carpels, as shown ate. The anthers of the stamens resemble those of the Ranunculus; but the filaments are bent, as shown atf. The carpels (g) are upright, hairy, and terminate in a blunt, fleshy stigma (h). When ripe, they open in the same manner as those of the Monkshood. The branching Larkspur has a fusiform or tap root, as shown infig.11, in whichais thecollar, or as the Italians call itla noda vitale; andbthe fibrous roots, through the points of which the plant takes up its food.

The flowers of the other kinds of Larkspur resemble this one in their general appearance, though they differ in the minor details. Those of the Rocket Larkspur (D. Ajacis) lose their spurs when they become double; and those of the Bee Larkspurs have their petals nearly black, and instead of standing up like ears, they are so curiously folded as to resemble a bee nestling in the centre of the flower.

THE GENUS AQUILEGIA.

Thecommon Columbine (Aquilegia vulgaris) differs from all the flowers I have yet described in having the sepals and petals not only of the same colour, but so intermingled as to be scarcely distinguishable from each other. The flower (given on a reduced scale atainfig.12) is composed of five horn-shaped petals, which are curved at the upper end, and form a kind of coronet round the stem; and five oval sepals, which are placed alternately with them; all, generally speaking, being of the same colour. The horn-shaped petal, or nectary as it was called by Linnæus, is attached to the receptacle at the thickened rim (b), while the sepal is attached at the point (c);dshows the disposition of the stamens;ea separate stamen, with its adnate anther;fthe inner row of stamens, which are produced without anthers, and with their filaments growing together, so as to form a thin membranaceous case for the carpels, which are shown exposed atg. The carpels, when ripe, become follicles. The leaf of the Columbine is bi-ternate; that is, it is cut into three large divisions, each of which is cut into three smaller ones; so that it is twice-ternate. The petiole or footstalk of the leaf sheaths the stem, as shown ath, where the leaf is represented on a reduced scale to suit the flower.

Fig. 12.—Flower and leaf of the Columbine.Fig. 12.—Flower and leaf of the Columbine.

Fig. 12.—Flower and leaf of the Columbine.

I would advise such of my readers as are anxious to turn the preceding pages to account, to procure as many of the plants I have described as possible, and to compare them with each other, and with any other plants belonging to the order Ranunculaceæ that they can obtain. Those who have access to a botanic garden will have no difficulty in finding the names of the genera included in the order; and those who have not this advantage, must consult Don’s edition of Sweet’s Hortus Britannicus, or any other catalogue in which the plants are arranged according to the Natural System. When a number of specimens have been collected, the student will be surprised to see how many points of resemblance exist between them. The stems of all, when cut, will yield a watery juice; which is always acrid, though some of the plants are more poisonous than others. The stamens will be found to be always numerous, and always attached to the receptacle below the carpels; and the anthers are generally adnate, that is attached to the filaments from one end to the other (see p.12). The carpels are in most cases numerous, and either distinct, or adhering in such a manner as to show plainly the line of junction between them; they are also always one-celled, whether one or many-seeded, and generally either caryopsides (seep.24), or follicles (see p.28). The leaves are generally divided into three or five lobes, each of which is cut into several smaller divisions; and the petioles or leaf-stalks are very frequently dilated at the base, and sheathing the stem. In most cases, the flowers are of brilliant colours, several of them being cup-shaped, and many with the calyx more ornamental than the corolla. The seeds will generally keep good for several years; and several of them, particularly those of the kind called caryopsides, when sown, are often a long time before they come up.

THE ORDER LEGUMINOSÆ: ILLUSTRATED BY THE SWEET-PEA, THE RED CLOVER, ACACIA ARMATA, THE SENSITIVE PLANT, THE BARBADOES FLOWER-FENCE, THE CAROB-TREE, THE TAMARIND, THE SENNA, THE GLEDITSCHIA, THE LOGWOOD, THE JUDAS-TREE, AND THE KENTUCKY COFFEE-TREE.

Thisorder is a very numerous one, containing above three hundred genera, and including several highly important plants, both for food and commerce. As examples of the utility of the Leguminosæ for food, I need only mention the pea and bean, and all their numerous allies; and as examples of their importance in medicine and the arts, I may enumerate senna, liquorice, the tamarind, gum-arabic, and logwood. Among the ornamental plants belonging to this order are, the Laburnum, the Furze or Gorse, the Robinia or False Acacia, the true Acacias, the Sensitive Plant, and the Barbadoes Flower-fence. It will be seen by this enumeration, that the flowers of the Leguminosæ differ from each other nearly as much as those of Ranunculaceæ; but when in seed, they are all easily recognised by their seed-vessels, which are always legumes, that is, bearing more or less resemblance to the pod of the common pea. To aid the memoryin retaining the great number of genera included in this order, various methods have been devised of re-dividing it; and of these I shall adopt the newest, which is also the simplest, by which they are arranged in three tribes, according to their flowers.

TRIBE I.—PAPILIONACEOUS FLOWERS.

Theflowers of this tribe are called Papilionaceous;Fig. 13.—Flower, pod, and tendril, of the Sweet-pea.Fig. 13.—Flower, pod, and tendril, of the Sweet-pea.because Papilio is the scientific name of a genus of butterflies, which they were supposed to resemble. The type of this tribe may be considered the flower of the sweet-pea (Lathyrus odoratus), which has a small green calyx, cut into five deep notches, but not divided into regular sepals. (Seeaandbinfig.13.) The corolla is in five petals, the largest ofwhich (c) stands erect, and is called the vexillum or standard; below this are two smaller petals (d), which are called the algæ or wings; and below these are two petals, joined together so as to form a kind of boat (e), which are called the carina or keel, and which serve as a cradle for the stamens and pistil. There are ten stamens, nine of which have the lower half of their filaments growing together, so as to form a fleshy substance at the base, as shown infig.14 atf, and the other (g) is free.Fig. 14.—Stamens of the Sweet-pea.Fig. 14.—Stamens of the Sweet-pea.The ovary is oblong, terminating in a filiform style, with a pointed stigma, as shown atginfig.13; and it is one-celled and many-seeded; the seeds being what we call the peas. When the petals fall, the pod still retains the calyx (b), and the style (g); and these remain on till the seeds are ripe, when the pod divides naturally into two parts, or valves as they are called, which curl back so as to discharge the seeds. If the pod be examined before it bursts, it will be found that the valves are composed of a fleshy substance, lined with a strong membrane or skin, and that they are united by two seams, called the dorsal and ventral sutures. Along the ventral suture (h) there runs a kind of nerve, called the placenta, to which the peasare attached, each pea being furnished with a little separate stalk, called a funicle. A cook would be surprised, even in these enlightened times, to be told to take a legume ofPisum sativum, and after separating the two valves at the dorsal suture, to detach the funicles of the seeds from the placenta; yet these scientific terms would merely describe the operation of shelling the peas. It will be seen by this description that the pod of the pea differs very materially from the seed-vessels of all the other plants I have had occasion to describe; and that it thus forms a very distinctive character for the order. The other parts vary in the different genera: the calyx is sometimes tubular, and sometimes inflated; sometimes it has only four notches, or teeth as they are called, instead of five, and sometimes it has five distinct sepals divided to the base. The parts of the corolla vary also in proportion to each other, the keel in some of the Australian plants is as long as the standard; as, for example, inKennedia Maryattæ; and in others the wings are so small as to be scarcely visible. The stamens of many of the species are also free, that is, divided to the base; while in others they resemble those of the sweet-pea, in having nine joined together and one free; and in others the whole are joined together at the base. The pods alsovary very much in size and form; being sometimes nearly round, and only one or two-seeded; and in others long, and containing many seeds, as in the common bean or pea. The seeds themselves are so different that the tribe has been divided, on account of them, into two sections: the one consisting of those plants which, like the common bean, have the seed dividing into two fleshy seed-leaves or cotyledons, when it begins to germinate; and the other, the seed-leaves of which are thin. The seeds of the papilionaceous plants which have thin cotyledons are not eatable; but those with fleshy cotyledons may be safely used as food. The fleshy cotyledons do not always rise above the ground; but they do so decidedly in the bean and the lupine; and if either of these seeds be laid in moist soil with the hilum or scar downwards, the seed, as soon as it begins to germinate, will divide into two parts (that is, into two cotyledons), which will rise above the ground, and become green like leaves; though, from still retaining their roundish form, they are easily distinguished from the true leaves, which rise in the centre. Though my readers will have no difficulty in recognising most of the Leguminosæ which have papilionaceous flowers, there are some genera, respecting which they may be interested to learn a few particulars.Thus, the Chorozema is one of the kinds with thin cotyledons, and consequently its seeds are not eatable. The legumes of this genus are roundish, and swelled out, so as to bear but little outward resemblance to a pod. Sophora, Edwardsia, Virgilia, Podolobium, Callistachys, Brachysema, Burtonia, Dillwynia, Eutaxia, Pultenæa, Daviesia, and Mirbelia, have all thin cotyledons, and their ten stamens all separate from each other; but in Hovea, Platylobium, and Bossiæa, though the cotyledons are thin, the stamens all grow together at the base. I mention these common greenhouse shrubs, that my readers may have an opportunity of examining their botanical construction, and thus verifying their names. The common furze (Ulex europæus), the Spanish broom (Spartium junceum), the Petty whin (Genista Anglica), the Laburnum (Cytisus Laburnum), and the common broom, all belong to this division, and consequently their seeds are not eatable; those of the Laburnum are indeed poisonous. The distinctions between Spartium, Genista, and Cytisus, are very slight, lying chiefly in the calyx; and as a proof of this the common broom, which is now calledCytisus scoparius, was formerly supposed to be a Spartium, and afterwards a Genista.

The common red clover (Trifolium pratense)has its flowers in such dense heads that it is difficult at first sight to discover that they are Papilionaceous. On examination, however, it will be found that each separate flower has its standard, wings, and keel, though the wings are so large as to hide the keel, and nearly to obscure the standard. The calyx is tubular at the base, but divided above into five long, awl-shaped teeth, that stand widely apart from each other. The legume has only one or two seeds, and it is so small as generally to be hidden by the calyx.

TRIBE II.—MIMOSÆ.

Thesecond division of Leguminosæ comprises those plants which have heads of flowersFig. 15.—Flowers and sprig of Acacia armata.Fig. 15.—Flowers and sprig of Acacia armata.either in spikes or balls, like those shown infig.15. This figure represents two heads of flowers ofAcacia armata, a well-known greenhouse shrub, of their natural size; andfig.16 shows a head of similar flowers magnified. In the latter,ashows the calyx, which is five-toothed, andbthe petals, which are five in number andFig. 16.—Flower of Acacia magnified.Fig. 16.—Flower of Acacia magnified.quite regular in shape;care the stamens, which vary from ten to two hundred in each flower, and which are raised so high above the petals as to give a light and tuft-like appearance to the whole flower. The legumes are very large in proportion to the flower; and consequently, by a wise provision of nature, only a very few of the flowers produce seed. The valves of the legumes are not fleshy like those of the pea, but dry and hard, and when they open they do not curl back.

The flowers in the different kinds of Acacia, differ in the corolla, which has sometimes only four petals, which are occasionally united at the base, and in the calyx, which is sometimes only four-cleft. The flowers also in many species are in spikes instead of balls.

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