ARTICLE VI.GEOGRAPHY.

ARTICLE VI.GEOGRAPHY.The surface of the Earth, like that of Jupiter, is not divided by bands alternative and parallel to the equator; on the contrary, it is divided from one pole to the other, by two bands of earth, and two of sea; the first and principal is the ancient continent, the greatest length of which is found to be in a line, beginning on the east point of the northern part of Tartary, and extending from thence to the land which borders on the gulph of Linchidolkin, where the Muscovites fish for whales; from thence to Tobolski, from Tobolski to the Caspian sea, from the Caspian sea to Mecca, and from Mecca to the western part of the country inhabited by the Galli, in Africa; afterwards to Monoemuci or Monomotapa, and at last to the Cape of Good Hope; this line, which is the greatest length of theold continent, is about 3600 leagues, Paris measure; it is only interrupted by the Caspian and Red seas, the breadths of which are not very considerable, and we must not pay any regard to these interruptions, when it is considered, the surface of the globe is divided only in four parts.This greatest length is found by measuring the old continent diagonally; for if measured according to the meridians, we shall find that there are only 2500 leagues from the northernmost Cape of Lapland to the Cape of Good Hope; and that the Baltic and Mediterranean cause a much greater interruption than is met with in the other way. With respect to all the other distances that might be measured in the old continent under the same meridian, we shall find them to be much smaller than this; having, for example, only 1800 leagues from the most southern point of the island of Ceylon to the northernmost coast of Nova Zembla. Likewise, if we measure the continent parallel to the equator, we find that the greatest uninterrupted length is found from Trefna, on the western coast of Africa, to Ninpo, on the eastern coast of China, and that it is about 2800 leagues. Another course may be measuredfrom the point of Brittany near Brest, extending to the Chinese Tartary; about 2300 leagues. From Bergen, in Norway, to the coast of Kamschatka, is no more than 1800 leagues. All these lines have much less length than the first, therefore the greatest extent of the old continent, is, in fact, from the eastern point of Tartary to the Cape of Good Hope, that is about 3600 leagues.There is so great an equality of surface on each side of this line, which is also the longest, that there is every probability to suppose it really divides the contents of the ancient continent; for in measuring on one side is found 2,471,092-3/4 square leagues, and on the other 2,469,687.Agreeable to this, the old continent consists of about 4,940,780 square leagues, which is nearly one-fifth of the whole surface of the globe, and has an inclination towards the equator of about 30 degrees.The greatest length of the new continent may be taken in a line from the mouth of the river Plata to the lake of Assiniboils. From the former it passes to the lake Caracara; from thence to Mataguais, Pocona, Zongo, Mariana, Morua, St. Fe, and Carthagena; it thenproceeds through the gulph of Mexico, Jamaica, and Cuba, passes along the peninsula of Florida, through Apolache, Chicachas, and from thence to St. Louis, Fort le Suer, and ends on the borders of lake Assiniboils; the whole extent of which is still unknown.This line, which is interrupted only by the Mexican gulph (which must be looked upon as a mediterranean sea) may be about 2500 leagues long, and divides the new continent into nearly two equal parts, the left of which contains about 1,069,286-5/6 leagues square, and that on the right about 1,070,926-1/12; this line, which forms the middle of the band of the new continent, is inclined to the equator about 30 degrees, but in an opposite direction, for that of the old continent extends from the north-east to the south-west, and that of the new continent from the north-west to the south-east. All those lands together of the old and new continent, make about 7,080,993 leagues square, which is not near the third of the whole surface, which contains 25 millions of square leagues.It must be remarked, that these two lines, which divide the continents into two equal parts, both terminate at the same degree ofsouthern and northern latitude, and that the two continents make opposite projections, which exactly face each other; to wit, the coasts of Africa, from the Canary islands to the coasts of Guinea, and those of America from Guiana to the mouth of Rio Janeiro.It appears, therefore, that the most ancient land of the globe, is on the two sides of these lines, at the distance of from 2 to 250 leagues on each side. By following this idea, which is founded on the observations before related, we shall find in the old continent that the most ancient lands of Africa are those which extend from the Cape of Good Hope to the Red Sea, as far as Egypt, about 500 leagues broad, and that, consequently, all the western coasts of Africa, from Guinea to the straits of Gibraltar, are the newest lands. So likewise we shall discover that in Asia, if we follow the line on the same breadth, the most ancient lands are Arabia Felix and Deserta, Persia, Georgia, Turcomania, part of Tartary, Circassia, part of Muscovy, &c. that consequently Europe, and perhaps also China, and the eastern part of Tartary, are more modern. In the new continent we shall find the Terra Magellanica, the eastern part of Brasil, the country of theAmazons, Guiana, and Canada, to be the new lands, in comparison with Peru, Terra Firma, the islands in the gulph of Mexico, Florida, the Mississippi, and Mexico.To these observations we may add two very remarkable facts, the old and new continent are almost opposite each other; the old is more extensive to the north of the equator than the south; the new is more to the south than the north. The centre of the old continent is in the 16th or 18th degree of north latitude, and the centre of the new is in the 16th or 18th degree south latitude, so that they seem to be made to counterbalance each other. There is also a singular connexion between the two continents, although it appears to be more accidental than those which I have spoken of, which is, that if the two continents were divided into two parts, all four would be surrounded by the sea, if it were not for the two small isthmuses, Suez and Panama.This is the most general idea which an attentive inspection of the globe furnishes us with, on the division of the earth. We shall abstain from forming hypotheses thereon, and hazarding reasonings which might lead into false conclusions; but no one as yet havingconsidered the division of the globe under this point of view, I shall submit a few remarks. It is very singular that the line which forms the greatest length of the terrestrial continents divides them also into two equal parts; it is no less so that these two lines commence and end at the same degrees of latitude, and are both alike inclined to the equator. These relations may belong to some general conclusions, but of which we are ignorant. The inequalities in the figure of the two continents we shall hereafter examine more fully: it is sufficient here to observe, that the most ancient countries are the nearest to these lines, and are the highest; that the more modern lands are the farthest, and also the lowest. Thus in America, the country of the Amazons, Guiana and Canada will be the most modern parts; by casting our eyes on the map of this country we see the waters on every side, and that they are divided by numberless lakes and rivers, which also indicates that these lands are of a late formation; while on the other hand Peru and Mexico are high mountains, and situate at no great distance from the line that divides the continent, which are circumstances that seem to prove their antiquity. Africa is verymountainous, and that part of the world is also very ancient. There are only Egypt, Barbary, and the western coasts of Africa, as far as Senegal, in this part of the globe, which can be looked upon as modern countries. Asia is an old land, and perhaps the most ancient of all, particularly Arabia, Persia, and Tartary; but the inequalities of this vast part of the globe, as well as those of Europe, we will consider in a separate article. It might be said in general, that Europe is a new country, and such position would be supported both by the universal traditions relative to the emigrations of different people, and the origin of arts and sciences. It is not long since it was filled with morasses, and covered with forests, whereas in the land anciently inhabited, there are but few woods, little water, no morasses, much land, and a number of mountains, whose summits are dry and barren; for men destroy the woods, drain the waters, confine rivers, dry up morasses, and in time give a different appearance to the face of the earth, from that, of uninhabited or newly-peopled countries.The ancients were acquainted with but a small part of the globe. All America, the Magellanic, and a great part of the interiorof Africa, was entirely unknown to them. They knew not that the torrid zone was inhabited, although they had navigated around Africa, for it is 2200 years since Neco, king of Egypt, gave vessels to the Phenicians, who sailed along the Red Sea, coasted round Africa, doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and having employed two years in this voyage, the third year they entered the straits of Gibraltar.[163:A]The ancients were unacquainted with the property of the loadstone, if turned towards the poles, although they knew that it attracted iron. They were ignorant of the general cause of the flux and reflux of the sea, nor were they certain the ocean surrounded the globe; some indeed suspected it might be so, but with so little foundation, that no one dared to say, or even conjecture, it was possible to make a voyage round the world. Magellan was the first who attempted it in the year 1519, and accomplished the great voyage in 1124 days. Sir Francis Drake was the second in 1577, and he performed it in 1056 days; afterwards Thomas Cavendish made this great voyage in 777 days, in the year 1586. These celebrated navigators were the first whodemonstrated physically the sphericity and the extent of the earth's circumference; for the ancients had no conception of the extent of this circumference, although they had travelled a great deal. The trade winds, so useful in long voyages, were also unknown to them; therefore we must not be surprised at the little progress they made in geography. Notwithstanding the knowledge we have acquired by the aid of mathematical sciences, and the discovery of navigators, many things remain still unsettled, and vast countries undiscovered. Almost all the land on the side of the Atlantic pole is unknown to us; we only know that there is some, and that it is separated from all the other continents by the ocean. Much land also remains to be discovered on the side of the Arctic pole, and it is to be regretted that for more than a century the ardour of discovering new countries is extremely abated. European governments seem to prefer, and possibly with reason, increasing the value of those countries we are acquainted with to the glory of conquering new ones.Nevertheless, the discovery of the southern continent would be a great object of curiosity, and might be useful. We have discovered onlysome few of its coasts; those navigators who have attempted this discovery, have always been stopt by the ice. The thick fogs, which are in those latitudes, is another obstacle; yet, in defiance of these inconveniencies, it is probable that by sailing from the Cape of Good Hope at different seasons, we might at last discover a part of these lands, which hitherto make a separate world.There is another method, which possibly might succeed better. The ice and fogs having hitherto prevented the discovery, might it not be attempted by the Pacific Sea; sailing from Baldivia, or any other port on the coast of Chili, and traversing this sea under the 50th degree south latitude? There is not the least appearance that this navigation is perilous, and it is probable would be attended with the discovery of new countries; for what remains for us to know on the coast of the southern pole, is so considerable, that we may estimate it at a fourth part of the globe, and of course may contain a continent, as large as Europe, Asia, and Africa, all together.As we are not at all acquainted with this part of the globe, we cannot justly know the proportion between the surface of the earthand that of the sea; only as much as may be judged by inspection of what is known, there is more sea than land.If we would have an idea of the enormous quantity of water which the sea contains, we must suppose a medium depth, and by computing it only at 200 fathom, or the sixth part of a league, we shall find that there is sufficient to cover the whole globe to the height of 600 feet of water, and if we would reduce this water into one mass, it would form a globe of more than 60 miles diameter.Navigators pretend, that the latitudes near the south pole are much colder than those of the north, but there is no appearance that this opinion is founded on truth, and probably has been adopted, because ice is found in latitudes where it is scarcely ever seen in the southern seas; but that may proceed from some particular cause. We find no ice in April on this side 67 and 68 degrees northern latitude: and the savages of Arcadia and Canada say, when it is not all melted in that month, it is a sign the rest of the year will be cold and rainy. In 1725 there may be said to have been no summer, it rained almost continually; and theice of the northern sea was not only not melted in April in the 67th degree, but even it was found the 15th of June towards the 41st and 42d degree[167:A].A great quantity of floating ice appears in the northern sea, especially at some distance from land. It comes from the Tartarian sea into that of Nova Zembla, and other parts of the Frozen Ocean. I have been assured by people of credit, that an English Captain, named Monson, instead of seeking a passage between the northern land to go to China, directed his course strait to the pole, and had approached it within two degrees; that in this course he had found an open sea, without any ice, which proves that the ice is formed near land, and never in open sea; for if we should suppose, against all probability, that it might be cold enough at the pole to freeze over the surface of the sea, it is still not conceivable how these enormous floating mountains of ice could be formed, if they did not find a fixed point against land, from whence afterwards they were loosened by the heat of the sun. The two vessels which the East India Company sent, in 1739, to discover land in theSouth Seas, found ice in the latitude of 47 and 48 degrees, but this ice was not far from shore, that being in sight although they were unable to land. This must have been separated from the adjoining lands of the south pole, and it may be conjectured that they follow the course of some great rivers, which water the unknown land, the same as the Oby, Jenisca, and other great floods, which fall into the North Seas, carry with them the ice, which, during the greatest part of the year, stops up the straits of Waigat, and renders the Tartarian sea unnavigable by this course; whereas beyond Nova Zembla, and nearer the poles, where there are few rivers, and but little land, ice is not so frequently met with, and the sea is more navigable; so that if they would still attempt the voyage to China and Japan by the North Seas, we should possibly, to keep clear from the land and ice, shape our course to the pole, and seek the open seas, where certainly there is but little or no ice; for it is known that salt water can, without freezing, become colder than fresh water when frozen, and consequently the excessive cold of the pole may possibly render the sea colder than the ice, without the surface being frozen: so much themore as at 80 or 82 degrees, the surface of the sea, although mixed with much snow and fresh water, is only frozen near the shore. By collecting the testimonies of travellers, on the passage from Europe to China, it appears that one does exist by the north sea; and the reason it has been so often attempted in vain is, because they have always feared to go sufficiently far from land, and approach the pole.Captain William Barents, who, as well as others, run aground in his voyage, yet did not doubt but there was a passage, and that if he had gone farther from shore, he should have found an open sea free from ice. The Russian navigators, sent by the Czar to survey the north seas, relate that Nova Zembla is not an island, but belonging to the continent of Tartary, and that to the north of it is a free and open sea. A Dutch navigator asserts, that the sea throws up whales on the coasts of Corea and Japan, which have English and Dutch harpoons on their backs. Another Dutchman has pretended to have been at the pole, and asserts it is as warm there as it is at Amsterdam in the middle of the summer. An Englishman, named Golding, who made more than thirtyvoyages to Greenland, related to King Charles II. that two Dutch vessels with which he had sailed, having found no whales on the coast of the island of Edges, resolved to proceed farther north, and that upon their return at the expiration of fifteen days, they told him that they had been as far as 89 degrees latitude (within one degree of the pole), and that they found no ice there, but an open deep sea like that of the Bay of Biscay, and that they shewed him the journals of the two vessels, as a proof of what they affirmed. In short, it is related in the Philosophical Transactions that two navigators, who had undertaken the discovery of this passage, shaped a course 300 leagues to the east of Nova Zembla, but that the East India Company, who thought it their interest this passage should not be discovered, hindered them from returning[170:A]. But the Dutch East India Company thought, on the contrary, that it was their interest to find this passage; having attempted it in vain on the side of Europe, they sought it by that of Japan, and they would probably have succeeded, if the Emperor of Japan had not forbidden all strangers from navigating on the side of the land of Jesso. This passage, therefore,cannot be found but by sailing to the pole, beyond Spitzbergen, or by keeping the open sea between Nova Zembla and Spitzbergen under the 79th degree of latitude. We need not fear to find it frozen even under the pole itself, for reasons we have alledged; in fact, there is no example of the sea being frozen at a considerable distance from the shore; the only example of a sea being frozen entirely over, is that of the Black Sea, which is narrow, contains but little salt, and receives a number of rivers from the northern countries, and which bring ice with them: and if we may credit historians, it was frozen in the time of the Emperor Copronymus, thirty cubits deep, without reckoning twenty cubits of snow above the ice. This appears to be exaggerated, but it is certain that it freezes almost every winter; whereas the open seas, a thousand leagues nearer the pole, do not freeze at all: this can only proceed from the saltness, and the little ice which they receive, in comparison with that transported into the Black Sea.This ice, which is looked upon as a barrier that opposes the navigation near the poles, and the discovery of the southern continent, proves only that there are large rivers adjacent to theplaces where it is met with; and indicates also there are vast continents from whence these rivers flow; nor ought we to be discouraged at the sight of these obstacles; for if we consider, we shall easily perceive, this ice must be confined to some particular places; that it is almost impossible that it should occupy the whole circle which encompasses, as we suppose, the southern continent, and therefore we should probably succeed if we were to direct our course towards some other point of this circle. The description which Dampier and some others have given of New Holland, leads us to suspect that this part of the globe is perhaps a part of the southern lands, and is a country less ancient than the rest of this unknown continent. New Holland is a low country, without water or mountains, but thinly inhabited, and the natives without industry; all this concurs to make us think that they are in this continent nearly what the savages of Amaconia or Paraguais are in America. We have found polished men, empires, and kings, at Peru and Mexico, which are the highest, and consequently the most ancient countries of America. Savages, on the contrary, are found in the lowest and most modern countries;therefore we may presume that we should also find men united by the bands of society in the upper countries, from whence these great rivers, which bring this prodigious ice to the sea, derive their sources.The interior parts of Africa are unknown to us, almost as much as they were to the ancients: they had, like us, made the tour of that vast peninsula, but they have left us neither charts, nor descriptions of the coasts. Pliny informs us, that the tour of Africa was made in the time of Alexander the Great, that the wrecks of some Spanish vessels had been discovered in the Arabian sea, and that Hanno, a Carthaginian general, had made a voyage from Gades to the Arabian sea, and that he had written a relation of it. Besides that, he says Cornelius Nepos tells us that in his time one Eudoxus, persecuted by the king Lathurus, was obliged to fly from his country; that departing from the Arabian gulph, he arrived at Gades, and that before this time they traded from Spain to Ethiopia by sea[173:A]. Notwithstanding these testimonies of the ancients, we are persuaded that they never doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and the course which the Portuguese took thefirst to go to the East-Indies, was looked upon as a new discovery; it will not perhaps, therefore, be deemed amiss to give the belief of the 9th century on this subject."In our time an entire new discovery has been made, which was wholly unknown to those who lived before us. No one thought, or even suspected, that the sea, which extends from India to China, had a communication with the Syrian sea. We have found, according to what I have learnt, in the sea Roum, or Mediterranean, the wreck of an Arabian vessel, shattered to pieces by the tempest, some of which were carried by the wind and waves to the Cozar sea, and from thence to the Mediterranean, and was at length thrown on the coast of Syria. This proves that the sea surrounds China and Cila, the extremity of Turqueston and the country of the Cozars; that it afterwards flows by the strait till it has washed the coast of Syria. The proof is drawn from the construction of the vessel; for no other vessels but those of Siraf are built without nails, which, as was the wreck we speak of, are joined together in a particular manner, as if they were sewed. Those, of all the vessels of the Mediterranean and of thecoast of Syria, are nailed and not joined in this manner[175:A]."To this the translator of this ancient relation adds.—"Abuziel remarks, as a new and very extraordinary thing, that a vessel was carried from the Indian sea, and cast on the coasts of Syria. To find a passage into the Mediterranean, he supposes there is a great extent above China, which has a communication with the Cozar sea, that is, with Muscovia. The sea which is below Cape Current, was entirely unknown to the Arabs, by reason of the extreme danger of the navigation, and from the continent being inhabited by such a barbarous people, that it was not easy to subject them, nor even to civilize them by commerce. From the Cape of Good Hope to Soffala, the Portuguese found no established settlement of Moors, like those in all the maritime towns as far as China, which was the farthest place known to geographers; but they could not tell whether the Chinese sea, by the extremity of Africa, had a communication with the sea of Barbary, and they contented themselveswith describing it as far as the coast of Zing, or Caffraria. This is the reason why we cannot doubt but that the first discovery of the passage of this sea, by the Cape of Good Hope, was made by the Europeans, under the conduct of Vasco de Gama, or at least some years before he doubled the Cape, if it is true there are marine charts of an older date, where the Cape is called by the name of Frontiera du Africa. Antonio Galvin testifies, from the relation of Francisco de Sousa Tavares, that, in 1528, the Infant Don Ferdinand shewed him such a chart, which he found in the monastery of Acoboca, dated 120 years before, copied perhaps from that said to be in the treasury of St. Mark, at Venice, which also marks the point of Africa, according to the testimony of Ramusio, &c."The ignorance of those ages, on the subject of the navigation around Africa, will appear perhaps less singular than the silence of the editor of this ancient relation on the subject of the passages of Herodotus, Pliny, &c. which we have quoted, and which proves the ancients had made the tour of Africa.Be it as it may, the African coasts are now well known; but whatever attempts have beenmade to penetrate into the inner parts of the country, we have not been able to attain sufficient knowledge of it to give exact relations[177:A]. It might, nevertheless, be of great advantage, if we were, by Senegal, or some other river, to get farther up the country and establish settlements, as we should find, according to all appearances, a country as rich in precious mines as Peru or the Brazils. It is perfectly known that the African rivers abound with gold, and as this country is very mountainous, and situated under the equator, it is not to be doubted but it contains, as well as America, mines of heavy metals, and of the most compact and hard stones.The vast extent of north and east Tartary has only been discovered in these latter times. If the Muscovite maps are just, we are at present acquainted with the coasts of all this part of Asia; and it appears that from the point of eastern Tartary to North America, it is notmore than four or five hundred leagues: it has even been pretended that this tract was much shorter, for in the Amsterdam Gazette, of the 24th of January, 1747, it is said, under the article of Petersburgh, that Mr. Stalleravoit had discovered one of these American islands beyond Kamschatca, and demonstrated that we might go thither from Russia by a shorter tract. The Jesuits, and other missionaries, have also pretended to have discovered savages in Tartary, whom they had catechised in America, which should in fact suppose that passage to be still shorter[178:A]. This author even pretends, that the two continents of the old and new world join by the north, and says, that the last navigations of the Japanese afford room to judge, that the tract of which we have spoken is only a bay, above which we may pass by land from Asia to America. But this requires confirmation, for hitherto it has been thought that the continent of the north pole is separated from the other continents, as well as that of the south pole.Astronomy and Navigation are carried to so high a pitch of perfection, that it may reasonablybe expected we shall soon have an exact knowledge of the whole surface of the globe. The ancients knew only a small part of it, because they had not the mariner's compass. Some people have pretended that the Arabs invented the compass, and used it a long time before we did, to trade on the Indian sea, as far as China; but this opinion has always appeared destitute of all probability; for there is no word in the Arab, Turkish, or Persian languages, which signifies the compass; they make use of the Italian word Bossola; they do not even at present know how to make a compass, nor give the magnetical quality to the needle, but purchase them from the Europeans. Father Maritini says, that the Chinese have been acquainted with the compass for upwards of 3000 years; but if that was the case, how comes it that they have made so little use of it? Why did they, in their voyages to Cochinchina, take a course much longer than was necessary? And why did they always confine themselves to the same voyages, the greatest of which were to Java and Sumatra? And why did not they discover, before the Europeans, an infinity of fertile islands, bordering on their own country, if they had possessed the art of navigatingin the open seas? For a few years after the discovery of this wonderful property of the loadstone, the Portuguese doubled the Cape of Good Hope, traversed the African and Indian seas, and Christopher Columbus made his voyage to America.By a little consideration, it was easy to divine there were immense spaces towards the west; for, by comparing the known part of the globe, as for example, the distance of Spain to China, and attending to the revolution of the Earth and Heavens, it was easy to see that there remained a much greater extent towards the west to be discovered, than what they were acquainted with towards the east. It, therefore, was not from the defect of astronomical knowledge that the ancients did not find the new world, but only for want of the compass. The passages of Plato and Aristotle, where they speak of countries far distant from the Pillars of Hercules, seem to indicate that some navigators had been driven by tempest as far as America, from whence they returned with much difficulty; and it may be conjectured, that if even the ancients had been persuaded of the existence of this continent, they would not have even thought it possible to strike outthe road, having no guide nor any knowledge of the compass.I own, that it is not impossible to traverse the high seas without a compass, and that very resolute people might have undertaken to seek after the new world by conducting themselves simply by the stars. The Astrolabe being known to the ancients, it might strike them they could leave France or Spain, and sail to the west, by keeping the polar star always to the right, and by frequent soundings might have kept nearly in the same latitude; without doubt the Carthaginians, of whom Aristotle makes mention, found the means of returning from these remote countries by keeping the polar star to the left; but it must be allowed that a like voyage would be looked upon as a rash enterprize, and that consequently we must not be astonished that the ancients had not even conceived the project.Previous to Christopher Columbus's expedition, the Azores, the Canaries, and Madeira were discovered. It was remarked, that when the west winds lasted a long time, the sea brought pieces of foreign wood on the coast of these islands, canes of unknown species,and even dead bodies, which by many marks were discovered to be neither European nor African. Columbus himself remarked, that on the side of the west certain winds blew only a few days, and which he was persuaded were land winds; but although he had all these advantages over the ancients, and the knowledge of the compass, the difficulties still to conquer were so great, that there was only the success he met with which could justify the enterprise. Suppose, for a moment, that the continent of the new world had been 1000 or 1500 miles farther than it in fact is, a thing with Columbus could neither know nor foresee, he would not have arrived there, and perhaps this great country might still have remained unknown. This conjecture is so much the better founded, as Columbus, although the most able navigator of his time, was seized with fear and astonishment in his second voyage to the new world; for as in his first, he only found some islands, he directed his course more to the south to discover a continent, and was stopt by currents, the considerable extent and direction of which always opposed his course, and obliged him to direct his search to the west; he imagined that what had hindered him fromadvancing on the southern side was not currents, but that the sea flowed by raising itself towards the heavens, and that perhaps both one and the other touched on the southern side. True it is, that in great enterprises the least unfortunate circumstance may turn a man's brain, and abate his courage.FOOTNOTES:[163:A]Vide Herodotus, lib. iv.[167:A]See the Hist. of the Acad. Ann. 1725.[170:A]See the collection of Northern Voyages, page 200.[173:A]Vide Pliny, Hist. Nat. Vol. I. lib. 2.[175:A]See the ancient relations of travels by land to China, page 53 and 54.[177:A]Since this time, however, great discoveries, have been made; Mons. Vaillant has given a particular description of the country from the Cape to the borders of Caffraria; and much information has also been acquired by the Society for Asiatic Researches.[178:A]See the Hist. of New France, by the Pere Charlevoix. Vol. III. page 30 and 31.

The surface of the Earth, like that of Jupiter, is not divided by bands alternative and parallel to the equator; on the contrary, it is divided from one pole to the other, by two bands of earth, and two of sea; the first and principal is the ancient continent, the greatest length of which is found to be in a line, beginning on the east point of the northern part of Tartary, and extending from thence to the land which borders on the gulph of Linchidolkin, where the Muscovites fish for whales; from thence to Tobolski, from Tobolski to the Caspian sea, from the Caspian sea to Mecca, and from Mecca to the western part of the country inhabited by the Galli, in Africa; afterwards to Monoemuci or Monomotapa, and at last to the Cape of Good Hope; this line, which is the greatest length of theold continent, is about 3600 leagues, Paris measure; it is only interrupted by the Caspian and Red seas, the breadths of which are not very considerable, and we must not pay any regard to these interruptions, when it is considered, the surface of the globe is divided only in four parts.

This greatest length is found by measuring the old continent diagonally; for if measured according to the meridians, we shall find that there are only 2500 leagues from the northernmost Cape of Lapland to the Cape of Good Hope; and that the Baltic and Mediterranean cause a much greater interruption than is met with in the other way. With respect to all the other distances that might be measured in the old continent under the same meridian, we shall find them to be much smaller than this; having, for example, only 1800 leagues from the most southern point of the island of Ceylon to the northernmost coast of Nova Zembla. Likewise, if we measure the continent parallel to the equator, we find that the greatest uninterrupted length is found from Trefna, on the western coast of Africa, to Ninpo, on the eastern coast of China, and that it is about 2800 leagues. Another course may be measuredfrom the point of Brittany near Brest, extending to the Chinese Tartary; about 2300 leagues. From Bergen, in Norway, to the coast of Kamschatka, is no more than 1800 leagues. All these lines have much less length than the first, therefore the greatest extent of the old continent, is, in fact, from the eastern point of Tartary to the Cape of Good Hope, that is about 3600 leagues.

There is so great an equality of surface on each side of this line, which is also the longest, that there is every probability to suppose it really divides the contents of the ancient continent; for in measuring on one side is found 2,471,092-3/4 square leagues, and on the other 2,469,687.

Agreeable to this, the old continent consists of about 4,940,780 square leagues, which is nearly one-fifth of the whole surface of the globe, and has an inclination towards the equator of about 30 degrees.

The greatest length of the new continent may be taken in a line from the mouth of the river Plata to the lake of Assiniboils. From the former it passes to the lake Caracara; from thence to Mataguais, Pocona, Zongo, Mariana, Morua, St. Fe, and Carthagena; it thenproceeds through the gulph of Mexico, Jamaica, and Cuba, passes along the peninsula of Florida, through Apolache, Chicachas, and from thence to St. Louis, Fort le Suer, and ends on the borders of lake Assiniboils; the whole extent of which is still unknown.

This line, which is interrupted only by the Mexican gulph (which must be looked upon as a mediterranean sea) may be about 2500 leagues long, and divides the new continent into nearly two equal parts, the left of which contains about 1,069,286-5/6 leagues square, and that on the right about 1,070,926-1/12; this line, which forms the middle of the band of the new continent, is inclined to the equator about 30 degrees, but in an opposite direction, for that of the old continent extends from the north-east to the south-west, and that of the new continent from the north-west to the south-east. All those lands together of the old and new continent, make about 7,080,993 leagues square, which is not near the third of the whole surface, which contains 25 millions of square leagues.

It must be remarked, that these two lines, which divide the continents into two equal parts, both terminate at the same degree ofsouthern and northern latitude, and that the two continents make opposite projections, which exactly face each other; to wit, the coasts of Africa, from the Canary islands to the coasts of Guinea, and those of America from Guiana to the mouth of Rio Janeiro.

It appears, therefore, that the most ancient land of the globe, is on the two sides of these lines, at the distance of from 2 to 250 leagues on each side. By following this idea, which is founded on the observations before related, we shall find in the old continent that the most ancient lands of Africa are those which extend from the Cape of Good Hope to the Red Sea, as far as Egypt, about 500 leagues broad, and that, consequently, all the western coasts of Africa, from Guinea to the straits of Gibraltar, are the newest lands. So likewise we shall discover that in Asia, if we follow the line on the same breadth, the most ancient lands are Arabia Felix and Deserta, Persia, Georgia, Turcomania, part of Tartary, Circassia, part of Muscovy, &c. that consequently Europe, and perhaps also China, and the eastern part of Tartary, are more modern. In the new continent we shall find the Terra Magellanica, the eastern part of Brasil, the country of theAmazons, Guiana, and Canada, to be the new lands, in comparison with Peru, Terra Firma, the islands in the gulph of Mexico, Florida, the Mississippi, and Mexico.

To these observations we may add two very remarkable facts, the old and new continent are almost opposite each other; the old is more extensive to the north of the equator than the south; the new is more to the south than the north. The centre of the old continent is in the 16th or 18th degree of north latitude, and the centre of the new is in the 16th or 18th degree south latitude, so that they seem to be made to counterbalance each other. There is also a singular connexion between the two continents, although it appears to be more accidental than those which I have spoken of, which is, that if the two continents were divided into two parts, all four would be surrounded by the sea, if it were not for the two small isthmuses, Suez and Panama.

This is the most general idea which an attentive inspection of the globe furnishes us with, on the division of the earth. We shall abstain from forming hypotheses thereon, and hazarding reasonings which might lead into false conclusions; but no one as yet havingconsidered the division of the globe under this point of view, I shall submit a few remarks. It is very singular that the line which forms the greatest length of the terrestrial continents divides them also into two equal parts; it is no less so that these two lines commence and end at the same degrees of latitude, and are both alike inclined to the equator. These relations may belong to some general conclusions, but of which we are ignorant. The inequalities in the figure of the two continents we shall hereafter examine more fully: it is sufficient here to observe, that the most ancient countries are the nearest to these lines, and are the highest; that the more modern lands are the farthest, and also the lowest. Thus in America, the country of the Amazons, Guiana and Canada will be the most modern parts; by casting our eyes on the map of this country we see the waters on every side, and that they are divided by numberless lakes and rivers, which also indicates that these lands are of a late formation; while on the other hand Peru and Mexico are high mountains, and situate at no great distance from the line that divides the continent, which are circumstances that seem to prove their antiquity. Africa is verymountainous, and that part of the world is also very ancient. There are only Egypt, Barbary, and the western coasts of Africa, as far as Senegal, in this part of the globe, which can be looked upon as modern countries. Asia is an old land, and perhaps the most ancient of all, particularly Arabia, Persia, and Tartary; but the inequalities of this vast part of the globe, as well as those of Europe, we will consider in a separate article. It might be said in general, that Europe is a new country, and such position would be supported both by the universal traditions relative to the emigrations of different people, and the origin of arts and sciences. It is not long since it was filled with morasses, and covered with forests, whereas in the land anciently inhabited, there are but few woods, little water, no morasses, much land, and a number of mountains, whose summits are dry and barren; for men destroy the woods, drain the waters, confine rivers, dry up morasses, and in time give a different appearance to the face of the earth, from that, of uninhabited or newly-peopled countries.

The ancients were acquainted with but a small part of the globe. All America, the Magellanic, and a great part of the interiorof Africa, was entirely unknown to them. They knew not that the torrid zone was inhabited, although they had navigated around Africa, for it is 2200 years since Neco, king of Egypt, gave vessels to the Phenicians, who sailed along the Red Sea, coasted round Africa, doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and having employed two years in this voyage, the third year they entered the straits of Gibraltar.[163:A]The ancients were unacquainted with the property of the loadstone, if turned towards the poles, although they knew that it attracted iron. They were ignorant of the general cause of the flux and reflux of the sea, nor were they certain the ocean surrounded the globe; some indeed suspected it might be so, but with so little foundation, that no one dared to say, or even conjecture, it was possible to make a voyage round the world. Magellan was the first who attempted it in the year 1519, and accomplished the great voyage in 1124 days. Sir Francis Drake was the second in 1577, and he performed it in 1056 days; afterwards Thomas Cavendish made this great voyage in 777 days, in the year 1586. These celebrated navigators were the first whodemonstrated physically the sphericity and the extent of the earth's circumference; for the ancients had no conception of the extent of this circumference, although they had travelled a great deal. The trade winds, so useful in long voyages, were also unknown to them; therefore we must not be surprised at the little progress they made in geography. Notwithstanding the knowledge we have acquired by the aid of mathematical sciences, and the discovery of navigators, many things remain still unsettled, and vast countries undiscovered. Almost all the land on the side of the Atlantic pole is unknown to us; we only know that there is some, and that it is separated from all the other continents by the ocean. Much land also remains to be discovered on the side of the Arctic pole, and it is to be regretted that for more than a century the ardour of discovering new countries is extremely abated. European governments seem to prefer, and possibly with reason, increasing the value of those countries we are acquainted with to the glory of conquering new ones.

Nevertheless, the discovery of the southern continent would be a great object of curiosity, and might be useful. We have discovered onlysome few of its coasts; those navigators who have attempted this discovery, have always been stopt by the ice. The thick fogs, which are in those latitudes, is another obstacle; yet, in defiance of these inconveniencies, it is probable that by sailing from the Cape of Good Hope at different seasons, we might at last discover a part of these lands, which hitherto make a separate world.

There is another method, which possibly might succeed better. The ice and fogs having hitherto prevented the discovery, might it not be attempted by the Pacific Sea; sailing from Baldivia, or any other port on the coast of Chili, and traversing this sea under the 50th degree south latitude? There is not the least appearance that this navigation is perilous, and it is probable would be attended with the discovery of new countries; for what remains for us to know on the coast of the southern pole, is so considerable, that we may estimate it at a fourth part of the globe, and of course may contain a continent, as large as Europe, Asia, and Africa, all together.

As we are not at all acquainted with this part of the globe, we cannot justly know the proportion between the surface of the earthand that of the sea; only as much as may be judged by inspection of what is known, there is more sea than land.

If we would have an idea of the enormous quantity of water which the sea contains, we must suppose a medium depth, and by computing it only at 200 fathom, or the sixth part of a league, we shall find that there is sufficient to cover the whole globe to the height of 600 feet of water, and if we would reduce this water into one mass, it would form a globe of more than 60 miles diameter.

Navigators pretend, that the latitudes near the south pole are much colder than those of the north, but there is no appearance that this opinion is founded on truth, and probably has been adopted, because ice is found in latitudes where it is scarcely ever seen in the southern seas; but that may proceed from some particular cause. We find no ice in April on this side 67 and 68 degrees northern latitude: and the savages of Arcadia and Canada say, when it is not all melted in that month, it is a sign the rest of the year will be cold and rainy. In 1725 there may be said to have been no summer, it rained almost continually; and theice of the northern sea was not only not melted in April in the 67th degree, but even it was found the 15th of June towards the 41st and 42d degree[167:A].

A great quantity of floating ice appears in the northern sea, especially at some distance from land. It comes from the Tartarian sea into that of Nova Zembla, and other parts of the Frozen Ocean. I have been assured by people of credit, that an English Captain, named Monson, instead of seeking a passage between the northern land to go to China, directed his course strait to the pole, and had approached it within two degrees; that in this course he had found an open sea, without any ice, which proves that the ice is formed near land, and never in open sea; for if we should suppose, against all probability, that it might be cold enough at the pole to freeze over the surface of the sea, it is still not conceivable how these enormous floating mountains of ice could be formed, if they did not find a fixed point against land, from whence afterwards they were loosened by the heat of the sun. The two vessels which the East India Company sent, in 1739, to discover land in theSouth Seas, found ice in the latitude of 47 and 48 degrees, but this ice was not far from shore, that being in sight although they were unable to land. This must have been separated from the adjoining lands of the south pole, and it may be conjectured that they follow the course of some great rivers, which water the unknown land, the same as the Oby, Jenisca, and other great floods, which fall into the North Seas, carry with them the ice, which, during the greatest part of the year, stops up the straits of Waigat, and renders the Tartarian sea unnavigable by this course; whereas beyond Nova Zembla, and nearer the poles, where there are few rivers, and but little land, ice is not so frequently met with, and the sea is more navigable; so that if they would still attempt the voyage to China and Japan by the North Seas, we should possibly, to keep clear from the land and ice, shape our course to the pole, and seek the open seas, where certainly there is but little or no ice; for it is known that salt water can, without freezing, become colder than fresh water when frozen, and consequently the excessive cold of the pole may possibly render the sea colder than the ice, without the surface being frozen: so much themore as at 80 or 82 degrees, the surface of the sea, although mixed with much snow and fresh water, is only frozen near the shore. By collecting the testimonies of travellers, on the passage from Europe to China, it appears that one does exist by the north sea; and the reason it has been so often attempted in vain is, because they have always feared to go sufficiently far from land, and approach the pole.

Captain William Barents, who, as well as others, run aground in his voyage, yet did not doubt but there was a passage, and that if he had gone farther from shore, he should have found an open sea free from ice. The Russian navigators, sent by the Czar to survey the north seas, relate that Nova Zembla is not an island, but belonging to the continent of Tartary, and that to the north of it is a free and open sea. A Dutch navigator asserts, that the sea throws up whales on the coasts of Corea and Japan, which have English and Dutch harpoons on their backs. Another Dutchman has pretended to have been at the pole, and asserts it is as warm there as it is at Amsterdam in the middle of the summer. An Englishman, named Golding, who made more than thirtyvoyages to Greenland, related to King Charles II. that two Dutch vessels with which he had sailed, having found no whales on the coast of the island of Edges, resolved to proceed farther north, and that upon their return at the expiration of fifteen days, they told him that they had been as far as 89 degrees latitude (within one degree of the pole), and that they found no ice there, but an open deep sea like that of the Bay of Biscay, and that they shewed him the journals of the two vessels, as a proof of what they affirmed. In short, it is related in the Philosophical Transactions that two navigators, who had undertaken the discovery of this passage, shaped a course 300 leagues to the east of Nova Zembla, but that the East India Company, who thought it their interest this passage should not be discovered, hindered them from returning[170:A]. But the Dutch East India Company thought, on the contrary, that it was their interest to find this passage; having attempted it in vain on the side of Europe, they sought it by that of Japan, and they would probably have succeeded, if the Emperor of Japan had not forbidden all strangers from navigating on the side of the land of Jesso. This passage, therefore,cannot be found but by sailing to the pole, beyond Spitzbergen, or by keeping the open sea between Nova Zembla and Spitzbergen under the 79th degree of latitude. We need not fear to find it frozen even under the pole itself, for reasons we have alledged; in fact, there is no example of the sea being frozen at a considerable distance from the shore; the only example of a sea being frozen entirely over, is that of the Black Sea, which is narrow, contains but little salt, and receives a number of rivers from the northern countries, and which bring ice with them: and if we may credit historians, it was frozen in the time of the Emperor Copronymus, thirty cubits deep, without reckoning twenty cubits of snow above the ice. This appears to be exaggerated, but it is certain that it freezes almost every winter; whereas the open seas, a thousand leagues nearer the pole, do not freeze at all: this can only proceed from the saltness, and the little ice which they receive, in comparison with that transported into the Black Sea.

This ice, which is looked upon as a barrier that opposes the navigation near the poles, and the discovery of the southern continent, proves only that there are large rivers adjacent to theplaces where it is met with; and indicates also there are vast continents from whence these rivers flow; nor ought we to be discouraged at the sight of these obstacles; for if we consider, we shall easily perceive, this ice must be confined to some particular places; that it is almost impossible that it should occupy the whole circle which encompasses, as we suppose, the southern continent, and therefore we should probably succeed if we were to direct our course towards some other point of this circle. The description which Dampier and some others have given of New Holland, leads us to suspect that this part of the globe is perhaps a part of the southern lands, and is a country less ancient than the rest of this unknown continent. New Holland is a low country, without water or mountains, but thinly inhabited, and the natives without industry; all this concurs to make us think that they are in this continent nearly what the savages of Amaconia or Paraguais are in America. We have found polished men, empires, and kings, at Peru and Mexico, which are the highest, and consequently the most ancient countries of America. Savages, on the contrary, are found in the lowest and most modern countries;therefore we may presume that we should also find men united by the bands of society in the upper countries, from whence these great rivers, which bring this prodigious ice to the sea, derive their sources.

The interior parts of Africa are unknown to us, almost as much as they were to the ancients: they had, like us, made the tour of that vast peninsula, but they have left us neither charts, nor descriptions of the coasts. Pliny informs us, that the tour of Africa was made in the time of Alexander the Great, that the wrecks of some Spanish vessels had been discovered in the Arabian sea, and that Hanno, a Carthaginian general, had made a voyage from Gades to the Arabian sea, and that he had written a relation of it. Besides that, he says Cornelius Nepos tells us that in his time one Eudoxus, persecuted by the king Lathurus, was obliged to fly from his country; that departing from the Arabian gulph, he arrived at Gades, and that before this time they traded from Spain to Ethiopia by sea[173:A]. Notwithstanding these testimonies of the ancients, we are persuaded that they never doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and the course which the Portuguese took thefirst to go to the East-Indies, was looked upon as a new discovery; it will not perhaps, therefore, be deemed amiss to give the belief of the 9th century on this subject.

"In our time an entire new discovery has been made, which was wholly unknown to those who lived before us. No one thought, or even suspected, that the sea, which extends from India to China, had a communication with the Syrian sea. We have found, according to what I have learnt, in the sea Roum, or Mediterranean, the wreck of an Arabian vessel, shattered to pieces by the tempest, some of which were carried by the wind and waves to the Cozar sea, and from thence to the Mediterranean, and was at length thrown on the coast of Syria. This proves that the sea surrounds China and Cila, the extremity of Turqueston and the country of the Cozars; that it afterwards flows by the strait till it has washed the coast of Syria. The proof is drawn from the construction of the vessel; for no other vessels but those of Siraf are built without nails, which, as was the wreck we speak of, are joined together in a particular manner, as if they were sewed. Those, of all the vessels of the Mediterranean and of thecoast of Syria, are nailed and not joined in this manner[175:A]."

To this the translator of this ancient relation adds.—

"Abuziel remarks, as a new and very extraordinary thing, that a vessel was carried from the Indian sea, and cast on the coasts of Syria. To find a passage into the Mediterranean, he supposes there is a great extent above China, which has a communication with the Cozar sea, that is, with Muscovia. The sea which is below Cape Current, was entirely unknown to the Arabs, by reason of the extreme danger of the navigation, and from the continent being inhabited by such a barbarous people, that it was not easy to subject them, nor even to civilize them by commerce. From the Cape of Good Hope to Soffala, the Portuguese found no established settlement of Moors, like those in all the maritime towns as far as China, which was the farthest place known to geographers; but they could not tell whether the Chinese sea, by the extremity of Africa, had a communication with the sea of Barbary, and they contented themselveswith describing it as far as the coast of Zing, or Caffraria. This is the reason why we cannot doubt but that the first discovery of the passage of this sea, by the Cape of Good Hope, was made by the Europeans, under the conduct of Vasco de Gama, or at least some years before he doubled the Cape, if it is true there are marine charts of an older date, where the Cape is called by the name of Frontiera du Africa. Antonio Galvin testifies, from the relation of Francisco de Sousa Tavares, that, in 1528, the Infant Don Ferdinand shewed him such a chart, which he found in the monastery of Acoboca, dated 120 years before, copied perhaps from that said to be in the treasury of St. Mark, at Venice, which also marks the point of Africa, according to the testimony of Ramusio, &c."

The ignorance of those ages, on the subject of the navigation around Africa, will appear perhaps less singular than the silence of the editor of this ancient relation on the subject of the passages of Herodotus, Pliny, &c. which we have quoted, and which proves the ancients had made the tour of Africa.

Be it as it may, the African coasts are now well known; but whatever attempts have beenmade to penetrate into the inner parts of the country, we have not been able to attain sufficient knowledge of it to give exact relations[177:A]. It might, nevertheless, be of great advantage, if we were, by Senegal, or some other river, to get farther up the country and establish settlements, as we should find, according to all appearances, a country as rich in precious mines as Peru or the Brazils. It is perfectly known that the African rivers abound with gold, and as this country is very mountainous, and situated under the equator, it is not to be doubted but it contains, as well as America, mines of heavy metals, and of the most compact and hard stones.

The vast extent of north and east Tartary has only been discovered in these latter times. If the Muscovite maps are just, we are at present acquainted with the coasts of all this part of Asia; and it appears that from the point of eastern Tartary to North America, it is notmore than four or five hundred leagues: it has even been pretended that this tract was much shorter, for in the Amsterdam Gazette, of the 24th of January, 1747, it is said, under the article of Petersburgh, that Mr. Stalleravoit had discovered one of these American islands beyond Kamschatca, and demonstrated that we might go thither from Russia by a shorter tract. The Jesuits, and other missionaries, have also pretended to have discovered savages in Tartary, whom they had catechised in America, which should in fact suppose that passage to be still shorter[178:A]. This author even pretends, that the two continents of the old and new world join by the north, and says, that the last navigations of the Japanese afford room to judge, that the tract of which we have spoken is only a bay, above which we may pass by land from Asia to America. But this requires confirmation, for hitherto it has been thought that the continent of the north pole is separated from the other continents, as well as that of the south pole.

Astronomy and Navigation are carried to so high a pitch of perfection, that it may reasonablybe expected we shall soon have an exact knowledge of the whole surface of the globe. The ancients knew only a small part of it, because they had not the mariner's compass. Some people have pretended that the Arabs invented the compass, and used it a long time before we did, to trade on the Indian sea, as far as China; but this opinion has always appeared destitute of all probability; for there is no word in the Arab, Turkish, or Persian languages, which signifies the compass; they make use of the Italian word Bossola; they do not even at present know how to make a compass, nor give the magnetical quality to the needle, but purchase them from the Europeans. Father Maritini says, that the Chinese have been acquainted with the compass for upwards of 3000 years; but if that was the case, how comes it that they have made so little use of it? Why did they, in their voyages to Cochinchina, take a course much longer than was necessary? And why did they always confine themselves to the same voyages, the greatest of which were to Java and Sumatra? And why did not they discover, before the Europeans, an infinity of fertile islands, bordering on their own country, if they had possessed the art of navigatingin the open seas? For a few years after the discovery of this wonderful property of the loadstone, the Portuguese doubled the Cape of Good Hope, traversed the African and Indian seas, and Christopher Columbus made his voyage to America.

By a little consideration, it was easy to divine there were immense spaces towards the west; for, by comparing the known part of the globe, as for example, the distance of Spain to China, and attending to the revolution of the Earth and Heavens, it was easy to see that there remained a much greater extent towards the west to be discovered, than what they were acquainted with towards the east. It, therefore, was not from the defect of astronomical knowledge that the ancients did not find the new world, but only for want of the compass. The passages of Plato and Aristotle, where they speak of countries far distant from the Pillars of Hercules, seem to indicate that some navigators had been driven by tempest as far as America, from whence they returned with much difficulty; and it may be conjectured, that if even the ancients had been persuaded of the existence of this continent, they would not have even thought it possible to strike outthe road, having no guide nor any knowledge of the compass.

I own, that it is not impossible to traverse the high seas without a compass, and that very resolute people might have undertaken to seek after the new world by conducting themselves simply by the stars. The Astrolabe being known to the ancients, it might strike them they could leave France or Spain, and sail to the west, by keeping the polar star always to the right, and by frequent soundings might have kept nearly in the same latitude; without doubt the Carthaginians, of whom Aristotle makes mention, found the means of returning from these remote countries by keeping the polar star to the left; but it must be allowed that a like voyage would be looked upon as a rash enterprize, and that consequently we must not be astonished that the ancients had not even conceived the project.

Previous to Christopher Columbus's expedition, the Azores, the Canaries, and Madeira were discovered. It was remarked, that when the west winds lasted a long time, the sea brought pieces of foreign wood on the coast of these islands, canes of unknown species,and even dead bodies, which by many marks were discovered to be neither European nor African. Columbus himself remarked, that on the side of the west certain winds blew only a few days, and which he was persuaded were land winds; but although he had all these advantages over the ancients, and the knowledge of the compass, the difficulties still to conquer were so great, that there was only the success he met with which could justify the enterprise. Suppose, for a moment, that the continent of the new world had been 1000 or 1500 miles farther than it in fact is, a thing with Columbus could neither know nor foresee, he would not have arrived there, and perhaps this great country might still have remained unknown. This conjecture is so much the better founded, as Columbus, although the most able navigator of his time, was seized with fear and astonishment in his second voyage to the new world; for as in his first, he only found some islands, he directed his course more to the south to discover a continent, and was stopt by currents, the considerable extent and direction of which always opposed his course, and obliged him to direct his search to the west; he imagined that what had hindered him fromadvancing on the southern side was not currents, but that the sea flowed by raising itself towards the heavens, and that perhaps both one and the other touched on the southern side. True it is, that in great enterprises the least unfortunate circumstance may turn a man's brain, and abate his courage.

FOOTNOTES:[163:A]Vide Herodotus, lib. iv.[167:A]See the Hist. of the Acad. Ann. 1725.[170:A]See the collection of Northern Voyages, page 200.[173:A]Vide Pliny, Hist. Nat. Vol. I. lib. 2.[175:A]See the ancient relations of travels by land to China, page 53 and 54.[177:A]Since this time, however, great discoveries, have been made; Mons. Vaillant has given a particular description of the country from the Cape to the borders of Caffraria; and much information has also been acquired by the Society for Asiatic Researches.[178:A]See the Hist. of New France, by the Pere Charlevoix. Vol. III. page 30 and 31.

FOOTNOTES:

[163:A]Vide Herodotus, lib. iv.

[167:A]See the Hist. of the Acad. Ann. 1725.

[170:A]See the collection of Northern Voyages, page 200.

[173:A]Vide Pliny, Hist. Nat. Vol. I. lib. 2.

[175:A]See the ancient relations of travels by land to China, page 53 and 54.

[177:A]Since this time, however, great discoveries, have been made; Mons. Vaillant has given a particular description of the country from the Cape to the borders of Caffraria; and much information has also been acquired by the Society for Asiatic Researches.

[178:A]See the Hist. of New France, by the Pere Charlevoix. Vol. III. page 30 and 31.

ARTICLE VII.ON THE PRODUCTION OF THE STRATA, OR BEDS OF EARTH.We have shewn, in the first article, that by virtue of the mutual attraction between the parts of matter, and of the centrifugal force, which results from its diurnal rotation, the earth has necessarily taken the form of a spheroid, the diameters of which differ about a230th part, and that it could only proceed from the changes on the surface, caused by the motion of the air and water, that this difference could become greater, as is pretended to be the case from the measures taken under the equator, and within the polar circle. This figure of the earth, which so well agrees with hydrostatical laws, and with our theory, supposes the globe to have been in a state of liquefaction when it assumed its form, and we have proved that the motions of projection and rotation were imprinted at the same time by a like impulsion. We shall the more easily believe that the earth has been in a state of liquefaction produced by fire, when we consider the nature of the matters which the globe incloses, the greatest part of which are vitrified or vitrifiable; especially when we reflect on the impossibility there is that the earth should ever have been in a state of fluidity, produced by the waters; since there is infinitely more earth than water, and that water has not the power of dissolving stone, sand, and other matters of which the earth is composed.It is plain then that the earth took its figure at the time when it was liquefied by fire: by pursuing our hypothesis it appears, that whenthe sun quitted it, the earth had no other form than that of a torrent of melted and inflamed vapour matter; that this torrent collected itself by the mutual attraction of its parts, and became a globe, to which the rotative motion gave the figure of a spheroid; and when the earth was cooled, the vapours, which were first extended like the tails of comets, by degrees condensed and fell upon the surface, depositing, at the same time, a slimy substance mixed with sulphurous and saline matters, a part of which, by the motion of the waters, was swept into the perpendicular cracks, where it produced metals, while the rest remained on the surface, and produced that reddish earth which forms the first strata; and which, according to different places, is more or less blended with animal and vegetable particles, so reduced that the organization is no longer perceptible.Therefore, in the first state of the earth, the globe was internally composed of vitrified matter, as I believe it is at present, above which were placed those bodies the fire had most divided, as sand, which are only fragments of glass; and above these, pumice stones and the scoria of the vitrified matter, which formed the various clays; the whole was covered withwater 5 or 600 feet deep, produced by the condensation of the vapours, when the globe began to cool. This water every where deposited a muddy bed, mixed with waters which sublime and exhale by the fire; and the air was formed of the most subtile vapours, which, by their lightness, disengaged themselves from the waters, and surmounted them.Such was the state of the globe when the action of the tides, the winds, and the heat of the sun, began to change the surface of the earth. The diurnal motion, and the flux and reflux, at first raised the waters under the southern climate, which carried with them mud, clay, and sand, and by raising the parts of the equator, they by degrees perhaps lowered those of the poles about two leagues, as we before mentioned; for the waters soon reduced into powder the pumice stones and other spongeous parts of the vitrified matter that were at the surface, they hollowed some places, and raised others, which in course of time became continents, and produced all the inequalities, and which are more considerable towards the equator than the poles; for the highest mountains are between the tropics and the middle of the temperate zones, and the lowestare from the polar circle to the poles; between the tropics are the Cordeliers, and almost all the mountains of Mexico and Brazil, the great and little Atlas, the Moon, &c. Beside the land which is between the tropics, from the superior number of islands found in those parts, is the most unequal of all the globe, as evidently is the sea.However independent my theory may be of that hypothesis of what passed at the time of the first state of the globe, I refer to it in this article, in order to shew the connection and possibility of the system which I endeavoured to maintain in the first article. It must only be remarked, that my theory does not stray far from it, as I take the earth in a state nearly similar to what it appears at present, and as I do not make use of any of the suppositions which are used on reasoning on the past state of the terrestrial globe. But as I here present a new idea on the subject of the sediment deposited by the water, which, in my opinion, has perforated the upper bed of earth, it appears to me also necessary to give the reason on which I found this opinion.The vapours which rise in the air produce rain, dew, aerial fires, thunder, and othermeteors. These vapours are therefore blended with aqueous, aerial, sulphurous and terrestrial particles, &c. and it is the solid and earthy particles which form the mud or slime we are now speaking of. When rain water is suffered to rest, a sediment is formed at bottom; and having collected a quantity, if it is suffered to stand and corrupt, it produces a kind of mud which falls to the bottom of the vessel. Dew produces much more of this mud than rain water, which is greasy, unctuous, and of a reddish colour.The first strata of the earth is composed of this mud, mixed with perished vegetable or animal parts, or rather stony and sandy particles. We may remark that almost all land proper for cultivation is reddish, and more or less mixed with these different matters; the particles of sand or stone found there are of two kinds, the one coarse and heavy, the other fine and sometimes impalpable. The largest comes from the lower strata loosened in cultivating the earth, or rather the upper mould, by penetrating into the lower, which is of sand and other divided matters, and forms those earths we call fat and fertile. The finer sort proceeds from the air, and falls with dew and rain, and mixes intimately with the soil. This is properlythe residue of the powder, which the wind continually raises from the surface of the earth, and which falls again after having imbibed the humidity of the air. When the earth predominates, and the stony and sandy parts are but few, the earth is then reddish and fertile: if it is mixed with a considerable quantity of perished animal or vegetable substances, it is blackish, and often more fertile than the first; but if the mould is only in a small quantity, as well as the animal or vegetable parts, the earth is white and sterile, and when the sandy, stony, or cretaceous parts which compose these sterile lands, are mixed with a sufficient quantity of perished animal or vegetable substances, they form the black and lighter earths, but have little fertility; so that according to the different combinations of these three different matters, the land is more or less fecund and differently coloured.To fix some ideas relative to these stratas; let us take, for example, the earth of Marly-la-ville, where the pits are very deep: it is a high country, but flat and fertile, and its strata lie arranged horizontally. I had samples brought me of all these strata which M. Dalibard, an able botanist, versed in different sciences, haddug under his inspection; and after having proved the matters of which they consisted in aquafortis, I formed the following table of them.The state of the different beds of earth, found at Marly-la-ville, to the depth of 100 feet.Feet.In.1. A free reddish earth, mixed with much mud, a very small quantity of vitrifiable sand, and somewhat more of calcinable sand1302. A free earth mixed with gravel, and a little more vitrifiable sand263. Mud mixed with vitrifiable sand in a great quantity, and which made but very little effervescence with aquafortis304. Hard marl, which made a very great effervescence with aquafortis205. Pretty hard marl stone406. Marl in powder, mixed with vitrifiable sand507. Very fine vitrified sand168. Marl very like earth mixed with a very little vitrifiable sand369. Hard marl, in which was real flint3610. Gravel, or powdered marl1011. Eglantine, a stone of the grain and hardness of marble, and sonorous1612. Marly gravel1613. Marl in hard stone, whose grain was very fine1614. Marl in stone, whose grain was not so fine1615. More grained and thicker marl2616. Very fine vitrifiable sand, mixed with fossil sea-shells, which had no adherence with the sand, and whose colours were perfect1617. Very small gravel, or fine marl powder2018. Marl in hard stone3619. Very coarse powdered marl1620. Hard and calcinable stone, like marble1021. Grey vitrifiable sand mixed with fossil shells, particularly oysters and muscles which have no adherencewith the sand, and which were not petrified3022. White vitrifiable sand mixed with similar shells2023. Sand streaked red and white, vitrifiable and mixed with the like shells1024. Larger sand, but still vitrifiable and mixed with the like shells1025. Fine and vitrifiable grey sand mixed with the like shells8626. Very fine fat sand, with only a few shells3027. Brown free stone3028. Vitrifiable sand, streaked red and white4029. White vitrifiable sand3630. Reddish vitrifiable sand150————Total depth1010————I have before said that I tried all these matters in aquafortis, because where the inspection and comparison of matters with others that we are acquainted with is not sufficient to permitus to denominate and range them in the class which they belong, there is no means more ready, nor perhaps more sure, than to try by aquafortis the terrestrial or lapidific matter: those which acid spirits dissolve immediately with heat and ebullition, are generally calcinable, and those on which they make no impression are vitrifiable.By this enumeration we perceive, that the soil of Marly-la-ville was formerly the bottom of the sea, which has been raised above 75 feet, since we find shells at that depth below the surface. Those shells have been transported by the motion of the water, at the same time as the sand in which they are met with, and the whole of the upper strata, even to the first, have been transported after the same manner by the motion of the water, and deposited in form of a sediment; which we cannot doubt, as well by reason of their horizontal position, as of the different beds of sand mixed with shells and marl, the last of which are only the fragments of the shells. The last stratum itself has been formed almost entirely by the mould we have spoken of, mixed with a small part of the marl which was at the surface.I have chosen this example, as the most disadvantageous to my theory, because it at first appears very difficult to conceive that the dust of the air, rain and dew, could produce strata of free earth thirteen feet thick; but it ought to be observed, that it is very rare to find, especially in high lands, so considerable a thickness of cultivateable earth; it is generally about three or four feet, and often not more than one. In plains surrounded with hills, this thickness of good earth is the greatest, because the rain loosens the earth of the hills, and carries it into the vallies; but without supposing any thing of that kind, I find that the last strata formed by the waters are thick beds of marl. It is natural to imagine that the upper stratum had, at the beginning, a still greater thickness, besides the thirteen feet of marl, when the sea quitted the land and left it naked. This marl, exposed to the air, melted with the rain; the action of the air and heat of the sun produced flaws, and reduced it into powder on the surface; the sea would not quit this land precipitately, but sometimes cover it, either by the alternative motion of the tides, or by the extraordinary elevation of the waters in foul weather, when it mixed with this bed of marl,mud, clay, and other matters. When the land was raised above the waters, plants would begin to grow, and it was then that the dust in the rain or dew by degrees added to its substance and gave it a reddish colour; this thickness and fertility was soon augmented by culture; by digging and dividing its surface, and thus giving to the dust, in the dew or rain, the facility of more deeply penetrating it, which at last produced that bed of free earth thirteen feet thick.I shall not here examine whether the reddish colour of vegetable earth proceeds from the iron which is contained in the earths that are deposited by the rains and dews, but being of importance, shall take notice of it when we come to treat of minerals; it is sufficient to have explained our conception of the formation of the superficial strata of the earth, and by other examples we shall prove, that the formation of the interior strata, can only be the work of the waters.The surface of the globe, says Woodward, this external stratum on which men and animals walk, which serves as a magazine for the formation of vegetables and animals, is, for the greatest part, composed of vegetable or animalmatter, and is in continual motion and variation. All animals and vegetables which have existed from the creation of the world, have successively extracted from this stratum the matter which composes it, and have, after their deaths, restored to it this borrowed matter: it remains there always ready to be retaken, and to serve for the formation of other bodies of the same species successively, for the matter which composes one body is proper and natural to form another body of the same kind. In uninhabited countries, where the woods are never cut, where animals do not brouze on the plants, this stratum of vegetable earth increases considerably. In all woods, even in those which are sometimes cut, there is a bed of mould, of six or eight inches thick, formed entirely by the leaves, small branches, and barks which have perished. I have often observed on the ancient Roman way, which crosses Burgundy in a long extent of soil, that there is formed a bed of black earth more than a foot thick upon the stones, which nourishes very high trees; and this stratum could be composed only of a black mould formed by the leaves, bark, and perished wood. As vegetables inhale for their nutriment much morefrom the air and water than the earth, it happens that when they perish, they return to the earth more than they have taken from it. Besides, forests collect the rain water, and by stopping the vapours increase their moisture; so in a wood which is preserved a long time, the stratum of earth which serves for vegetation increases considerably. But animals restoring less to the earth than they take from it, and men making enormous consumption of wood and plants for fire, and other uses, it follows that the vegetable soil of inhabited countries must diminish, and become, in time, like the soil of Arabia Petrea, and other eastern provinces, which, in fact, are the most ancient inhabited countries, where only sand and salt are now to be met with; for the fixed salts of plants and animals remain, whereas all the other parts volatilise, and are transported by the air.Let us now examine the position and formation of the interior strata: the earth, says Woodward, appears in places that have been dug, composed of strata placed one on the other, as so many sediments which necessarily fell to the bottom of the water; the deepest strata are generally the thickest, and those above the thinnest, and so gradually lessening tothe surface. We find sea shells, teeth, and bones of fish in these different beds, and not only in those that are soft, as chalk and clay, but even in those of hard stone, marble, &c. These marine productions are incorporated with the stone, and when separated from them, leave the impressions of the shells with the greatest exactness. "I have been most clearly and positively assured," says this author, "that in France, Flanders, Holland, Spain, Italy, Germany, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, stone, and other terrestrial substances are disposed in strata, precisely the same as they are in England; that these strata are divided by parallel fissures; that there are inclosed within stones and other terrestrial and compact substances, a great quantity of shells and other productions of the sea, disposed in the same manner as in this island. I am also informed that these strata are found the same in Barbary, Egypt, Guinea, and in other parts of Africa; in Arabia, Syria, Persia, Malabar, China, and the rest of the provinces of Asia; in Jamaica, Barbadoes, Virginia, New-England, Brazil, and other parts of America[198:A]."This author does not say how he learnt, or by whom he was told, that the strata of Peru contained shells; yet as in general his observations are exact, I do not doubt but he was well informed; and am persuaded that shells may be found in the earth of Peru, as well as elsewhere. This remark is made from a doubt having been formed some time since on the subject, and which I shall hereafter consider.In a trench made at Amsterdam, to the depth of 230 feet, the strata were found as follows: 7 feet of vegetable earth, 9 of turf, 9 of soft clay, 8 of sand, 4 of earth, 10 of clay, 4 of earth, 10 of sand, then 2 feet of clay, 4 of white sand, 5 of dry earth, 1 of soft earth, 14 of sand, 8 of argil, mixed with earth; 4 of sand, mixed with shells; then clay 102 feet thick, and at last 31 feet of sand, at which depth they ceased digging[199:A].It is very singular to dig so deep without meeting with water: and this circumstance is remarkable in many particulars. 1. It shews, that the water of the sea does not communicate with the interior part of the earth, by means of filtration. 2. That shells are found at the depth of 100 feet below the surface, and thatconsequently the soil of Holland has been raised 100 feet by the sediment of the sea. 3. We may draw an induction, that this strata of thick clay of 102 feet, and the bed of sand below it, in which they dug to 31 feet, and whose entire thickness is unknown, are perhaps not very far distant from the first strata of the original earth, such as it was before the motion of the water had changed its surface. We have said in the first article, that if we desired to find the ancient earth, we should dig in the northern countries, rather than towards the south; in plains rather than in mountainous regions. The circumstances in this instance, appear to be nearly so, only it is to be wished they had continued the digging to a greater depth, and that the author had informed us, whether there were not shells and other marine productions, in the last bed of clay, and in that of sand below it. The experiment confirms what we have already said; and the more we dig, the greater thickness we shall find the strata.The earth is composed of parallel and horizontal beds, not only in plains, but hills and mountains are in general composed after the same manner: it may be said, that the strata in hills and mountains are more apparent therethan in the plains, because the plains are generally covered with a very considerable quantity of sand and earth, which the water has brought from the higher grounds, and therefore, to find the ancient strata, must dig deeper in the plains than in the mountains.I have often observed, that when a mountain is level at its summit, the strata which compose it are also level; but if the summit is not placed horizontally, the strata inclines also in the same direction. I have heard that, in general, the beds of quarries inclined a little to the east; but having myself observed all the chains of rocks which offered, I discovered this opinion to be erroneous, and that the strata inclines to the same side as the hill, whether it be east, west, north, or south. When we dig stone and marble from the quarry, we take great care to separate them according to their natural position, and we cannot even get them of a large size, if we cut them in any other direction. Where they are made use of for good masonry, the workmen are particular in placing them as they stood in the quarry, for if they were placed in any other direction, they would split, and would not resist the weight with which they are loaded. This perfectlyconfirms that stones, are found in parallel and horizontal strata, which have been successively heaped one on the other, and that these strata composed masses where resistance is greater in that direction than in any other.Every strata, whether horizontal or inclined, has an equal thickness throughout its whole extent. In the quarries about Paris the bed of good stone is not thick, scarcely more than 18 or 20 feet: in those of Burgundy the stone is much thicker. It is the same with marble; the black and white marble have a thicker bed than the coloured; and I know beds of very hard stone, which the farmers in Burgundy make use of to cover their houses, that are not above an inch thick. The different strata vary much in thickness, but each bed preserves the same thickness throughout its extent. The thickness of strata is so greatly varied, that it is found from less than a line to 1, 10, 20, 30, or 100 feet thick. The ancient and modern quarries, which are horizontally dug, the perpendicular and other divisions of mines, prove that there are extensive strata in all directions. "It is thoroughly proved," says the historian of the academy, "that all stones have formerly been a soft paste, and as there arequarries almost in every part, the surface of the earth has therefore consisted, in all these places, of mud and slime, at least to certain depths. The shells found in most quarries prove that this mud was an earth diluted by the water of the sea, and consequently that the sea covered all these places; and it could not cover them without also covering all that was level with or lower than it: and it is plain that it could not cover every place where there were quarries, without covering the whole face of the terrestrial globe. We do not here consider the mountains which the sea must also at one time have covered, since quarries and shells are often found in them."The sea," continues he, "therefore, covered the whole earth, and from thence it proceeds that all the beds of stone in the plains are horizontal and parallel; fish must have also been the most ancient inhabitants of the globe, as there was no sustenance for either birds or terrestrial animals." But how did the sea retire into these vast basins which it at present occupies? What presents itself the most natural to the mind is, that the earth, at least at a certain depth, was not entirely solid, but intermixed with some great vacuums, whosevaults were supported for a time, but at length, sunk in suddenly: then the waters must have fallen into these vacancies, filled them, and left naked a part of the earth's surface, which became an agreeable abode to terrestrial animals and birds. The shells found in quarries perfectly agree with this idea, for only the bony parts of fish could be preserved till now. In general, shells are heaped up in great abundance in certain parts of the sea, where they are immovable, and form a kind of rock, and could not follow the water, which suddenly forsook them: this is the reason that we find more shells than bones of the fish, and this even proves a sudden fall of the sea into its present basins. At the same time as our supposed vaults gave way, it is very possible that other parts of the globe were raised by the same cause, and that mountains were placed on this surface with quarries already formed, but the beds of these quarries could not preserve the horizontal direction they before had, unless the mountains were raised precisely perpendicular to the surface of the earth, which could happen but very seldom: so also, as we have already observed, in 1705, the beds of stone in mountains are always inclined to the horizon, thoughparallel with each other; for they have not changed their position with respect to each other, but only with respect to the surface of the earth[205:A].These parallel strata, these beds of earth and stone, which have been formed by the sediment of the sea, often extend to considerable distances, and we often find in hills, separated by a valley, the same beds and the same matters at the same level. This observation agrees perfectly with that of the height of the opposite hills. We may easily be assured of the truth of these facts, for in all narrow vallies, where rocks are discovered, we shall find the same beds of stone and marble on both sides at the same height. In a country where I frequently reside, I found a quarry of marble which extended more than 12 leagues in length, and whose breadth was very considerable, although I have never been able precisely to determine it. I have often observed that this bed of marble is throughout of the same thickness, and in hills divided from this quarry by a valley of 100 feet depth, and a quarter of a mile in breadth, I found the same bed of marble at the same height. I am persuadedit is the same in every stone and marble quarry where shells are found; but this observation does not hold good in quarries of freestone. In the course of this work, we shall give reasons for this difference, and describe why freestone is not dispersed, like other matters, in horizontal beds, and why it is in irregular blocks, both in form and position.We have likewise observed that the strata are the same on both sides the straits of the sea. This observation, which is important, may lead us to discover the lands and islands which have been separated from the continent; it proves, for example, that England has been divided from France; Spain from Africa; Sicily from Italy; and it is to be wished that the same observation had been made in all the straits. I am persuaded that we should find it almost every where true. We do not know whether the same beds of stone are found at the same height on both sides the straits of Magellan, which is the longest; but we see, by the particular maps and exact charts, that the two high coasts which confine it, form nearly, like the mountains of the earth, correspondent angles, which also proves that the Terra del Fuega, must be regarded as part of the continent ofAmerica; it is the same with Forbisher's Strait and the island of Friesland, which appear to have been divided from the continent of Greenland.The Maldivian islands are only separated by small tracts of the sea, on each side of which banks and rocks are found composed of the same materials; and these islands, which, taken together, are near 200 miles long, formed anciently only one land; they are now divided into 13 provinces, called Clusters. Each cluster contains a great number of small islands, most of which are sometimes overflowed and sometimes dry; but what is remarkable, these thirteen clusters are each surrounded with a chain of rocks of the same stone, and there are only three or four dangerous inlets by which they can be entered. They are all placed one after the other, and it evidently appears that these islands were formerly a long mountain capped with rocks[216:A].Many authors, as Verstegan, Twine, Somner, and especially Campbell, in his Description of England, in the chapter of Kent, gives very strong reasons, to prove that England was formerly joined to France, and has been separated from it by an effort of the sea, whichcarried away the neck of land that joined them, opened the channel, and left naked a great quantity of low and marshy ground along the southern coasts of England. Dr. Wallis, as a corroboration of this supposition, shews the conformity of the ancient Gallic and British tongues, and adds many observations, which we shall relate in the following articles.If we consider the form of lands, the position of mountains, and the windings of rivers, we shall perceive that generally opposite hills are not only composed of the same matters on the same level, but are nearly of an equal height. This equality I have observed in my travels, and have mostly found them the same on the two sides, especially in vallies that were not more than a quarter or a third of a league broad, for in vallies which are very broad, it is difficult to judge of the height and equality of hills, because, by looking over a level plain of any great extent, it appears to rise, and hills at a distance appear to lower; but this is not the place to give a mathematical reason for this difference. It is also very difficult to judge by the naked sight of the middle of a great valley, at least if there is no river in it; whereas in confined vallies our sight is less equivocal and our judgmentmore certain. That part of Burgundy comprehended between Auxerre, Dijon, Autun, and Bar-sur-seine, a considerable extent of which is calledla Bailliage de la Montagne, is one of the highest parts of France; from one side of most of these mountains, which are only of the second class, the water flows towards the Ocean, and on the other side towards the Mediterranean. This high country is divided with many small vallies, very confined, and almost all watered with rivulets. I have a thousand times observed the correspondence of the angles of these hills and their equality of height, and I am certain that I have every where found the saliant angles opposite to the returning angles, and the heights nearly equal on both sides. The farther we advance into the higher country, where the points of division are, the higher are the mountains; but this height is always the same on both sides of the vallies, and the hills are raised or lowered alike. I have frequently made the like observations in many other parts of France. It is this equality in the height of the hills which forms the plains in the mountains, and these plains form lands higher than others. But high mountains do not appear so equal in height, most of them terminate inpoints and irregular peaks; and I have seen, in crossing the Alps, and the Apennine mountains, that the angles are, in fact, correspondent; but it is almost impossible to judge by the eye of the equality or inequality in the height of opposite mountains, because their summits are lost in mists and clouds.The different strata of which the earth is composed are not disposed according to their specific weight, for we often find strata of heavy matters placed on those of lighter. To be assured of this, we have only to examine the earth on which rocks are placed, and we shall find that it is generally clay or sand, which is specifically lighter. In hills, and other small elevations, we easily discover this to be the case; but it is not so with large mountains, for not only their summits are rocks, but those rocks are placed on others; there mountains are placed upon mountains, and rocks upon rocks, to such a considerable height, and through so great an extent of country, that we can scarcely be certain whether there is earth at bottom, or of what nature it is. I have seen cavities made in rocks to some hundred feet deep, without being able to form an idea where they ended, for these rocks were supported by others;nevertheless, may we not compare great with small? and since the rocks of little mountains, whose bases are to be seen, rest on the earth less heavy and solid than stone, may we not suppose that earth is also the base of high mountains? All that I have here to prove by these arguments is, that, by the motion of the waters, it may naturally happen that the more ponderous matters accumulated on the lighter; and that, if this in fact is found to be so in most hills, it is probable that it happened as explained by my theory; but should it be objected that I am not grounded in supposing, that before the formation of mountains the heaviest matters were below the lighter; I answer, that I assert nothing general in this respect, because this effect may have been produced in many manners, whether the heaviest matters were uppermost or undermost, or placed indiscriminately. To conceive how the sea at first formed a mountain of clay, and afterwards capt it with rocks, it is sufficient to consider the sediments may successively come from different parts, and that they might be of different materials. In some parts, the sea may at first have deposited sediments of clay, and the waters afterwards brought sediment of strong matter, eitherbecause they had transported all the clay from the bottom and sides, and then the waves attacked the rocks, possibly because the first sediment came from one part, and the second from another. This perfectly agrees with observation, by which we perceive that beds of earth, stone, gravel, sand, &c. followed no rule in their arrangement, but are placed indifferently one on the other as it were by chance.But this chance must have some rules, which can be known only by estimating the value of probabilities, and the truth of conjectures. According to our hypothesis, on the formation of the globe, we have seen that the interior part of the globe must have been a vitrified matter, similar to vitrified sand, which is only the fragments of glass, and of which the clays are perhaps the scoria; by this supposition, the centre of the earth, and almost as far as the external circumference, must be glass, or a vitrified matter; and above this we shall find sand, clay, and other scoria. Thus the earth, in its first state, was a nucleus of glass, or vitrified matter; either massive like glass, or divided like sand, because that depends on the degree of heat it has undergone. Above this matter was sand, and lastly clay. The soil of thewaters and air produced the external crust, which is thicker or thinner, according to the situation of the ground; more or less coloured, according to the different mixtures of mud, sand, clay, and the decayed parts of animals and vegetables; and more or less fertile, according to the abundance or want of these parts. To shew that this supposition on the formation of sand and clay is not chimerical, I shall add some particular remarks.I conceive, that the earth, in its first state, was a globe, or rather a spheroid of compact glass, covered with a light crust of pumice stone and other scoria of the matter in fusion. The motion and agitation of the waters and air soon reduced this crust into powder or sand, which, by uniting afterwards, produced flints, and owe their hardness, colour, or transparency and variety, to the different degrees of purity of the sand which entered into their composition.These sands, whose constituting parts unite by fire, assimilate, and become very dense, compact, and the more transparent as the sand is more pure; on the contrary, being exposed a long time to the air, they disunite and exfoliate, descend in the form of earth, and it is probablethe different clays are thus produced. This dust, sometimes of a brightish yellow, and sometimes like silver, is nothing else but a very pure sand somewhat perished, and almost reduced to an elementary state. By time, particles will be so far attenuated and divided, that they will no longer have power to reflect the light, and acquire all the properties of clay.This theory is conformable to what every day is seen; let us immediately wash sand upon its being dug, and the water will be loaded with a black ductile and fat earth, which is genuine clay. In streets paved with freestone, the dirt is always black and greasy, and when dried appears to be an earth of the same nature as clay. Let us wash the earth taken from a spot where there are neither freestone nor flints, and there will always precipitate a great quantity of vitrifiable sand.But what perfectly proves that sand, and even flint and glass, exist in clay, is, that the action of fire, by uniting the parts, restores it to its original form. Clay, if heated to the degree of calcination, will cover itself with a very hard enamel; if it is not vitrified internally, it nevertheless will have acquired a very great hardness, so as to resist the file; it will emit fireunder the hammer, and it has all the properties of flint; a greater degree of heat causes it to flow, and converts it into real glass.Clay and sand are therefore matters perfectly analogous, and of the same class; if clay, by condensing, may become flint and glass, why may not sand, by dissolution, become clay? Glass appears to be true elementary earth, and all mixed substances disguised glass. Metals, minerals, salts, &c. are only vitrifiable earth; common stone and other matters analogous to it, and testaceous and crustaceous shells, &c. are the only substances which cannot be vitrified, and which seem to form a separate class. Fire, by uniting the divided parts of the first, forms an homogeneous matter, hard and transparent, without any diminution of weight, and to which it is not possible to cause any alteration; those, on the contrary, in which a greater quantity of active and volatile principles enter, and which calcine, lose more than one-third of their weight in the fire, and retake the form of simple earth, without any other alteration than a disunion of their different parts: these bodies excepted, which are no great number, and whose combinations produce no great varieties in nature, every other substance, and particularlyclay, may be converted into glass, and are consequently only decomposed glass. If the fire suddenly causes the form of these substances to change, by vitrifying them, glass itself, whether pure, or in the form of sand or flint, naturally, but by a slow and insensible progress, changes into clay.Where flint is the predominant stone, the country is generally strewed with parts of it, and if the place is uncultivated, and these stones have been long exposed to the air, without having been stirred, their upper superficies is always white, whereas the opposite side, which touches the earth, is very brown, and preserves its natural colour. If these flints are broken, we shall perceive that the whiteness is not only external, but penetrates internally, and there forms a kind of band, not very deep in some, but which in others occupies almost the whole flint. This white part is somewhat grainy, entirely opaque, as soft as freestone, and adheres to the tongue like the boles; whereas the other part is smooth, has neither thread nor grain, and preserves its natural colour, transparency, and hardness. If this flint is put into a furnace, its white part becomes of a brick colour, and its brown partof a very fine white. Let us not say with one of our most celebrated naturalists, that these stones are imperfect flints of different ages, which have not acquired their perfection; for why should they be all imperfect? Why should they be imperfect only on the side exposed to the weather? It, on the contrary, appears to me more reasonable that they are flints changed from their original state, gradually decomposed, and assuming the form and property of clay or bole. If this is thought to be only conjecture, let the hardest and blackest flint be exposed to the weather, in less than a year its surface will change colour; and if we have patience to pursue this experiment, we shall see it by degrees lose its hardness, transparency, and other specific characters, and approach every day nearer and nearer the nature of clay.What happens to flint happens to sand; each grain of sand may possibly be considered as a small flint, and each flint as a mass of extremely fine grains of sand. The first example of the decomposition of sand is found in the brilliant opaque powder called Mica, in which clay and slate are always diffused. The entirely transparent flints, the Quartz, produce, by decomposition, fat and soft talks, such as those ofVenice and Russia, which are as ductile and vitrifiable as clay: and it appears to me, that talk is a mediate between glass, or transparent flint, and clay; whereas coarse and impure flint, by decomposing, passes to clay without any intermedium.Our factitious glass undergoes the same alterations: it decomposes and perishes, as it were, in the air. At first, it assumes a variety of colours, then exfoliates, and by working it, we perceive brilliant scales fall off; but when its decomposition is more advanced, it crumbles between the fingers, and is reduced into a very white fine talky powder. Art has even imitated nature in the decomposition of glass and flint. "Est etiam certa methodus solius aquæ communis ope, silices & arenam in liquorem viscosum, eumdemque in sal viride convertendi, & hoc in aleum rubicundum, &c. Solius ignis & aqua ope, speciali experimento, durissimos quosque lapides in mucorem resolvo, qui distillan subtilem spiritum exhibet & oleum nullus laudibus prœdicabile[218:A]."These matters more particularly belong to metals, and when we come to them, shall be fully treated on, therefore we shall contentourselves here with adding, that the different strata which cover the terrestrial globe, being materials to be considered as actual vitrifications or analogous to glass, and possessing its most essential qualities; and as it is evident, that from the decomposition of glass and flint, which is every day made before our eyes, a genuine clay remains, it is not a precarious supposition to advance, that clays and sands have been formed by scoria, and vitrified drops of the terrestrial globe, especially when we join the proofsa priori, which we have given to evince the earth has been in a state of liquefaction caused by fire.FOOTNOTES:[198:A]Essay on the Natural History of the Earth, pages 40, 41, 42, &c.[199:A]See Varennii, Geograph. General, page 46.[205:A]See the Mem. of the Acad. 1716, page 14.[216:A]See the Voyages of Francis Piriard, vol. 1, page 108.[218:A]See Becher. Phys. subter.

We have shewn, in the first article, that by virtue of the mutual attraction between the parts of matter, and of the centrifugal force, which results from its diurnal rotation, the earth has necessarily taken the form of a spheroid, the diameters of which differ about a230th part, and that it could only proceed from the changes on the surface, caused by the motion of the air and water, that this difference could become greater, as is pretended to be the case from the measures taken under the equator, and within the polar circle. This figure of the earth, which so well agrees with hydrostatical laws, and with our theory, supposes the globe to have been in a state of liquefaction when it assumed its form, and we have proved that the motions of projection and rotation were imprinted at the same time by a like impulsion. We shall the more easily believe that the earth has been in a state of liquefaction produced by fire, when we consider the nature of the matters which the globe incloses, the greatest part of which are vitrified or vitrifiable; especially when we reflect on the impossibility there is that the earth should ever have been in a state of fluidity, produced by the waters; since there is infinitely more earth than water, and that water has not the power of dissolving stone, sand, and other matters of which the earth is composed.

It is plain then that the earth took its figure at the time when it was liquefied by fire: by pursuing our hypothesis it appears, that whenthe sun quitted it, the earth had no other form than that of a torrent of melted and inflamed vapour matter; that this torrent collected itself by the mutual attraction of its parts, and became a globe, to which the rotative motion gave the figure of a spheroid; and when the earth was cooled, the vapours, which were first extended like the tails of comets, by degrees condensed and fell upon the surface, depositing, at the same time, a slimy substance mixed with sulphurous and saline matters, a part of which, by the motion of the waters, was swept into the perpendicular cracks, where it produced metals, while the rest remained on the surface, and produced that reddish earth which forms the first strata; and which, according to different places, is more or less blended with animal and vegetable particles, so reduced that the organization is no longer perceptible.

Therefore, in the first state of the earth, the globe was internally composed of vitrified matter, as I believe it is at present, above which were placed those bodies the fire had most divided, as sand, which are only fragments of glass; and above these, pumice stones and the scoria of the vitrified matter, which formed the various clays; the whole was covered withwater 5 or 600 feet deep, produced by the condensation of the vapours, when the globe began to cool. This water every where deposited a muddy bed, mixed with waters which sublime and exhale by the fire; and the air was formed of the most subtile vapours, which, by their lightness, disengaged themselves from the waters, and surmounted them.

Such was the state of the globe when the action of the tides, the winds, and the heat of the sun, began to change the surface of the earth. The diurnal motion, and the flux and reflux, at first raised the waters under the southern climate, which carried with them mud, clay, and sand, and by raising the parts of the equator, they by degrees perhaps lowered those of the poles about two leagues, as we before mentioned; for the waters soon reduced into powder the pumice stones and other spongeous parts of the vitrified matter that were at the surface, they hollowed some places, and raised others, which in course of time became continents, and produced all the inequalities, and which are more considerable towards the equator than the poles; for the highest mountains are between the tropics and the middle of the temperate zones, and the lowestare from the polar circle to the poles; between the tropics are the Cordeliers, and almost all the mountains of Mexico and Brazil, the great and little Atlas, the Moon, &c. Beside the land which is between the tropics, from the superior number of islands found in those parts, is the most unequal of all the globe, as evidently is the sea.

However independent my theory may be of that hypothesis of what passed at the time of the first state of the globe, I refer to it in this article, in order to shew the connection and possibility of the system which I endeavoured to maintain in the first article. It must only be remarked, that my theory does not stray far from it, as I take the earth in a state nearly similar to what it appears at present, and as I do not make use of any of the suppositions which are used on reasoning on the past state of the terrestrial globe. But as I here present a new idea on the subject of the sediment deposited by the water, which, in my opinion, has perforated the upper bed of earth, it appears to me also necessary to give the reason on which I found this opinion.

The vapours which rise in the air produce rain, dew, aerial fires, thunder, and othermeteors. These vapours are therefore blended with aqueous, aerial, sulphurous and terrestrial particles, &c. and it is the solid and earthy particles which form the mud or slime we are now speaking of. When rain water is suffered to rest, a sediment is formed at bottom; and having collected a quantity, if it is suffered to stand and corrupt, it produces a kind of mud which falls to the bottom of the vessel. Dew produces much more of this mud than rain water, which is greasy, unctuous, and of a reddish colour.

The first strata of the earth is composed of this mud, mixed with perished vegetable or animal parts, or rather stony and sandy particles. We may remark that almost all land proper for cultivation is reddish, and more or less mixed with these different matters; the particles of sand or stone found there are of two kinds, the one coarse and heavy, the other fine and sometimes impalpable. The largest comes from the lower strata loosened in cultivating the earth, or rather the upper mould, by penetrating into the lower, which is of sand and other divided matters, and forms those earths we call fat and fertile. The finer sort proceeds from the air, and falls with dew and rain, and mixes intimately with the soil. This is properlythe residue of the powder, which the wind continually raises from the surface of the earth, and which falls again after having imbibed the humidity of the air. When the earth predominates, and the stony and sandy parts are but few, the earth is then reddish and fertile: if it is mixed with a considerable quantity of perished animal or vegetable substances, it is blackish, and often more fertile than the first; but if the mould is only in a small quantity, as well as the animal or vegetable parts, the earth is white and sterile, and when the sandy, stony, or cretaceous parts which compose these sterile lands, are mixed with a sufficient quantity of perished animal or vegetable substances, they form the black and lighter earths, but have little fertility; so that according to the different combinations of these three different matters, the land is more or less fecund and differently coloured.

To fix some ideas relative to these stratas; let us take, for example, the earth of Marly-la-ville, where the pits are very deep: it is a high country, but flat and fertile, and its strata lie arranged horizontally. I had samples brought me of all these strata which M. Dalibard, an able botanist, versed in different sciences, haddug under his inspection; and after having proved the matters of which they consisted in aquafortis, I formed the following table of them.

The state of the different beds of earth, found at Marly-la-ville, to the depth of 100 feet.

I have before said that I tried all these matters in aquafortis, because where the inspection and comparison of matters with others that we are acquainted with is not sufficient to permitus to denominate and range them in the class which they belong, there is no means more ready, nor perhaps more sure, than to try by aquafortis the terrestrial or lapidific matter: those which acid spirits dissolve immediately with heat and ebullition, are generally calcinable, and those on which they make no impression are vitrifiable.

By this enumeration we perceive, that the soil of Marly-la-ville was formerly the bottom of the sea, which has been raised above 75 feet, since we find shells at that depth below the surface. Those shells have been transported by the motion of the water, at the same time as the sand in which they are met with, and the whole of the upper strata, even to the first, have been transported after the same manner by the motion of the water, and deposited in form of a sediment; which we cannot doubt, as well by reason of their horizontal position, as of the different beds of sand mixed with shells and marl, the last of which are only the fragments of the shells. The last stratum itself has been formed almost entirely by the mould we have spoken of, mixed with a small part of the marl which was at the surface.

I have chosen this example, as the most disadvantageous to my theory, because it at first appears very difficult to conceive that the dust of the air, rain and dew, could produce strata of free earth thirteen feet thick; but it ought to be observed, that it is very rare to find, especially in high lands, so considerable a thickness of cultivateable earth; it is generally about three or four feet, and often not more than one. In plains surrounded with hills, this thickness of good earth is the greatest, because the rain loosens the earth of the hills, and carries it into the vallies; but without supposing any thing of that kind, I find that the last strata formed by the waters are thick beds of marl. It is natural to imagine that the upper stratum had, at the beginning, a still greater thickness, besides the thirteen feet of marl, when the sea quitted the land and left it naked. This marl, exposed to the air, melted with the rain; the action of the air and heat of the sun produced flaws, and reduced it into powder on the surface; the sea would not quit this land precipitately, but sometimes cover it, either by the alternative motion of the tides, or by the extraordinary elevation of the waters in foul weather, when it mixed with this bed of marl,mud, clay, and other matters. When the land was raised above the waters, plants would begin to grow, and it was then that the dust in the rain or dew by degrees added to its substance and gave it a reddish colour; this thickness and fertility was soon augmented by culture; by digging and dividing its surface, and thus giving to the dust, in the dew or rain, the facility of more deeply penetrating it, which at last produced that bed of free earth thirteen feet thick.

I shall not here examine whether the reddish colour of vegetable earth proceeds from the iron which is contained in the earths that are deposited by the rains and dews, but being of importance, shall take notice of it when we come to treat of minerals; it is sufficient to have explained our conception of the formation of the superficial strata of the earth, and by other examples we shall prove, that the formation of the interior strata, can only be the work of the waters.

The surface of the globe, says Woodward, this external stratum on which men and animals walk, which serves as a magazine for the formation of vegetables and animals, is, for the greatest part, composed of vegetable or animalmatter, and is in continual motion and variation. All animals and vegetables which have existed from the creation of the world, have successively extracted from this stratum the matter which composes it, and have, after their deaths, restored to it this borrowed matter: it remains there always ready to be retaken, and to serve for the formation of other bodies of the same species successively, for the matter which composes one body is proper and natural to form another body of the same kind. In uninhabited countries, where the woods are never cut, where animals do not brouze on the plants, this stratum of vegetable earth increases considerably. In all woods, even in those which are sometimes cut, there is a bed of mould, of six or eight inches thick, formed entirely by the leaves, small branches, and barks which have perished. I have often observed on the ancient Roman way, which crosses Burgundy in a long extent of soil, that there is formed a bed of black earth more than a foot thick upon the stones, which nourishes very high trees; and this stratum could be composed only of a black mould formed by the leaves, bark, and perished wood. As vegetables inhale for their nutriment much morefrom the air and water than the earth, it happens that when they perish, they return to the earth more than they have taken from it. Besides, forests collect the rain water, and by stopping the vapours increase their moisture; so in a wood which is preserved a long time, the stratum of earth which serves for vegetation increases considerably. But animals restoring less to the earth than they take from it, and men making enormous consumption of wood and plants for fire, and other uses, it follows that the vegetable soil of inhabited countries must diminish, and become, in time, like the soil of Arabia Petrea, and other eastern provinces, which, in fact, are the most ancient inhabited countries, where only sand and salt are now to be met with; for the fixed salts of plants and animals remain, whereas all the other parts volatilise, and are transported by the air.

Let us now examine the position and formation of the interior strata: the earth, says Woodward, appears in places that have been dug, composed of strata placed one on the other, as so many sediments which necessarily fell to the bottom of the water; the deepest strata are generally the thickest, and those above the thinnest, and so gradually lessening tothe surface. We find sea shells, teeth, and bones of fish in these different beds, and not only in those that are soft, as chalk and clay, but even in those of hard stone, marble, &c. These marine productions are incorporated with the stone, and when separated from them, leave the impressions of the shells with the greatest exactness. "I have been most clearly and positively assured," says this author, "that in France, Flanders, Holland, Spain, Italy, Germany, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, stone, and other terrestrial substances are disposed in strata, precisely the same as they are in England; that these strata are divided by parallel fissures; that there are inclosed within stones and other terrestrial and compact substances, a great quantity of shells and other productions of the sea, disposed in the same manner as in this island. I am also informed that these strata are found the same in Barbary, Egypt, Guinea, and in other parts of Africa; in Arabia, Syria, Persia, Malabar, China, and the rest of the provinces of Asia; in Jamaica, Barbadoes, Virginia, New-England, Brazil, and other parts of America[198:A]."

This author does not say how he learnt, or by whom he was told, that the strata of Peru contained shells; yet as in general his observations are exact, I do not doubt but he was well informed; and am persuaded that shells may be found in the earth of Peru, as well as elsewhere. This remark is made from a doubt having been formed some time since on the subject, and which I shall hereafter consider.

In a trench made at Amsterdam, to the depth of 230 feet, the strata were found as follows: 7 feet of vegetable earth, 9 of turf, 9 of soft clay, 8 of sand, 4 of earth, 10 of clay, 4 of earth, 10 of sand, then 2 feet of clay, 4 of white sand, 5 of dry earth, 1 of soft earth, 14 of sand, 8 of argil, mixed with earth; 4 of sand, mixed with shells; then clay 102 feet thick, and at last 31 feet of sand, at which depth they ceased digging[199:A].

It is very singular to dig so deep without meeting with water: and this circumstance is remarkable in many particulars. 1. It shews, that the water of the sea does not communicate with the interior part of the earth, by means of filtration. 2. That shells are found at the depth of 100 feet below the surface, and thatconsequently the soil of Holland has been raised 100 feet by the sediment of the sea. 3. We may draw an induction, that this strata of thick clay of 102 feet, and the bed of sand below it, in which they dug to 31 feet, and whose entire thickness is unknown, are perhaps not very far distant from the first strata of the original earth, such as it was before the motion of the water had changed its surface. We have said in the first article, that if we desired to find the ancient earth, we should dig in the northern countries, rather than towards the south; in plains rather than in mountainous regions. The circumstances in this instance, appear to be nearly so, only it is to be wished they had continued the digging to a greater depth, and that the author had informed us, whether there were not shells and other marine productions, in the last bed of clay, and in that of sand below it. The experiment confirms what we have already said; and the more we dig, the greater thickness we shall find the strata.

The earth is composed of parallel and horizontal beds, not only in plains, but hills and mountains are in general composed after the same manner: it may be said, that the strata in hills and mountains are more apparent therethan in the plains, because the plains are generally covered with a very considerable quantity of sand and earth, which the water has brought from the higher grounds, and therefore, to find the ancient strata, must dig deeper in the plains than in the mountains.

I have often observed, that when a mountain is level at its summit, the strata which compose it are also level; but if the summit is not placed horizontally, the strata inclines also in the same direction. I have heard that, in general, the beds of quarries inclined a little to the east; but having myself observed all the chains of rocks which offered, I discovered this opinion to be erroneous, and that the strata inclines to the same side as the hill, whether it be east, west, north, or south. When we dig stone and marble from the quarry, we take great care to separate them according to their natural position, and we cannot even get them of a large size, if we cut them in any other direction. Where they are made use of for good masonry, the workmen are particular in placing them as they stood in the quarry, for if they were placed in any other direction, they would split, and would not resist the weight with which they are loaded. This perfectlyconfirms that stones, are found in parallel and horizontal strata, which have been successively heaped one on the other, and that these strata composed masses where resistance is greater in that direction than in any other.

Every strata, whether horizontal or inclined, has an equal thickness throughout its whole extent. In the quarries about Paris the bed of good stone is not thick, scarcely more than 18 or 20 feet: in those of Burgundy the stone is much thicker. It is the same with marble; the black and white marble have a thicker bed than the coloured; and I know beds of very hard stone, which the farmers in Burgundy make use of to cover their houses, that are not above an inch thick. The different strata vary much in thickness, but each bed preserves the same thickness throughout its extent. The thickness of strata is so greatly varied, that it is found from less than a line to 1, 10, 20, 30, or 100 feet thick. The ancient and modern quarries, which are horizontally dug, the perpendicular and other divisions of mines, prove that there are extensive strata in all directions. "It is thoroughly proved," says the historian of the academy, "that all stones have formerly been a soft paste, and as there arequarries almost in every part, the surface of the earth has therefore consisted, in all these places, of mud and slime, at least to certain depths. The shells found in most quarries prove that this mud was an earth diluted by the water of the sea, and consequently that the sea covered all these places; and it could not cover them without also covering all that was level with or lower than it: and it is plain that it could not cover every place where there were quarries, without covering the whole face of the terrestrial globe. We do not here consider the mountains which the sea must also at one time have covered, since quarries and shells are often found in them.

"The sea," continues he, "therefore, covered the whole earth, and from thence it proceeds that all the beds of stone in the plains are horizontal and parallel; fish must have also been the most ancient inhabitants of the globe, as there was no sustenance for either birds or terrestrial animals." But how did the sea retire into these vast basins which it at present occupies? What presents itself the most natural to the mind is, that the earth, at least at a certain depth, was not entirely solid, but intermixed with some great vacuums, whosevaults were supported for a time, but at length, sunk in suddenly: then the waters must have fallen into these vacancies, filled them, and left naked a part of the earth's surface, which became an agreeable abode to terrestrial animals and birds. The shells found in quarries perfectly agree with this idea, for only the bony parts of fish could be preserved till now. In general, shells are heaped up in great abundance in certain parts of the sea, where they are immovable, and form a kind of rock, and could not follow the water, which suddenly forsook them: this is the reason that we find more shells than bones of the fish, and this even proves a sudden fall of the sea into its present basins. At the same time as our supposed vaults gave way, it is very possible that other parts of the globe were raised by the same cause, and that mountains were placed on this surface with quarries already formed, but the beds of these quarries could not preserve the horizontal direction they before had, unless the mountains were raised precisely perpendicular to the surface of the earth, which could happen but very seldom: so also, as we have already observed, in 1705, the beds of stone in mountains are always inclined to the horizon, thoughparallel with each other; for they have not changed their position with respect to each other, but only with respect to the surface of the earth[205:A].

These parallel strata, these beds of earth and stone, which have been formed by the sediment of the sea, often extend to considerable distances, and we often find in hills, separated by a valley, the same beds and the same matters at the same level. This observation agrees perfectly with that of the height of the opposite hills. We may easily be assured of the truth of these facts, for in all narrow vallies, where rocks are discovered, we shall find the same beds of stone and marble on both sides at the same height. In a country where I frequently reside, I found a quarry of marble which extended more than 12 leagues in length, and whose breadth was very considerable, although I have never been able precisely to determine it. I have often observed that this bed of marble is throughout of the same thickness, and in hills divided from this quarry by a valley of 100 feet depth, and a quarter of a mile in breadth, I found the same bed of marble at the same height. I am persuadedit is the same in every stone and marble quarry where shells are found; but this observation does not hold good in quarries of freestone. In the course of this work, we shall give reasons for this difference, and describe why freestone is not dispersed, like other matters, in horizontal beds, and why it is in irregular blocks, both in form and position.

We have likewise observed that the strata are the same on both sides the straits of the sea. This observation, which is important, may lead us to discover the lands and islands which have been separated from the continent; it proves, for example, that England has been divided from France; Spain from Africa; Sicily from Italy; and it is to be wished that the same observation had been made in all the straits. I am persuaded that we should find it almost every where true. We do not know whether the same beds of stone are found at the same height on both sides the straits of Magellan, which is the longest; but we see, by the particular maps and exact charts, that the two high coasts which confine it, form nearly, like the mountains of the earth, correspondent angles, which also proves that the Terra del Fuega, must be regarded as part of the continent ofAmerica; it is the same with Forbisher's Strait and the island of Friesland, which appear to have been divided from the continent of Greenland.

The Maldivian islands are only separated by small tracts of the sea, on each side of which banks and rocks are found composed of the same materials; and these islands, which, taken together, are near 200 miles long, formed anciently only one land; they are now divided into 13 provinces, called Clusters. Each cluster contains a great number of small islands, most of which are sometimes overflowed and sometimes dry; but what is remarkable, these thirteen clusters are each surrounded with a chain of rocks of the same stone, and there are only three or four dangerous inlets by which they can be entered. They are all placed one after the other, and it evidently appears that these islands were formerly a long mountain capped with rocks[216:A].

Many authors, as Verstegan, Twine, Somner, and especially Campbell, in his Description of England, in the chapter of Kent, gives very strong reasons, to prove that England was formerly joined to France, and has been separated from it by an effort of the sea, whichcarried away the neck of land that joined them, opened the channel, and left naked a great quantity of low and marshy ground along the southern coasts of England. Dr. Wallis, as a corroboration of this supposition, shews the conformity of the ancient Gallic and British tongues, and adds many observations, which we shall relate in the following articles.

If we consider the form of lands, the position of mountains, and the windings of rivers, we shall perceive that generally opposite hills are not only composed of the same matters on the same level, but are nearly of an equal height. This equality I have observed in my travels, and have mostly found them the same on the two sides, especially in vallies that were not more than a quarter or a third of a league broad, for in vallies which are very broad, it is difficult to judge of the height and equality of hills, because, by looking over a level plain of any great extent, it appears to rise, and hills at a distance appear to lower; but this is not the place to give a mathematical reason for this difference. It is also very difficult to judge by the naked sight of the middle of a great valley, at least if there is no river in it; whereas in confined vallies our sight is less equivocal and our judgmentmore certain. That part of Burgundy comprehended between Auxerre, Dijon, Autun, and Bar-sur-seine, a considerable extent of which is calledla Bailliage de la Montagne, is one of the highest parts of France; from one side of most of these mountains, which are only of the second class, the water flows towards the Ocean, and on the other side towards the Mediterranean. This high country is divided with many small vallies, very confined, and almost all watered with rivulets. I have a thousand times observed the correspondence of the angles of these hills and their equality of height, and I am certain that I have every where found the saliant angles opposite to the returning angles, and the heights nearly equal on both sides. The farther we advance into the higher country, where the points of division are, the higher are the mountains; but this height is always the same on both sides of the vallies, and the hills are raised or lowered alike. I have frequently made the like observations in many other parts of France. It is this equality in the height of the hills which forms the plains in the mountains, and these plains form lands higher than others. But high mountains do not appear so equal in height, most of them terminate inpoints and irregular peaks; and I have seen, in crossing the Alps, and the Apennine mountains, that the angles are, in fact, correspondent; but it is almost impossible to judge by the eye of the equality or inequality in the height of opposite mountains, because their summits are lost in mists and clouds.

The different strata of which the earth is composed are not disposed according to their specific weight, for we often find strata of heavy matters placed on those of lighter. To be assured of this, we have only to examine the earth on which rocks are placed, and we shall find that it is generally clay or sand, which is specifically lighter. In hills, and other small elevations, we easily discover this to be the case; but it is not so with large mountains, for not only their summits are rocks, but those rocks are placed on others; there mountains are placed upon mountains, and rocks upon rocks, to such a considerable height, and through so great an extent of country, that we can scarcely be certain whether there is earth at bottom, or of what nature it is. I have seen cavities made in rocks to some hundred feet deep, without being able to form an idea where they ended, for these rocks were supported by others;nevertheless, may we not compare great with small? and since the rocks of little mountains, whose bases are to be seen, rest on the earth less heavy and solid than stone, may we not suppose that earth is also the base of high mountains? All that I have here to prove by these arguments is, that, by the motion of the waters, it may naturally happen that the more ponderous matters accumulated on the lighter; and that, if this in fact is found to be so in most hills, it is probable that it happened as explained by my theory; but should it be objected that I am not grounded in supposing, that before the formation of mountains the heaviest matters were below the lighter; I answer, that I assert nothing general in this respect, because this effect may have been produced in many manners, whether the heaviest matters were uppermost or undermost, or placed indiscriminately. To conceive how the sea at first formed a mountain of clay, and afterwards capt it with rocks, it is sufficient to consider the sediments may successively come from different parts, and that they might be of different materials. In some parts, the sea may at first have deposited sediments of clay, and the waters afterwards brought sediment of strong matter, eitherbecause they had transported all the clay from the bottom and sides, and then the waves attacked the rocks, possibly because the first sediment came from one part, and the second from another. This perfectly agrees with observation, by which we perceive that beds of earth, stone, gravel, sand, &c. followed no rule in their arrangement, but are placed indifferently one on the other as it were by chance.

But this chance must have some rules, which can be known only by estimating the value of probabilities, and the truth of conjectures. According to our hypothesis, on the formation of the globe, we have seen that the interior part of the globe must have been a vitrified matter, similar to vitrified sand, which is only the fragments of glass, and of which the clays are perhaps the scoria; by this supposition, the centre of the earth, and almost as far as the external circumference, must be glass, or a vitrified matter; and above this we shall find sand, clay, and other scoria. Thus the earth, in its first state, was a nucleus of glass, or vitrified matter; either massive like glass, or divided like sand, because that depends on the degree of heat it has undergone. Above this matter was sand, and lastly clay. The soil of thewaters and air produced the external crust, which is thicker or thinner, according to the situation of the ground; more or less coloured, according to the different mixtures of mud, sand, clay, and the decayed parts of animals and vegetables; and more or less fertile, according to the abundance or want of these parts. To shew that this supposition on the formation of sand and clay is not chimerical, I shall add some particular remarks.

I conceive, that the earth, in its first state, was a globe, or rather a spheroid of compact glass, covered with a light crust of pumice stone and other scoria of the matter in fusion. The motion and agitation of the waters and air soon reduced this crust into powder or sand, which, by uniting afterwards, produced flints, and owe their hardness, colour, or transparency and variety, to the different degrees of purity of the sand which entered into their composition.

These sands, whose constituting parts unite by fire, assimilate, and become very dense, compact, and the more transparent as the sand is more pure; on the contrary, being exposed a long time to the air, they disunite and exfoliate, descend in the form of earth, and it is probablethe different clays are thus produced. This dust, sometimes of a brightish yellow, and sometimes like silver, is nothing else but a very pure sand somewhat perished, and almost reduced to an elementary state. By time, particles will be so far attenuated and divided, that they will no longer have power to reflect the light, and acquire all the properties of clay.

This theory is conformable to what every day is seen; let us immediately wash sand upon its being dug, and the water will be loaded with a black ductile and fat earth, which is genuine clay. In streets paved with freestone, the dirt is always black and greasy, and when dried appears to be an earth of the same nature as clay. Let us wash the earth taken from a spot where there are neither freestone nor flints, and there will always precipitate a great quantity of vitrifiable sand.

But what perfectly proves that sand, and even flint and glass, exist in clay, is, that the action of fire, by uniting the parts, restores it to its original form. Clay, if heated to the degree of calcination, will cover itself with a very hard enamel; if it is not vitrified internally, it nevertheless will have acquired a very great hardness, so as to resist the file; it will emit fireunder the hammer, and it has all the properties of flint; a greater degree of heat causes it to flow, and converts it into real glass.

Clay and sand are therefore matters perfectly analogous, and of the same class; if clay, by condensing, may become flint and glass, why may not sand, by dissolution, become clay? Glass appears to be true elementary earth, and all mixed substances disguised glass. Metals, minerals, salts, &c. are only vitrifiable earth; common stone and other matters analogous to it, and testaceous and crustaceous shells, &c. are the only substances which cannot be vitrified, and which seem to form a separate class. Fire, by uniting the divided parts of the first, forms an homogeneous matter, hard and transparent, without any diminution of weight, and to which it is not possible to cause any alteration; those, on the contrary, in which a greater quantity of active and volatile principles enter, and which calcine, lose more than one-third of their weight in the fire, and retake the form of simple earth, without any other alteration than a disunion of their different parts: these bodies excepted, which are no great number, and whose combinations produce no great varieties in nature, every other substance, and particularlyclay, may be converted into glass, and are consequently only decomposed glass. If the fire suddenly causes the form of these substances to change, by vitrifying them, glass itself, whether pure, or in the form of sand or flint, naturally, but by a slow and insensible progress, changes into clay.

Where flint is the predominant stone, the country is generally strewed with parts of it, and if the place is uncultivated, and these stones have been long exposed to the air, without having been stirred, their upper superficies is always white, whereas the opposite side, which touches the earth, is very brown, and preserves its natural colour. If these flints are broken, we shall perceive that the whiteness is not only external, but penetrates internally, and there forms a kind of band, not very deep in some, but which in others occupies almost the whole flint. This white part is somewhat grainy, entirely opaque, as soft as freestone, and adheres to the tongue like the boles; whereas the other part is smooth, has neither thread nor grain, and preserves its natural colour, transparency, and hardness. If this flint is put into a furnace, its white part becomes of a brick colour, and its brown partof a very fine white. Let us not say with one of our most celebrated naturalists, that these stones are imperfect flints of different ages, which have not acquired their perfection; for why should they be all imperfect? Why should they be imperfect only on the side exposed to the weather? It, on the contrary, appears to me more reasonable that they are flints changed from their original state, gradually decomposed, and assuming the form and property of clay or bole. If this is thought to be only conjecture, let the hardest and blackest flint be exposed to the weather, in less than a year its surface will change colour; and if we have patience to pursue this experiment, we shall see it by degrees lose its hardness, transparency, and other specific characters, and approach every day nearer and nearer the nature of clay.

What happens to flint happens to sand; each grain of sand may possibly be considered as a small flint, and each flint as a mass of extremely fine grains of sand. The first example of the decomposition of sand is found in the brilliant opaque powder called Mica, in which clay and slate are always diffused. The entirely transparent flints, the Quartz, produce, by decomposition, fat and soft talks, such as those ofVenice and Russia, which are as ductile and vitrifiable as clay: and it appears to me, that talk is a mediate between glass, or transparent flint, and clay; whereas coarse and impure flint, by decomposing, passes to clay without any intermedium.

Our factitious glass undergoes the same alterations: it decomposes and perishes, as it were, in the air. At first, it assumes a variety of colours, then exfoliates, and by working it, we perceive brilliant scales fall off; but when its decomposition is more advanced, it crumbles between the fingers, and is reduced into a very white fine talky powder. Art has even imitated nature in the decomposition of glass and flint. "Est etiam certa methodus solius aquæ communis ope, silices & arenam in liquorem viscosum, eumdemque in sal viride convertendi, & hoc in aleum rubicundum, &c. Solius ignis & aqua ope, speciali experimento, durissimos quosque lapides in mucorem resolvo, qui distillan subtilem spiritum exhibet & oleum nullus laudibus prœdicabile[218:A]."

These matters more particularly belong to metals, and when we come to them, shall be fully treated on, therefore we shall contentourselves here with adding, that the different strata which cover the terrestrial globe, being materials to be considered as actual vitrifications or analogous to glass, and possessing its most essential qualities; and as it is evident, that from the decomposition of glass and flint, which is every day made before our eyes, a genuine clay remains, it is not a precarious supposition to advance, that clays and sands have been formed by scoria, and vitrified drops of the terrestrial globe, especially when we join the proofsa priori, which we have given to evince the earth has been in a state of liquefaction caused by fire.

FOOTNOTES:[198:A]Essay on the Natural History of the Earth, pages 40, 41, 42, &c.[199:A]See Varennii, Geograph. General, page 46.[205:A]See the Mem. of the Acad. 1716, page 14.[216:A]See the Voyages of Francis Piriard, vol. 1, page 108.[218:A]See Becher. Phys. subter.

FOOTNOTES:

[198:A]Essay on the Natural History of the Earth, pages 40, 41, 42, &c.

[199:A]See Varennii, Geograph. General, page 46.

[205:A]See the Mem. of the Acad. 1716, page 14.

[216:A]See the Voyages of Francis Piriard, vol. 1, page 108.

[218:A]See Becher. Phys. subter.

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