Fig.435.—1. Morning star. 2. Mace. 3. Maces (or goedendags, or morgensterns).The Martel-de-Fer.—Under the mace variety the martel-de-fer may be classified. It is of very ancient origin, and has at all periods been a favourite weapon of both horse and foot soldiers, but probably more so during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries than at other periods. The mediæval archer is often represented with this weapon, and apparently preferred it to the sword. The general shape was a plain hammer-head projection, often serrated to prevent glancing off plate, balanced by a pick or blade upon the opposite side; in only a few examples is the shaft prolonged into a spike. In the Chain Mail Period it was often made with a heavy falcon beak without the hammer-head, while some examples dating from the Tabard Period have two sharp beaks of pick-axe form for penetrating the joints of armour, which are probably the same weapons mentioned by writers of the fourteenth century and termed bisacutas.The Lance.—The spear, javelin, and lance of the Bronze and Iron Periods down to the time of the Saxons and Normans have been treated under their different headings. For three centuries after the Norman Conquest the spear does not exhibit any remarkable change; it was of uniform size and thickness from end to end, with a lozenge or leaf-shaped head, rarely barbed, the lozenge being the commoner form. For tournament purposes the heads were blunted, but as jousting became more popular special points or coronals were introduced, of which examples are shown in most museums. These were not intended to pierce, but only to give a grip upon plate armour.During the Splinted and Camail Periods the men-at-arms invariably dismounted and fought upon foot, and in order to adapt the lance to these altered conditions it was cut down to about five feet in length. Later in the Camail Period a small circular plate was fixed upon the lance to protect the hand, and this subsequently developed into the vamplate of varied form and dimensions. At this time also the shaft of the lance became much enlarged for tilting purposes, and was made hollow, with longitudinal grooves upon the exterior; in this form it splintered in the encounter; when the tilting had for its object the unhorsing of combatants the lance was made stronger and heavier. During the reign of Elizabeth the lance ceased to hold the important position it had hitherto maintained among weapons, and became obsolete, but in later times it has been revived for the use of cavalry.The Sword.—The various parts of a sword should perhaps be mentioned before proceeding to a chronological description of the varieties. The two essential parts are the blade and the hilt. The prolongation of the bladewhich fits into the handle is the tang; the upper portion near the hilt the ricasso. The essential portions of the hilt are the quillons, which cross at right angles between the blade and the handle to protect the hand; the grip, which is self-explanatory, and the pommel, the expanded piece at the end of the grip.Fig.436.—Sword,c.1340; blade 33 in. long, 2 in. wide at hilt. (Wallace Collection.)Pre-Norman Period.—The swords of this age generally in use throughout Europe were of the Scandinavian type, and may be divided into three classes: (1) those having the character of a broadsword, with parallel sharp edges and an acute point, and the tang only for a grip; (2) a similar variety having a cross guard; and (3) a sword with the blade slightly curved. The grip was usually of wood covered with skin, but sometimes of bone: the pommels were of varying shapes, as round, triangular, trefoil, and quatrefoil. The cross-guards began in a simple projection, but increased as time went on; they, together with the pommel, were at times very highly ornamented. The sheaths were usually of leather, stiffened with a wood framing. As will be seen by referring to the plates, the sword did not vary much in form from the twelfth to the end of the fifteenth century (Fig. 436). The blade was always two-edged, and about forty inches in length; the quillons at times droopedtowards the blade, but were generally straight; the grip varied perhaps more than any other part, being at times almost double handed, and at others—the later Tabard Period, for instance—was so short and swollen as to appear unserviceable. The shape of the pommel takes many forms, varying almost with the individual taste of the owner; occasionally the pommel and other parts were subjected to a high degree of ornamentation, with precious stones and inlaid work of all descriptions. During the thirteenth century the curved sabre was used, but very rarely; it is shown inFig. 154, p.125, a group from the Painted Chamber. Other varieties were the falchion, cultellus, anelace, and scimitar.The Falchionwas chiefly used by archers and men-at-arms. It had a blade wide at the point; the edge was curved and convex, the back concave.The Cultelluswas a short sword, and is not often mentioned or represented. It was designed especially for the use of foot soldiers when rushing upon knights who had been dismounted in a cavalry charge, or for the close encounter of infantry against infantry.PLATE XXVIII*Sword of Philip II., with the Mark of Clement Horn of SolingenA. F. CalvertThe Anelacewas a long dagger which was secured to the person by a chain. It is often represented upon effigies and brasses of civilians in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and at times assumed very large proportions. The handle is as a rule made in the fashion of that of the cinquedea, from which it was probably derived. The latter is a dagger or short sword which had its origin in Italy; the blade is generally of the width of five fingers at the hilt (whence the name); the quillons always bend towards the blade, and the latter, which istwo-edged, averages from eighteen to twenty inches in length. The representation given here is from a beautiful specimen in the Wallace Collection dating from 1470 (Fig. 437), the blade of which is nearly four inches wide and nineteen inches long; the quillons are of latten and the handle of ivory, studded with filigree work.Fig.437.The Scimitarbecame a favourite weapon with the infantry during the greater part of the Tabard Period, the blade being curved at the back with a cusp at the point, which distinguished it from the falchion. A finger-guard was often added by prolonging one side of the cross-piece, whereby it ran parallel to the grip, and then either curved outwards or, later in the period, turned inwards to join the pommel.In the Transition and Maximilian Periods the sword underwent many changes, chiefly in the hilt, which presented a bewildering variety of additional pieces, all intended for the protection of the hand and the entanglement or breaking of the sword-blade of the opponent. Four examples are given here from the Royal Armoury at Madrid which exhibit these extra guards (PlatesXXVIII.*andXXIX.*). The old cross-piece did not die out, but became bent in another form as a capital S; rings appeared on either side of the cross-piece and at right angles to it; back-guards were introduced, and also the basket-hilt. The quillons, by being curved as indicated above, developed the knuckle-guard on one side of the grip which eventually reached the pommel, while the other,circling towards the blade, developed counter-guards for protecting the back of the hand. Thus the rapier-guard was developed, the varieties and modifications of which are almost numberless. The Wallace Collection contains a matchless array of these beautiful weapons, the earliest dating from 1540: some of these have lavish ornamentation bestowed upon them. Broadly speaking, cup-hilts were a common form where long, straight, or curved quillons were used in conjunction with a cup-shaped finger-guard at the base of the blade, which was as a rule highly decorated. The swept hilt had a broad back-guard which narrowed towards the pommel, together with curved quillons. Upon many swords of the sixteenth century and later curved guards may be seen extending round the ricasso; this is the pas d’ane, while rings may also be observed for passing the thumb through. The rapier blade was long, thin, and tapering; it was essentially a thrusting sword, but not exclusively so. These weapons were for parade and the duel, a two-edged rapier of special design being used in war. During the eighteenth century the general tendency of the hilt was to become less complicated and to develop the simple basket form.Fig.438.—Flamberge,c.1630. (Wallace Collection.)The Two-handed Swordwas an invention of the fourteenth century, and formed one of the ordinary weapons of the foot soldier. To wield it both hands were employed in making cutting sweeps, and consequently very open order was necessary for troops thus armed; at first it did not find favour in England, except for use in the lists, being chiefly carried at the saddle-bow by knights as a reserve weapon in case of being dismounted, when they trusted to its use against foot soldiers.In Scotland, however, it appears to have been in great favour, and its practice much resorted to. An excellent example and of an early date (c.1490) is preserved in the Banqueting Hall of Edinburgh Castle, which is remarkable for its exceptional length, being exactly six feet,—four feet three inches in the blade, and the handle twenty-one inches (Plate XXVII.). The grip is of the usual character and the pommel is small; the quillons droop slightly towards the blade and terminate in two spirals, small engaging-guards being furnished on both sides. There is a strong ricasso of oblong section giving great strength to the blade, and the usual two lateral projections of rather large proportions. During the Maximilian Period it was a favourite weapon in England, and its value for the defence of a narrow pass, and against stormers at a beleaguered town, was fully recognised. The Scottish claymore is really the two-handed sword, and the application of the name to the basket-hilted broadsword of the eighteenth century is a mistake. The two-handed sword with waved blade is called a flamberge (Fig. 438); the example is from the Wallace Collection (date about 1630); the blade measures fifty inches and the handle over twelve. A ring-guard is furnished on either side of the quillons; there are the two usual projections from the ricasso, which is covered in leather. An earlier example,c.1530, has a grip of no less than twenty-two inches; the blade is fifty inches long, and it has ring-guards and diagonally curved quillons (Fig. 428). The ricasso is covered with leather, as in the former example.Fig.439.—Hand-and-half sword, 1490. (Wallace Collection.)The Hand-and-half, or Bastard Sword, illustrated inFig. 439, dates from 1490, and may be claimed as belonging to the two-handed variety. It came into vogue in England during the Camail and Jupon Period, but was used much earlier in Germany; the blade is forty inches long, but in some examples it is nearly fifty. It could be wielded with one hand, but to give extra effect to a blow, if desired, the left hand could be brought into action near the pommel, where the grip is smaller. This type of sword was in use during the whole of the fifteenth century.The Dagger.—This weapon has been described where necessary in preceding chapters up to and including the Camail and Jupon Period, when the misericorde with its triangular blade was so much in evidence. In the reign of Richard II. the wearing of a dagger of some kind was universal, even the ladies having a small baselard attached to their girdles. Shortly afterwards a long poniard of Continental origin superseded the previous weapon, which, like the sword, had a thumb-guard attached in the formof a ring. The cinquedea, which may be looked upon as a dagger, has been dealt with on p.334. An example of the military dagger of the fourteenth century is in the Wallace Collection, dating from 1440, with a fifteen-inch blade, and is of the greatest rarity, although illustrations in missals, &c., are numerous. A specimen of the “Kidney” dagger, so called from the shape of the base of the grip, is also preserved there, dating from 1480; it was in common use in England until the time of Charles I.PLATE XXIX*1. Sword of Hernando Cortes.2. Sword of Philip II.3. Sword of Gonsalvo de Cordoba, late Fifteenth Century.A. F. CalvertThe main-gauche, or left-handed dagger, was of Continental origin, and enjoyed an immense popularity in England during the sixteenth century. It was held in the left hand to ward off blows and entangle the point of the adversary’s weapon, while the long rapier was being used in the right hand.CHAPTER XVIIPROJECTILE-THROWING ENGINESNo evidence is extant respecting the inventor of the first machine for missile throwing, but we know that they have existed from the earliest ages, and have been used by all the great nations of antiquity. Under the Greeks and Romans, but especially the former, they attained a remarkable degree of excellence, and many accounts of their extraordinary efficiency have come down to us. The Romans took their ideas from the Greeks as a basis to work upon; among their best authorities Vitruvius may be classed. The principles involved in these engines were not altogether lost, but descended to the mediæval ages, and probably during that period more elaborate, powerful, and gigantic machines were constructed than at any previous time.PLATE XXX*Armour of Charles V., from Augsburg or NurembergA. F. CalvertThe complicated methods by which a fortress was captured or a town carried during the Middle Ages are not generally known, and the means adopted at the present time are as a general rule credited with being the outcome of the skill and science of the past few centuries. This, however, will not bear the test of investigation, for we find that almost every device has had its prototype in past ages, and nearly every idea has been forestalled. It comes almost with a shock to some, and produces feelings of incredulity, to be told that huge missiles vieing in destructive effect with the modern shell, and as a rule many times larger, were sent with unerring aim into the heart of a besieged town, levelling houses to the ground and dealing destruction far and wide. The idea of a siege in mediæval times is generally that of a tree to batter down a door, archers to shoot down the defenders on the walls, desperate charges of cavalry against sallies of the garrison, and forlorn hopes of men carrying scaling-ladders with which to surmount the walls. These are, however, only a few concomitants of the complicated methods by which a siege was accomplished.The Greeks and Romans constructed their engines upon the principle of the bow, whereas the mediæval engineers adopted that of the sling. The latter was by far the more clumsy of the two, but probably just as effective. Had the methods by which the Greeks were enabled to construct their splendid engines been handed down, the possibility is that mediæval machines would have been far less cumbersome and much smaller. Probably the greatest living authority upon projectile-throwing machines is Sir Ralph Payne-Gallwey, Bart., who has constructed models of ancient and mediæval machines with most successful results. He says,“My engines are by no means perfect in their mechanism, and are always liable to give way under the strain of working. One reason of this is that all modern engines of the kind require to be worked to their utmost capacity,i.e.to the verge of their breaking-point, to obtain from them results that at all equal those of their prototypes. The ancient engines did their work easily and well within their strength. Although my largest catapult will throw a stone to a great distance it cannot throw one of nearly the weight it should be able to do, considering the size of its frame, skein of cord, and mechanism. In this respect it is decidedly inferior to the ancient engine.”[1]The author of the above has, however, been able to construct a catapult which throws a stone of 8 lbs. to a distance of between four hundred and fifty and five hundred yards.The Catapult.—The “Tormentum” of the Romans was a generic name for military engines, and so named from the twisting of the hair, thongs, sinews, &c., of which the propelling mechanism was made. What were the exact materials used, and in what proportions, is entirely unknown, and probably the knowledge did not extend beyond a century or so after the fall of the empire. There can be no doubt but that the sinews of animals played an important part in the construction of the skein. The method of making the catapult was as follows, omitting unnecessary details. A quadrangular wooden frame of great strength was fitted near one end with the skein, which was made in the form of a circle and of very considerable thickness, the rubber tyre of a large motor-car wheel approximating both in size and shape. This was folded into two parallel straight lines and passed through holes in the frame on either side, where a simple mechanism grasped it which could revolve the ends, cogs preventing them from turning in any direction but that desired. Between the parallel parts of the skein the end of the arm was placed, and by twisting the ends of the skein the arm was made to press with considerable force against a horizontal beam supported by uprights at the two sides. The arm was provided with a hollow in the upper part for holding the stone. If now the arm were drawn back by means of levers, ropes, and pulleys, the distortion upon the skein was increased enormously, and if when loaded with a projectile the arm were released, it sprang back against the beam with great velocity and force, throwing the stone to a distance during the action. This propulsive force was considerably augmented in some machines by the addition of a sling to the end of the arm, which practically lengthened the arm and consequently hurled the projectile to a greater distance. Ancient writers assert that the range was sometimes as much as from seven hundred to eight hundred yards.Fig.440.—Principle of the balista.The Balista.—This machine was used by the Romans for discharging the Falarica or ponderous spear, which had an iron head of over a foot in length at one end, with a ball of lead at the other end, and was at times used to carry incendiary material. It was projected upon the same principle as the stone in the catapult, namely by means of twisted skeins, but in the case of the balista two were in use. They were fitted vertically in a frame open to the front: an arm was passed through each skein, and when the skeins were twisted, the arms sought to diverge from one another. A rope acted like the string of a bow, and was wound back by a suitable apparatus, thus tending todraw the arms to a parallel position; upon its release the falarica was propelled in exactly the same manner as an arrow is discharged. It rested in a directing hollow trough until the trigger was pulled. These heavy missiles travelled at times to a distance of between three hundred and four hundred yards and it will thus be seen that practically the two ends of a bow are used for the propulsive force. The balista could also be used for discharging stones if required by a simple alteration of the bow-string, and the addition of another trough for directing the missile.The Trebuchet.—The Trebuchet was a mediæval weapon derived from the classical engines of previous ages, but depending entirely upon the principle of the sling in contradistinction to that of torsion. It was a gigantic arm of wood, lengthened considerably by a sling; the arm was pivoted near one end remote from the sling, and this beam being actuated by the fall of an extremely heavy weight caused it to describe the quarter of a circle and discharge the missile. It superseded the catapult, chiefly for the reason that the making of the skeins of the latter had become a lost art, and also that a trebuchet could be quickly constructed on the spot required with materials generally found ready to hand, whereas the catapult necessarily had to be transported. Consequently trebuchets were invariably dismantled after a siege and not carried from place to place, the ponderous nature of the machine presenting an obstacle to such a course. There is no doubt that the addition of the sling was an idea obtained from the East at a very early date, as a MS. of the thirteenth century contains a representation showing it. In Add. MS. 10,292, British Museum, a trebuchet is shown inuse against a castle which is being attacked by knights of the Ailette Period clad in banded mail. This shows the sling affixed to the arm, but no comparison of size is possible, as the machine is shown smaller than a horse, and the horse is nearly the size of the castle. In Roy. MS. 16, G. VI., dating fromc.1330, two trebuchets are shown in action against a castle. They are much out of drawing, as the arm bearing the counterpoise of one is actually shown longer than the arm bearing the sling, whereas it was probably only a small fraction of the length. Hewitt quotes from a work written by Gilles Colonne (d.1316) for his pupil, Philip the Fair of France, in which he says, “Of perriers (a general name for stone-projecting machines) there are four kinds, and in all these machines there is a beam which is raised and lowered by means of a counterpoise, a sling being attached to the end of the beam to discharge the stone. Sometimes the counterpoise is not sufficient, and then they attach ropes to it in order to move the beam. The counterpoise may either be fixed or movable, or both at once. In the fixed counterpoise a box is fastened to the end of the beam, and filled with stones or sand or any heavy body. These machines cast their missiles with most exactness, because the weight acts in a uniform manner. Their aim is so sure that one may, so to say, hit a needle. If the gyn carries too far it may be drawn back or loaded with a heavier stone; if the contrary, then it must be advanced or a smaller stone supplied. Others of these machines have a movable counterpoise attached to the beam, turning upon an axis. The third kind has two weights, one fixedto the beam and the other movable round it; by this means it throws with more exactness. The fourth sort, in lieu of weights attached to the beam, has a number of ropes, and is discharged by a number of men pulling simultaneously at the cords. This last kind does not cast such large stones as the others, but it has the advantage that it may be more rapidly loaded and discharged than they. In using the perriers by night it is necessary to attach a lighted body to the projectile; by this means one may discover the force of the machine and regulate the weights of the stone accordingly.” This very valuable description of four varieties of the trebuchet at such an early date gives us an idea of the state of perfection to which they had then arrived, and from other sources may be obtained particulars relating to the size and weight of the missiles employed. They were not always of stone, but barrels of Greek fire, pitch, naphtha, and other inflammable substance were used; also occasionally the bodies of dead horses and other animals, often in a state of decomposition, barrels of offensive or putrid matter, and other missiles of a similar nature designed to cause pestilence, were thrown into towns or fortresses when the defence was obstinately prolonged. In the account left to us by Guillaume des Ormes of Carcassone in 1240, we read: “Afterwards they set up a mangonel before our barbican, when we lost no time in opposing to it from within an excellent Turkish petrary, which played upon the mangonel and those about it; so that, when they essayed to cast upon us, and saw the beam of our petrary in motion, they fled, utterly abandoning their mangonel. And in that place they made ditches and palisades, yet as often as we discharged our petrary we drove them from it.” At the siege of BedfordCastle in 1224, the garrison of which were followers of Faukes de Breauté, a leader of mercenaries in the time of King John, seven mangonels were in use in the besieging force. Matthew Paris mentions the terrible effects of the trebuchets in 1246 at the siege of the castle of Cappacio, when seven well-ordered machines discharged day and night such an uninterrupted storm of missiles upon the ill-fated fortress that it was battered into a helpless condition, and had perforce to surrender. He also states that in 1253 the Gascons hurled stones and darts of such wonderful size that many of them were carried into England to be exhibited as curiosities. In the defence of castles the garrison naturally set up missile-throwing weapons, and these were as a rule built upon the ground within the encircling walls, and threw their projectiles high in the air over the battlements into the enemy’s camp. Smaller ones were also built upon the walls and towers. Where large towns were besieged it was no unusual thing to have from one to three hundred projectile-throwing engines in action. The mangonel, petrary, mangonella, biblia, and many other names used by mediæval writers, all refer to the trebuchet and its many modifications.PLATE XXXI*Burgundy Cross Armour of Philip II.A. F. CalvertVarious machines were invented during the Middle Ages, in which the principle of propulsion was the steel bow mounted upon a frame partaking of the nature of the arbalest. These bows were at times of considerable size, and threw javelins, spears, and weapons of a similar nature. Being mounted upon wheels, they served all the purposes fulfilled by modern field artillery. In the same category may be mentioned one which threw one or two stonesat a single discharge: it consisted of a vertical spring of steel which was pulled backwards by ropes and pulleys, and upon being released threw one missile from a sling attached to its extremity and another from a cup fixed to the steel.PLATE XXXII*Gauntlets of Charles V.A. F. CalvertCHAPTER XVIIIGERMAN, ITALIAN, AND OTHER INFLUENCES UPON EUROPEAN ARMOURIt may come somewhat in the nature of a shock to the self-complacency of the average Englishman to learn that in the great stores of armour in the public and private collections of Great Britain and Ireland only an infinitesimal portion is of English origin, and also that England was never celebrated in any age for the output of reliable suits. The excellent quality of English steel is, at the present time, accepted throughout the world, while the care and finish bestowed upon articles fabricated from it is proverbial, and in marked contrast to that of many other nations. This fact is so well known that the average inhabitant of our isles unconsciously places armour in the same category, and believes as a matter of course that it was pre-eminent in the Middle Ages. But the superiority of British iron is a matter of the last two or three centuries, and only sprang into existence when armour was becoming obsolete, whereas upon the Continent the manufacture in some places dates back almost to remote antiquity. This is especially the case with regard to Germany, whence has emanated the great majority of the armour seen in our museums. If we take the Wallace Collection, for instance, we find that sixteen cap-à-pie suits are contained in it, of which thirteen are German, two Italian, and one English. Of this number the eight earliest, dating from 1460 to 1560, are of German manufacture. Of the three three-quarter suits dating from 1520 to 1540 the whole are German, while of the nine half-suits only one is Italian, the remainder coming from Germany. A similar comparison taken in other museums would probably give a like result. If, however, a collection has no suits of armour previous to the year 1605, a probability exists that English armour might occupy the second if not the first place, inasmuch as the half and three-quarter suits in use during the Civil Wars were largely made in England. It must not be supposed, however, that the English armourers of the Middle Ages were incapable of manufacturing defensive or offensive equipments, for it is almost certain that the greater part used from the time of the War of the Barons to the Wars of the Roses was fabricated at home, always excepting that worn by royalty and the most prominent nobles. English armour was, however, heavy and cumbrous, the inferior quality of the metal necessitating great thickness in order to secure efficiency; consequently those who could afford it procured the foreign article, where the superior temper gave a minimum of weight with the same or even better protection. It may be compared to the modern Harveyised steel plate for battleships, of six or eight inches in thickness, which affords greater security than the eighteen inches of iron formerly in use. A large amount of foreign armour has found its way into our country owing to the law of tournaments, whereby the equipment of the vanquished became the lawful spoil of the victor; while the prolonged wars waged upon the Continent by English armies—invariably with some degree of success—must have furnished both theknight and the common soldier with means of defence superior to that of home manufacture.Fig.441.—Spanish soldiers, eleventh century. (Add. MS. 11,695.)It is curious to note how in the early part of the Middle Ages the same general outline of military equipment prevailed over the civilised portion of the continent of Europe, and this is exemplified inFig. 441, taken from Add. MS. 11,695, a Spanish parchment of the eleventh century. If the warriors delineated in it are compared with those represented upon the Bayeux Tapestry, the only essential differences to be discovered are the excessive lengths of the hauberk and gambeson, and also the circular shield. The trilobed pommels of the swords and the cross guards of the lances suggest a Scandinavian origin, but the hauberk, nasal helmet, and leg defences are almost exact counterparts of the Norman equipment. Again, inFig. 442, which represents a continental warrior of the year 1100, the general appearance is similar to our own knights of the Chain Mail Period, if we except the peculiar helmet and the deep indentations in the skirt of the surcoat. Thecoif-de-mailles, hauberk, chausses, shield, and sword are almost precisely the same. In the year 1330 the continental equipment was the same in its broad character as in England, which may be seen fromFig. 443, taken from Add. MS. 12,228 in the British Museum, where the only differences are the trefoil coudière and the laminated brassarts, which were not general in our country, although isolated instances occur of both. During the Camail and Jupon Period the plate armour was precisely similar all over the Continent, the only variations being in the shape of the jupon, which was sleeveless in England, but was often provided with baggy sleeves ornamented with rows of buttons in other countries, chiefly Spain and Italy, while tight sleeves were worn in Germany. The frequent intercourse between the Continent and ourselves in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries led to the free introduction of foreign supplies, and English armour lost what little insular character it formerly possessed.Fig.442.—Continental warrior. (From a foreign MS.,c.1100.)Fig.443.—French knight,c.1330.PLATE XXXIII*Armour of Charles V., made by ColmanA. F. CalvertIt may be stated as a general fact that no authentic suits anterior to the year 1400 are in existence, although many separate pieces are preserved which were made before that year, chiefly helmets, mail, gauntlets, and a few pieces of plate. The same may be said of the armour prevailingfrom 1400 to 1440, though larger and more numerous portions of it exist, but of the Gothic armour which came into being after that date a number of complete suits are extant. Germany was almost the sole maker of this description of defence, and not only are the majority of suits of this period of German make, but Germany itself has for long been the happy hunting-ground of collectors, and was at one time deemed almost inexhaustible. There are many German armourers whose names have been handed down upon the roll of fame, but the most honoured bore the name of Colman. This family had settled in Augsburg in the latter part of the fourteenth century, and gradually established a reputation; the most famous and best known being Lorenz Colman, who began work in 1467. He was patronised by Maximilian, King of the Romans, a few years later, and appointed Court Armourer in 1490. In conjunction with the emperor there can be no doubt that the Maximilian style was evolved in the first decade of the sixteenth century. Lorenz died in 1516, and an example of his workmanship dating from 1515 may be seen in a cap-à-pie suit in the Wallace Collection. His successor, Koloman Colman, surnamed Helmschmied, produced many wonderful examples of skilled workmanship, such as are exemplified in his suits constructed for the Emperor Charles V. (Plate XXXIII.*), and preserved in the Royal Armoury at Madrid.[2]InPlate XXX.*, the large tilting-piece, comprising grandegarde, volante piece, and pauldron in one defence, is remarkable, while the pair of gauntlets belonging to the same monarch and illustrated inPlate XXXII.*, are admittedly the most superb examples in existence. The magnificent flutes, together with the delicate enrichments of the gadlings, have probably never been equalled. The style of ornamentation agrees exactly with that of Colman Helmschmied.Fig.444.—Complete plate: head and neck,c.1400. (Roy. MS., 20, c. 7.)The equestrian suit shown inPlate XXX.*, p.340, is of Augsburg or Nuremberg make, and is also of the time of Charles V. It is of considerable interest in exhibiting the various kinds of extra defences such as the grande garde, garde-de-bras, and manifere, the last differing from the Wallace specimen in having separate fingers. The subject of horse armour, or bardings, has not been treated in this work owing to the exigencies of space; it is a matter of considerable interest, and the horse shown in this plate exhibits it in very nearly its highest development. The error is very prevalent that horse defences were of comparatively late introduction (i.e.of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries); the accompanyingFig. 444from Roy. MS. 20, c. 7,temp.Henry IV. or earlier, shows defence of a very high order, inasmuch as the chanfron covers the whole of the head, and the crinet, of lames of plate, encircles the neck completely. In England horse-armour originated in the twelfth century.Plate XXXIV.*, exemplifies the wealth of elaborate decoration bestowed upon horse furniture in the sixteenth century;the chanfron in the centre has been worked into the semblance of a dragon with which the mainfaire is in harmony. The chanfron on the left is of Moorish workmanship.PLATE XXXIV*1. Moorish Chanfron.2. Chanfron and Mainfaire, Sixteenth Century.3. Chanfron, with Imperial Arms.A. F. CalvertDuring the fourteenth century the Italian armourers had been making steady progress towards fame, and in no city more so than Milan, where, towards the end of the century, armourers came to the front whose names are famous. A Milanese salade,c.1480, is represented inPlate VII.*, p.60, and was produced by one of the Negroli family, who made their home in the city. The salade is cast in one piece, except the visor, and the ornamentation is a pleasing combination of the Italian and Oriental styles. The delicacy, vigour, and force of its execution may readily be perceived upon inspection of the illustration. Another example of the work of the Negrolis is given inPlate X.*, p.80, which represents a three-quarter suit made for Charles V. The Milanese were among the first to feel and acknowledge the influence of the Renaissance in their work, and the decorations upon the pauldrons, coudières, &c., of this suit exemplifies it.Among the armourers who were entrusted with work for King Philip II. of Spain, the successor of Charles V., were the Wolf family of Landshut, and an example of their skill is shown in PlateXXXI.*, p.346, upon the suit known as the Burgundy Cross armour. It was made in 1551 by Sigmund Wolf, and is richly decorated with bands of the natural colour of the steel, on which are etched alternately the Cross of Burgundy (the St. Andrew’s Cross), and the emblems of the Golden Fleece, all gilded. The high pike-guard upon therightshoulder is a structural feature of this suit. An example of German armour datingfrom 1549, when Philip was heir-apparent (Plate XXI.*, p.236), is an excellent example of the Decorative Period of the sixteenth century; it shows a mitten gauntlet upon the left hand, and unequal tassets. An earlier suit, made by Desiderius Colman in 1545, is adapted for jousting on foot, and has lamboys or bases (Plate XII.*, p.128). The espalier pauldrons and roundels, the peascod breastplate, and the lames of plate over the knee in the cuisses, are features of the suit. Wolf of Landshut in 1554 made a suit for Philip II. (Plate XV.*, p.146), for the Über die Pallia, or Welsches Gestech Course, which exhibits the manteau d’armes affixed and a small reinforcing piece attached to the right espalier, forming a pike-guard. To this suit a forbidden or locking gauntlet for the right hand is attached. The tassets are of unequal length. A helmet supplied at the same time as the above suit is a veritable triumph of the armourers craft (Plate XVI.*, p.166). The details may readily be seen in the illustration, and the volante piece, fixed to the helmet by a strap round the gorget, and so moving with it, is of special interest. Sigismund Wolf in 1550 made a suit for Philip which is represented inPlate XIII.*, p.132. “Many of the extra pieces for this suit are now at Brussels. The ornamentation is chaste, consisting of narrow bands, etched with graceful scrolls and volutes on white burnished steel.”
Fig.435.—1. Morning star. 2. Mace. 3. Maces (or goedendags, or morgensterns).
Fig.435.—1. Morning star. 2. Mace. 3. Maces (or goedendags, or morgensterns).
The Martel-de-Fer.—Under the mace variety the martel-de-fer may be classified. It is of very ancient origin, and has at all periods been a favourite weapon of both horse and foot soldiers, but probably more so during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries than at other periods. The mediæval archer is often represented with this weapon, and apparently preferred it to the sword. The general shape was a plain hammer-head projection, often serrated to prevent glancing off plate, balanced by a pick or blade upon the opposite side; in only a few examples is the shaft prolonged into a spike. In the Chain Mail Period it was often made with a heavy falcon beak without the hammer-head, while some examples dating from the Tabard Period have two sharp beaks of pick-axe form for penetrating the joints of armour, which are probably the same weapons mentioned by writers of the fourteenth century and termed bisacutas.
The Lance.—The spear, javelin, and lance of the Bronze and Iron Periods down to the time of the Saxons and Normans have been treated under their different headings. For three centuries after the Norman Conquest the spear does not exhibit any remarkable change; it was of uniform size and thickness from end to end, with a lozenge or leaf-shaped head, rarely barbed, the lozenge being the commoner form. For tournament purposes the heads were blunted, but as jousting became more popular special points or coronals were introduced, of which examples are shown in most museums. These were not intended to pierce, but only to give a grip upon plate armour.
During the Splinted and Camail Periods the men-at-arms invariably dismounted and fought upon foot, and in order to adapt the lance to these altered conditions it was cut down to about five feet in length. Later in the Camail Period a small circular plate was fixed upon the lance to protect the hand, and this subsequently developed into the vamplate of varied form and dimensions. At this time also the shaft of the lance became much enlarged for tilting purposes, and was made hollow, with longitudinal grooves upon the exterior; in this form it splintered in the encounter; when the tilting had for its object the unhorsing of combatants the lance was made stronger and heavier. During the reign of Elizabeth the lance ceased to hold the important position it had hitherto maintained among weapons, and became obsolete, but in later times it has been revived for the use of cavalry.
The Sword.—The various parts of a sword should perhaps be mentioned before proceeding to a chronological description of the varieties. The two essential parts are the blade and the hilt. The prolongation of the bladewhich fits into the handle is the tang; the upper portion near the hilt the ricasso. The essential portions of the hilt are the quillons, which cross at right angles between the blade and the handle to protect the hand; the grip, which is self-explanatory, and the pommel, the expanded piece at the end of the grip.
Fig.436.—Sword,c.1340; blade 33 in. long, 2 in. wide at hilt. (Wallace Collection.)
Fig.436.—Sword,c.1340; blade 33 in. long, 2 in. wide at hilt. (Wallace Collection.)
Pre-Norman Period.—The swords of this age generally in use throughout Europe were of the Scandinavian type, and may be divided into three classes: (1) those having the character of a broadsword, with parallel sharp edges and an acute point, and the tang only for a grip; (2) a similar variety having a cross guard; and (3) a sword with the blade slightly curved. The grip was usually of wood covered with skin, but sometimes of bone: the pommels were of varying shapes, as round, triangular, trefoil, and quatrefoil. The cross-guards began in a simple projection, but increased as time went on; they, together with the pommel, were at times very highly ornamented. The sheaths were usually of leather, stiffened with a wood framing. As will be seen by referring to the plates, the sword did not vary much in form from the twelfth to the end of the fifteenth century (Fig. 436). The blade was always two-edged, and about forty inches in length; the quillons at times droopedtowards the blade, but were generally straight; the grip varied perhaps more than any other part, being at times almost double handed, and at others—the later Tabard Period, for instance—was so short and swollen as to appear unserviceable. The shape of the pommel takes many forms, varying almost with the individual taste of the owner; occasionally the pommel and other parts were subjected to a high degree of ornamentation, with precious stones and inlaid work of all descriptions. During the thirteenth century the curved sabre was used, but very rarely; it is shown inFig. 154, p.125, a group from the Painted Chamber. Other varieties were the falchion, cultellus, anelace, and scimitar.
The Falchionwas chiefly used by archers and men-at-arms. It had a blade wide at the point; the edge was curved and convex, the back concave.
The Cultelluswas a short sword, and is not often mentioned or represented. It was designed especially for the use of foot soldiers when rushing upon knights who had been dismounted in a cavalry charge, or for the close encounter of infantry against infantry.
PLATE XXVIII*Sword of Philip II., with the Mark of Clement Horn of SolingenA. F. Calvert
PLATE XXVIII*
Sword of Philip II., with the Mark of Clement Horn of Solingen
A. F. Calvert
The Anelacewas a long dagger which was secured to the person by a chain. It is often represented upon effigies and brasses of civilians in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and at times assumed very large proportions. The handle is as a rule made in the fashion of that of the cinquedea, from which it was probably derived. The latter is a dagger or short sword which had its origin in Italy; the blade is generally of the width of five fingers at the hilt (whence the name); the quillons always bend towards the blade, and the latter, which istwo-edged, averages from eighteen to twenty inches in length. The representation given here is from a beautiful specimen in the Wallace Collection dating from 1470 (Fig. 437), the blade of which is nearly four inches wide and nineteen inches long; the quillons are of latten and the handle of ivory, studded with filigree work.
Fig.437.
Fig.437.
The Scimitarbecame a favourite weapon with the infantry during the greater part of the Tabard Period, the blade being curved at the back with a cusp at the point, which distinguished it from the falchion. A finger-guard was often added by prolonging one side of the cross-piece, whereby it ran parallel to the grip, and then either curved outwards or, later in the period, turned inwards to join the pommel.
In the Transition and Maximilian Periods the sword underwent many changes, chiefly in the hilt, which presented a bewildering variety of additional pieces, all intended for the protection of the hand and the entanglement or breaking of the sword-blade of the opponent. Four examples are given here from the Royal Armoury at Madrid which exhibit these extra guards (PlatesXXVIII.*andXXIX.*). The old cross-piece did not die out, but became bent in another form as a capital S; rings appeared on either side of the cross-piece and at right angles to it; back-guards were introduced, and also the basket-hilt. The quillons, by being curved as indicated above, developed the knuckle-guard on one side of the grip which eventually reached the pommel, while the other,circling towards the blade, developed counter-guards for protecting the back of the hand. Thus the rapier-guard was developed, the varieties and modifications of which are almost numberless. The Wallace Collection contains a matchless array of these beautiful weapons, the earliest dating from 1540: some of these have lavish ornamentation bestowed upon them. Broadly speaking, cup-hilts were a common form where long, straight, or curved quillons were used in conjunction with a cup-shaped finger-guard at the base of the blade, which was as a rule highly decorated. The swept hilt had a broad back-guard which narrowed towards the pommel, together with curved quillons. Upon many swords of the sixteenth century and later curved guards may be seen extending round the ricasso; this is the pas d’ane, while rings may also be observed for passing the thumb through. The rapier blade was long, thin, and tapering; it was essentially a thrusting sword, but not exclusively so. These weapons were for parade and the duel, a two-edged rapier of special design being used in war. During the eighteenth century the general tendency of the hilt was to become less complicated and to develop the simple basket form.
Fig.438.—Flamberge,c.1630. (Wallace Collection.)
Fig.438.—Flamberge,c.1630. (Wallace Collection.)
The Two-handed Swordwas an invention of the fourteenth century, and formed one of the ordinary weapons of the foot soldier. To wield it both hands were employed in making cutting sweeps, and consequently very open order was necessary for troops thus armed; at first it did not find favour in England, except for use in the lists, being chiefly carried at the saddle-bow by knights as a reserve weapon in case of being dismounted, when they trusted to its use against foot soldiers.In Scotland, however, it appears to have been in great favour, and its practice much resorted to. An excellent example and of an early date (c.1490) is preserved in the Banqueting Hall of Edinburgh Castle, which is remarkable for its exceptional length, being exactly six feet,—four feet three inches in the blade, and the handle twenty-one inches (Plate XXVII.). The grip is of the usual character and the pommel is small; the quillons droop slightly towards the blade and terminate in two spirals, small engaging-guards being furnished on both sides. There is a strong ricasso of oblong section giving great strength to the blade, and the usual two lateral projections of rather large proportions. During the Maximilian Period it was a favourite weapon in England, and its value for the defence of a narrow pass, and against stormers at a beleaguered town, was fully recognised. The Scottish claymore is really the two-handed sword, and the application of the name to the basket-hilted broadsword of the eighteenth century is a mistake. The two-handed sword with waved blade is called a flamberge (Fig. 438); the example is from the Wallace Collection (date about 1630); the blade measures fifty inches and the handle over twelve. A ring-guard is furnished on either side of the quillons; there are the two usual projections from the ricasso, which is covered in leather. An earlier example,c.1530, has a grip of no less than twenty-two inches; the blade is fifty inches long, and it has ring-guards and diagonally curved quillons (Fig. 428). The ricasso is covered with leather, as in the former example.
Fig.439.—Hand-and-half sword, 1490. (Wallace Collection.)
Fig.439.—Hand-and-half sword, 1490. (Wallace Collection.)
The Hand-and-half, or Bastard Sword, illustrated inFig. 439, dates from 1490, and may be claimed as belonging to the two-handed variety. It came into vogue in England during the Camail and Jupon Period, but was used much earlier in Germany; the blade is forty inches long, but in some examples it is nearly fifty. It could be wielded with one hand, but to give extra effect to a blow, if desired, the left hand could be brought into action near the pommel, where the grip is smaller. This type of sword was in use during the whole of the fifteenth century.
The Dagger.—This weapon has been described where necessary in preceding chapters up to and including the Camail and Jupon Period, when the misericorde with its triangular blade was so much in evidence. In the reign of Richard II. the wearing of a dagger of some kind was universal, even the ladies having a small baselard attached to their girdles. Shortly afterwards a long poniard of Continental origin superseded the previous weapon, which, like the sword, had a thumb-guard attached in the formof a ring. The cinquedea, which may be looked upon as a dagger, has been dealt with on p.334. An example of the military dagger of the fourteenth century is in the Wallace Collection, dating from 1440, with a fifteen-inch blade, and is of the greatest rarity, although illustrations in missals, &c., are numerous. A specimen of the “Kidney” dagger, so called from the shape of the base of the grip, is also preserved there, dating from 1480; it was in common use in England until the time of Charles I.
PLATE XXIX*1. Sword of Hernando Cortes.2. Sword of Philip II.3. Sword of Gonsalvo de Cordoba, late Fifteenth Century.A. F. Calvert
PLATE XXIX*
1. Sword of Hernando Cortes.
2. Sword of Philip II.
3. Sword of Gonsalvo de Cordoba, late Fifteenth Century.
A. F. Calvert
The main-gauche, or left-handed dagger, was of Continental origin, and enjoyed an immense popularity in England during the sixteenth century. It was held in the left hand to ward off blows and entangle the point of the adversary’s weapon, while the long rapier was being used in the right hand.
No evidence is extant respecting the inventor of the first machine for missile throwing, but we know that they have existed from the earliest ages, and have been used by all the great nations of antiquity. Under the Greeks and Romans, but especially the former, they attained a remarkable degree of excellence, and many accounts of their extraordinary efficiency have come down to us. The Romans took their ideas from the Greeks as a basis to work upon; among their best authorities Vitruvius may be classed. The principles involved in these engines were not altogether lost, but descended to the mediæval ages, and probably during that period more elaborate, powerful, and gigantic machines were constructed than at any previous time.
PLATE XXX*Armour of Charles V., from Augsburg or NurembergA. F. Calvert
PLATE XXX*
Armour of Charles V., from Augsburg or Nuremberg
A. F. Calvert
The complicated methods by which a fortress was captured or a town carried during the Middle Ages are not generally known, and the means adopted at the present time are as a general rule credited with being the outcome of the skill and science of the past few centuries. This, however, will not bear the test of investigation, for we find that almost every device has had its prototype in past ages, and nearly every idea has been forestalled. It comes almost with a shock to some, and produces feelings of incredulity, to be told that huge missiles vieing in destructive effect with the modern shell, and as a rule many times larger, were sent with unerring aim into the heart of a besieged town, levelling houses to the ground and dealing destruction far and wide. The idea of a siege in mediæval times is generally that of a tree to batter down a door, archers to shoot down the defenders on the walls, desperate charges of cavalry against sallies of the garrison, and forlorn hopes of men carrying scaling-ladders with which to surmount the walls. These are, however, only a few concomitants of the complicated methods by which a siege was accomplished.
The Greeks and Romans constructed their engines upon the principle of the bow, whereas the mediæval engineers adopted that of the sling. The latter was by far the more clumsy of the two, but probably just as effective. Had the methods by which the Greeks were enabled to construct their splendid engines been handed down, the possibility is that mediæval machines would have been far less cumbersome and much smaller. Probably the greatest living authority upon projectile-throwing machines is Sir Ralph Payne-Gallwey, Bart., who has constructed models of ancient and mediæval machines with most successful results. He says,“My engines are by no means perfect in their mechanism, and are always liable to give way under the strain of working. One reason of this is that all modern engines of the kind require to be worked to their utmost capacity,i.e.to the verge of their breaking-point, to obtain from them results that at all equal those of their prototypes. The ancient engines did their work easily and well within their strength. Although my largest catapult will throw a stone to a great distance it cannot throw one of nearly the weight it should be able to do, considering the size of its frame, skein of cord, and mechanism. In this respect it is decidedly inferior to the ancient engine.”[1]The author of the above has, however, been able to construct a catapult which throws a stone of 8 lbs. to a distance of between four hundred and fifty and five hundred yards.
The Catapult.—The “Tormentum” of the Romans was a generic name for military engines, and so named from the twisting of the hair, thongs, sinews, &c., of which the propelling mechanism was made. What were the exact materials used, and in what proportions, is entirely unknown, and probably the knowledge did not extend beyond a century or so after the fall of the empire. There can be no doubt but that the sinews of animals played an important part in the construction of the skein. The method of making the catapult was as follows, omitting unnecessary details. A quadrangular wooden frame of great strength was fitted near one end with the skein, which was made in the form of a circle and of very considerable thickness, the rubber tyre of a large motor-car wheel approximating both in size and shape. This was folded into two parallel straight lines and passed through holes in the frame on either side, where a simple mechanism grasped it which could revolve the ends, cogs preventing them from turning in any direction but that desired. Between the parallel parts of the skein the end of the arm was placed, and by twisting the ends of the skein the arm was made to press with considerable force against a horizontal beam supported by uprights at the two sides. The arm was provided with a hollow in the upper part for holding the stone. If now the arm were drawn back by means of levers, ropes, and pulleys, the distortion upon the skein was increased enormously, and if when loaded with a projectile the arm were released, it sprang back against the beam with great velocity and force, throwing the stone to a distance during the action. This propulsive force was considerably augmented in some machines by the addition of a sling to the end of the arm, which practically lengthened the arm and consequently hurled the projectile to a greater distance. Ancient writers assert that the range was sometimes as much as from seven hundred to eight hundred yards.
Fig.440.—Principle of the balista.
Fig.440.—Principle of the balista.
The Balista.—This machine was used by the Romans for discharging the Falarica or ponderous spear, which had an iron head of over a foot in length at one end, with a ball of lead at the other end, and was at times used to carry incendiary material. It was projected upon the same principle as the stone in the catapult, namely by means of twisted skeins, but in the case of the balista two were in use. They were fitted vertically in a frame open to the front: an arm was passed through each skein, and when the skeins were twisted, the arms sought to diverge from one another. A rope acted like the string of a bow, and was wound back by a suitable apparatus, thus tending todraw the arms to a parallel position; upon its release the falarica was propelled in exactly the same manner as an arrow is discharged. It rested in a directing hollow trough until the trigger was pulled. These heavy missiles travelled at times to a distance of between three hundred and four hundred yards and it will thus be seen that practically the two ends of a bow are used for the propulsive force. The balista could also be used for discharging stones if required by a simple alteration of the bow-string, and the addition of another trough for directing the missile.
The Trebuchet.—The Trebuchet was a mediæval weapon derived from the classical engines of previous ages, but depending entirely upon the principle of the sling in contradistinction to that of torsion. It was a gigantic arm of wood, lengthened considerably by a sling; the arm was pivoted near one end remote from the sling, and this beam being actuated by the fall of an extremely heavy weight caused it to describe the quarter of a circle and discharge the missile. It superseded the catapult, chiefly for the reason that the making of the skeins of the latter had become a lost art, and also that a trebuchet could be quickly constructed on the spot required with materials generally found ready to hand, whereas the catapult necessarily had to be transported. Consequently trebuchets were invariably dismantled after a siege and not carried from place to place, the ponderous nature of the machine presenting an obstacle to such a course. There is no doubt that the addition of the sling was an idea obtained from the East at a very early date, as a MS. of the thirteenth century contains a representation showing it. In Add. MS. 10,292, British Museum, a trebuchet is shown inuse against a castle which is being attacked by knights of the Ailette Period clad in banded mail. This shows the sling affixed to the arm, but no comparison of size is possible, as the machine is shown smaller than a horse, and the horse is nearly the size of the castle. In Roy. MS. 16, G. VI., dating fromc.1330, two trebuchets are shown in action against a castle. They are much out of drawing, as the arm bearing the counterpoise of one is actually shown longer than the arm bearing the sling, whereas it was probably only a small fraction of the length. Hewitt quotes from a work written by Gilles Colonne (d.1316) for his pupil, Philip the Fair of France, in which he says, “Of perriers (a general name for stone-projecting machines) there are four kinds, and in all these machines there is a beam which is raised and lowered by means of a counterpoise, a sling being attached to the end of the beam to discharge the stone. Sometimes the counterpoise is not sufficient, and then they attach ropes to it in order to move the beam. The counterpoise may either be fixed or movable, or both at once. In the fixed counterpoise a box is fastened to the end of the beam, and filled with stones or sand or any heavy body. These machines cast their missiles with most exactness, because the weight acts in a uniform manner. Their aim is so sure that one may, so to say, hit a needle. If the gyn carries too far it may be drawn back or loaded with a heavier stone; if the contrary, then it must be advanced or a smaller stone supplied. Others of these machines have a movable counterpoise attached to the beam, turning upon an axis. The third kind has two weights, one fixedto the beam and the other movable round it; by this means it throws with more exactness. The fourth sort, in lieu of weights attached to the beam, has a number of ropes, and is discharged by a number of men pulling simultaneously at the cords. This last kind does not cast such large stones as the others, but it has the advantage that it may be more rapidly loaded and discharged than they. In using the perriers by night it is necessary to attach a lighted body to the projectile; by this means one may discover the force of the machine and regulate the weights of the stone accordingly.” This very valuable description of four varieties of the trebuchet at such an early date gives us an idea of the state of perfection to which they had then arrived, and from other sources may be obtained particulars relating to the size and weight of the missiles employed. They were not always of stone, but barrels of Greek fire, pitch, naphtha, and other inflammable substance were used; also occasionally the bodies of dead horses and other animals, often in a state of decomposition, barrels of offensive or putrid matter, and other missiles of a similar nature designed to cause pestilence, were thrown into towns or fortresses when the defence was obstinately prolonged. In the account left to us by Guillaume des Ormes of Carcassone in 1240, we read: “Afterwards they set up a mangonel before our barbican, when we lost no time in opposing to it from within an excellent Turkish petrary, which played upon the mangonel and those about it; so that, when they essayed to cast upon us, and saw the beam of our petrary in motion, they fled, utterly abandoning their mangonel. And in that place they made ditches and palisades, yet as often as we discharged our petrary we drove them from it.” At the siege of BedfordCastle in 1224, the garrison of which were followers of Faukes de Breauté, a leader of mercenaries in the time of King John, seven mangonels were in use in the besieging force. Matthew Paris mentions the terrible effects of the trebuchets in 1246 at the siege of the castle of Cappacio, when seven well-ordered machines discharged day and night such an uninterrupted storm of missiles upon the ill-fated fortress that it was battered into a helpless condition, and had perforce to surrender. He also states that in 1253 the Gascons hurled stones and darts of such wonderful size that many of them were carried into England to be exhibited as curiosities. In the defence of castles the garrison naturally set up missile-throwing weapons, and these were as a rule built upon the ground within the encircling walls, and threw their projectiles high in the air over the battlements into the enemy’s camp. Smaller ones were also built upon the walls and towers. Where large towns were besieged it was no unusual thing to have from one to three hundred projectile-throwing engines in action. The mangonel, petrary, mangonella, biblia, and many other names used by mediæval writers, all refer to the trebuchet and its many modifications.
PLATE XXXI*Burgundy Cross Armour of Philip II.A. F. Calvert
PLATE XXXI*
Burgundy Cross Armour of Philip II.
A. F. Calvert
Various machines were invented during the Middle Ages, in which the principle of propulsion was the steel bow mounted upon a frame partaking of the nature of the arbalest. These bows were at times of considerable size, and threw javelins, spears, and weapons of a similar nature. Being mounted upon wheels, they served all the purposes fulfilled by modern field artillery. In the same category may be mentioned one which threw one or two stonesat a single discharge: it consisted of a vertical spring of steel which was pulled backwards by ropes and pulleys, and upon being released threw one missile from a sling attached to its extremity and another from a cup fixed to the steel.
PLATE XXXII*Gauntlets of Charles V.A. F. Calvert
PLATE XXXII*
Gauntlets of Charles V.
A. F. Calvert
It may come somewhat in the nature of a shock to the self-complacency of the average Englishman to learn that in the great stores of armour in the public and private collections of Great Britain and Ireland only an infinitesimal portion is of English origin, and also that England was never celebrated in any age for the output of reliable suits. The excellent quality of English steel is, at the present time, accepted throughout the world, while the care and finish bestowed upon articles fabricated from it is proverbial, and in marked contrast to that of many other nations. This fact is so well known that the average inhabitant of our isles unconsciously places armour in the same category, and believes as a matter of course that it was pre-eminent in the Middle Ages. But the superiority of British iron is a matter of the last two or three centuries, and only sprang into existence when armour was becoming obsolete, whereas upon the Continent the manufacture in some places dates back almost to remote antiquity. This is especially the case with regard to Germany, whence has emanated the great majority of the armour seen in our museums. If we take the Wallace Collection, for instance, we find that sixteen cap-à-pie suits are contained in it, of which thirteen are German, two Italian, and one English. Of this number the eight earliest, dating from 1460 to 1560, are of German manufacture. Of the three three-quarter suits dating from 1520 to 1540 the whole are German, while of the nine half-suits only one is Italian, the remainder coming from Germany. A similar comparison taken in other museums would probably give a like result. If, however, a collection has no suits of armour previous to the year 1605, a probability exists that English armour might occupy the second if not the first place, inasmuch as the half and three-quarter suits in use during the Civil Wars were largely made in England. It must not be supposed, however, that the English armourers of the Middle Ages were incapable of manufacturing defensive or offensive equipments, for it is almost certain that the greater part used from the time of the War of the Barons to the Wars of the Roses was fabricated at home, always excepting that worn by royalty and the most prominent nobles. English armour was, however, heavy and cumbrous, the inferior quality of the metal necessitating great thickness in order to secure efficiency; consequently those who could afford it procured the foreign article, where the superior temper gave a minimum of weight with the same or even better protection. It may be compared to the modern Harveyised steel plate for battleships, of six or eight inches in thickness, which affords greater security than the eighteen inches of iron formerly in use. A large amount of foreign armour has found its way into our country owing to the law of tournaments, whereby the equipment of the vanquished became the lawful spoil of the victor; while the prolonged wars waged upon the Continent by English armies—invariably with some degree of success—must have furnished both theknight and the common soldier with means of defence superior to that of home manufacture.
Fig.441.—Spanish soldiers, eleventh century. (Add. MS. 11,695.)
Fig.441.—Spanish soldiers, eleventh century. (Add. MS. 11,695.)
It is curious to note how in the early part of the Middle Ages the same general outline of military equipment prevailed over the civilised portion of the continent of Europe, and this is exemplified inFig. 441, taken from Add. MS. 11,695, a Spanish parchment of the eleventh century. If the warriors delineated in it are compared with those represented upon the Bayeux Tapestry, the only essential differences to be discovered are the excessive lengths of the hauberk and gambeson, and also the circular shield. The trilobed pommels of the swords and the cross guards of the lances suggest a Scandinavian origin, but the hauberk, nasal helmet, and leg defences are almost exact counterparts of the Norman equipment. Again, inFig. 442, which represents a continental warrior of the year 1100, the general appearance is similar to our own knights of the Chain Mail Period, if we except the peculiar helmet and the deep indentations in the skirt of the surcoat. Thecoif-de-mailles, hauberk, chausses, shield, and sword are almost precisely the same. In the year 1330 the continental equipment was the same in its broad character as in England, which may be seen fromFig. 443, taken from Add. MS. 12,228 in the British Museum, where the only differences are the trefoil coudière and the laminated brassarts, which were not general in our country, although isolated instances occur of both. During the Camail and Jupon Period the plate armour was precisely similar all over the Continent, the only variations being in the shape of the jupon, which was sleeveless in England, but was often provided with baggy sleeves ornamented with rows of buttons in other countries, chiefly Spain and Italy, while tight sleeves were worn in Germany. The frequent intercourse between the Continent and ourselves in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries led to the free introduction of foreign supplies, and English armour lost what little insular character it formerly possessed.
Fig.442.—Continental warrior. (From a foreign MS.,c.1100.)Fig.443.—French knight,c.1330.
Fig.442.—Continental warrior. (From a foreign MS.,c.1100.)
Fig.442.—Continental warrior. (From a foreign MS.,c.1100.)
Fig.443.—French knight,c.1330.
Fig.443.—French knight,c.1330.
PLATE XXXIII*Armour of Charles V., made by ColmanA. F. Calvert
PLATE XXXIII*
Armour of Charles V., made by Colman
A. F. Calvert
It may be stated as a general fact that no authentic suits anterior to the year 1400 are in existence, although many separate pieces are preserved which were made before that year, chiefly helmets, mail, gauntlets, and a few pieces of plate. The same may be said of the armour prevailingfrom 1400 to 1440, though larger and more numerous portions of it exist, but of the Gothic armour which came into being after that date a number of complete suits are extant. Germany was almost the sole maker of this description of defence, and not only are the majority of suits of this period of German make, but Germany itself has for long been the happy hunting-ground of collectors, and was at one time deemed almost inexhaustible. There are many German armourers whose names have been handed down upon the roll of fame, but the most honoured bore the name of Colman. This family had settled in Augsburg in the latter part of the fourteenth century, and gradually established a reputation; the most famous and best known being Lorenz Colman, who began work in 1467. He was patronised by Maximilian, King of the Romans, a few years later, and appointed Court Armourer in 1490. In conjunction with the emperor there can be no doubt that the Maximilian style was evolved in the first decade of the sixteenth century. Lorenz died in 1516, and an example of his workmanship dating from 1515 may be seen in a cap-à-pie suit in the Wallace Collection. His successor, Koloman Colman, surnamed Helmschmied, produced many wonderful examples of skilled workmanship, such as are exemplified in his suits constructed for the Emperor Charles V. (Plate XXXIII.*), and preserved in the Royal Armoury at Madrid.[2]InPlate XXX.*, the large tilting-piece, comprising grandegarde, volante piece, and pauldron in one defence, is remarkable, while the pair of gauntlets belonging to the same monarch and illustrated inPlate XXXII.*, are admittedly the most superb examples in existence. The magnificent flutes, together with the delicate enrichments of the gadlings, have probably never been equalled. The style of ornamentation agrees exactly with that of Colman Helmschmied.
Fig.444.—Complete plate: head and neck,c.1400. (Roy. MS., 20, c. 7.)
Fig.444.—Complete plate: head and neck,c.1400. (Roy. MS., 20, c. 7.)
The equestrian suit shown inPlate XXX.*, p.340, is of Augsburg or Nuremberg make, and is also of the time of Charles V. It is of considerable interest in exhibiting the various kinds of extra defences such as the grande garde, garde-de-bras, and manifere, the last differing from the Wallace specimen in having separate fingers. The subject of horse armour, or bardings, has not been treated in this work owing to the exigencies of space; it is a matter of considerable interest, and the horse shown in this plate exhibits it in very nearly its highest development. The error is very prevalent that horse defences were of comparatively late introduction (i.e.of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries); the accompanyingFig. 444from Roy. MS. 20, c. 7,temp.Henry IV. or earlier, shows defence of a very high order, inasmuch as the chanfron covers the whole of the head, and the crinet, of lames of plate, encircles the neck completely. In England horse-armour originated in the twelfth century.Plate XXXIV.*, exemplifies the wealth of elaborate decoration bestowed upon horse furniture in the sixteenth century;the chanfron in the centre has been worked into the semblance of a dragon with which the mainfaire is in harmony. The chanfron on the left is of Moorish workmanship.
PLATE XXXIV*1. Moorish Chanfron.2. Chanfron and Mainfaire, Sixteenth Century.3. Chanfron, with Imperial Arms.A. F. Calvert
PLATE XXXIV*
1. Moorish Chanfron.
2. Chanfron and Mainfaire, Sixteenth Century.
3. Chanfron, with Imperial Arms.
A. F. Calvert
During the fourteenth century the Italian armourers had been making steady progress towards fame, and in no city more so than Milan, where, towards the end of the century, armourers came to the front whose names are famous. A Milanese salade,c.1480, is represented inPlate VII.*, p.60, and was produced by one of the Negroli family, who made their home in the city. The salade is cast in one piece, except the visor, and the ornamentation is a pleasing combination of the Italian and Oriental styles. The delicacy, vigour, and force of its execution may readily be perceived upon inspection of the illustration. Another example of the work of the Negrolis is given inPlate X.*, p.80, which represents a three-quarter suit made for Charles V. The Milanese were among the first to feel and acknowledge the influence of the Renaissance in their work, and the decorations upon the pauldrons, coudières, &c., of this suit exemplifies it.
Among the armourers who were entrusted with work for King Philip II. of Spain, the successor of Charles V., were the Wolf family of Landshut, and an example of their skill is shown in PlateXXXI.*, p.346, upon the suit known as the Burgundy Cross armour. It was made in 1551 by Sigmund Wolf, and is richly decorated with bands of the natural colour of the steel, on which are etched alternately the Cross of Burgundy (the St. Andrew’s Cross), and the emblems of the Golden Fleece, all gilded. The high pike-guard upon therightshoulder is a structural feature of this suit. An example of German armour datingfrom 1549, when Philip was heir-apparent (Plate XXI.*, p.236), is an excellent example of the Decorative Period of the sixteenth century; it shows a mitten gauntlet upon the left hand, and unequal tassets. An earlier suit, made by Desiderius Colman in 1545, is adapted for jousting on foot, and has lamboys or bases (Plate XII.*, p.128). The espalier pauldrons and roundels, the peascod breastplate, and the lames of plate over the knee in the cuisses, are features of the suit. Wolf of Landshut in 1554 made a suit for Philip II. (Plate XV.*, p.146), for the Über die Pallia, or Welsches Gestech Course, which exhibits the manteau d’armes affixed and a small reinforcing piece attached to the right espalier, forming a pike-guard. To this suit a forbidden or locking gauntlet for the right hand is attached. The tassets are of unequal length. A helmet supplied at the same time as the above suit is a veritable triumph of the armourers craft (Plate XVI.*, p.166). The details may readily be seen in the illustration, and the volante piece, fixed to the helmet by a strap round the gorget, and so moving with it, is of special interest. Sigismund Wolf in 1550 made a suit for Philip which is represented inPlate XIII.*, p.132. “Many of the extra pieces for this suit are now at Brussels. The ornamentation is chaste, consisting of narrow bands, etched with graceful scrolls and volutes on white burnished steel.”