The Project Gutenberg eBook ofCapitals

The Project Gutenberg eBook ofCapitalsThis ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online atwww.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.Title: CapitalsAuthor: Frederick W. HamiltonRelease date: January 15, 2007 [eBook #20374]Most recently updated: January 8, 2009Language: EnglishCredits: Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, Sigal Alon andthe Online Distributed Proofreading Team athttp://www.pgdp.net*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CAPITALS ***

This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online atwww.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.

Title: CapitalsAuthor: Frederick W. HamiltonRelease date: January 15, 2007 [eBook #20374]Most recently updated: January 8, 2009Language: EnglishCredits: Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, Sigal Alon andthe Online Distributed Proofreading Team athttp://www.pgdp.net

Title: Capitals

Author: Frederick W. Hamilton

Release date: January 15, 2007 [eBook #20374]Most recently updated: January 8, 2009

Language: English

Credits: Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, Sigal Alon andthe Online Distributed Proofreading Team athttp://www.pgdp.net

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CAPITALS ***

A capital letter is a letter of formal shape. Capitals were originally derived from the stiff and angular letters used in formal inscriptions. Originally all writing was done in capitals. Later the scribes devised less formal shapes for the letters, making use of lines more easily made by brush or pen on papyrus, parchment, or paper. The capitals were retained for certain uses but the less formal shapes were employed to do the greater part of the work. These less formal letters have been known by several names. They will be referred to here by that under which they are known to modern printers, “lower-case.”

A further modification of the letter came with the introduction of the sloping, or italic letter. This received its name from its place of origin, Italy. It was introduced by Nicholas Jenson, a printer of Venice, and was an imitation of the handwriting of the Italian poet Petrarch. Originally it was used only for the lower-case and was combined with the older form of capital letters, called roman, also from the place of its origin. Later the italic characteristics were given to capitals as well as lower-case letters.

An ordinary font of book type contains five series of letters: full capitals, small capitals, italic capitals (full size), roman lower-case, and italic lower-case. The full capital, roman or italic, is larger than the other letters of the font, every letter being as high as the lower-case ascenders. The small capital is only as high as the lower-case round letters. Larger capitals still are sometimes used as chapter initials and the like.

It will be observed that the distinction between capital and lower-case letters is one of form, not of size. The full capitals being much more used than the small capitals and being larger than the other letters in the font, the impressionis common that the size is the distinguishing mark. This erroneous impression has even crept into dictionary definitions.

The full capital, which will hereafter be called in this book simply the capital, is used in combination with lower-case letters or with small capitals in the same word. The small capital is not used in combination with lower-case in the same word. We may print GEORGE WASHINGTON,George Washington,GEORGE WASHINGTON, or George Washington, but notgeorgewashington.

In manuscript capitals are indicated by three lines under a word or letter,triple lineand small capitals by two linesdouble line. A single linesingle lineindicates that italics are to be used.

Originally the writers of manuscripts used capitals for ornament and variety in the text. They followed no rules but each writer was guided by his own judgment and sense of beauty. As the use of capitals gradually became systematized and reduced to rules, different systems were adopted in different countries. The use of capitals varies greatly in different languages. Attention will be mainly confined in this book to the usages followed in the printing of English. Attempts to point out the various differences to be found in German, French, etc. would only confuse the young apprentice.

These rules grow out of a fundamental principle.

The purpose of capitals is to emphasize the words in which they are employed. With the exception of the cases of the wordsIandO, which are capitalized for typographical reasons, this idea of calling special attention to a word, or words, for one reason or another will be found to be at the bottom of the variations in usage in different printing offices and by different writers. The same tendency is observable here which is so evident in style and in punctuation. Direct statements, simple sentences as free from involution and complication as possible, are more and more taking the place of the involved, complicated, and obscure sentences of old times. The ideal style of to-day consists of simple words simply arranged. Such a style needs littlepointing. The reader is quite able to find his way through the paragraph without constant direction. Punctuation marks are directions at the crossroads of thought. Consequently the punctuation mark is now much more sparingly used than formerly.

Just as we have found out that well chosen words can tell their story with very few marks of interpretation so we have found out that they can tell their story with very few marks of emphasis. The use of capitals has decreased greatly during the last two centuries and is constantly decreasing, and this tendency is likely to go still further. The great DeVinne whose books onThe Practice of Typography, written ten to fifteen years ago, are still of the highest authority was thoroughly up-to-date in his methods and was remarkable for the restrained and refined good taste which characterized all his recommendations, but in some points restraint in the use of capitals has gone even beyond his precepts.

It is worth while to remember that the real implement of English speech is the word, not the point nor the letter form. Just to the extent that we rely on marks of punctuation and emphasis to convey our meaning we betray our ignorance of the really significant elements of the language. The schoolgirl says she “had aperfectly splendidtime” at the dance, when she tells about it in her letter to her dearest friend. If “perfectly splendid” were a proper term to use in such a connection, which it is not, the words themselves would carry all the emphasis possible. Nothing could really be added to them by any typographical device. In the same way the common use of profanity among ignorant people probably arises mainly from a feeling that the ordinary words with which they are familiar are colorless and do not express their thoughts with sufficient emphasis.

Just as emphasis in style is difficult when one habitually uses the strongest words and emphasis in voice is difficult when one habitually shouts, so emphasis in print is difficult when one habitually uses large capitals, display type, and italics. Loud printing is as objectionable as loud talking.

General uses:

1. Use a capital letter to begin every sentence and every word or group of words punctuated as a sentence.

Welcome! We are glad to see you.

This rule does not apply to literal reproductions of matter not originally conforming to it.

2. Use a capital letter to begin every line of poetry.

The Lord hates a quitter,But he doesn’t hate him, son,When the quitter’s quitting somethingHe shouldn’t have begun. [that

This rule does not apply to turned over lines like the third line in the stanza just preceding.

3. Use a capital letter to begin every quotation consisting of a complete sentence.

Ben Franklin says, “Honesty is the best policy.”The campaign was “a punitive expedition for the suppression of brigandage.”

Ben Franklin says, “Honesty is the best policy.”

The campaign was “a punitive expedition for the suppression of brigandage.”

Capitalize:

1. Names of the Deity, of the members of the Trinity, of the Virgin Mary, and of the Devil, when a personal devil is referred to.

When the word devil is used as a general term or as an expletive the capital is not used.

2. Nouns and adjectives used to designate the Deity or any member of the Trinity:

the Almighty,the Ruler of the Universe,the Supreme Architect of the Universe,the Creator,Providence(personified),Heaven(personified, e. g.,Heaven forbid!),Father,Son,Holy Ghost,Spirit,Messiah, and the like.

The following list of words of this sort to be capitalized, taken from Mr. William Dana Orcutt’sThe Writer’s Desk Book(Frederick A. Stokes, New York) will be found useful:

AlmightyAuthorized VersionCommon VersionCreatorDeityFatherGodHoly BibleHoly SpiritHoly WritJehovahJesus ChristKingLogosLordMessiahPassoverPentecostRedeemerRevised VersionSabbathSaviourScripturesSon of ManSonSpiritThe TrinityThe Virgin MaryWord

Care needs to be taken with words of this class. Particular attention should be paid to the wording of rule 2, just given. The same words in other senses or other connections are not capitalized.Heavenandhelland derived adjectives are not capitalized in their ordinary uses:

Adjectives and other derivatives from these words are not capitalized. We writeMessiah, butmessianicandmessiahship;Christologybutchristological,fatherhood,sonship, and the like.

Such words asdeity,god, and the like are not capitalized where any but the God of the Bible is referred to.

3. Pronouns referring to God, Christ, or the Holy Spirit in direct address or where there might otherwise be ambiguity.

These pronouns are not capitalized in the Bible. They are generally capitalized in hymn books and books of devotion. These pronouns were formerly all capitalized as a mark of respect to God whenever there was any mention of him, even indirect. The tendency is more and more to eliminate them except in the second person (direct address). In view of the change now going on it is best to follow copy if the author appears to have decided preferences.

4. Books, divisions, and versions of the Bible.

Book of Job,Twenty-third Psalm,New Testament,Revised Version.

5. General biblical terms and titles of parables.

The Law,The Prophets,Major and Minor Prophets(referring to the collections of prophetic books),Lord’s Prayer,Lord’s Supper,Parable of the Prodigal Son,the Beatitudes,the Priestly Codeand many other such terms.

Use lower-case forbiblicalandscriptural.

6. CapitalizeHolyinHoly placeandHoly of holies.

SayGospel of John, but speak of thegospel message.

7. The names of religious bodies and their followers.

Catholic,Protestant,Unitarian,Methodist,Buddhists,Taoists,Lamas.

8. The names of monastic orders and their followers.

Jesuits,Brothers of the Common Life,Recollets,Crutched Friars,Cowley Fathers.

9. The word Church when it stands for the Church universal or is a part of the name of some particular denomination or organization.

For salvation he sought the Church.The Church of Rome.The First Presbyterian Church.I was on my way to church.He is a student of church history.(Note use of lower-case in this sentence.)

10. The names of creeds and professions of faith.

Apostle’s Creed,Thirty-nine Articles,Nicene Creed.

Note that the adjective ante-Nicene is printed as it here appears.

11. The word “father” when used in direct reference to the fathers of the church, and to the Pilgrim leaders of New England, and the word “reformers” when used of the leaders of the Reformation.

The ante-Nicene Fathers.Luther, Calvin and the other Reformers.

The word “father” is not capitalized when the reference is general, as in the first sentence of this section.

The capitalization of “reformer” is intended to distinguish persons connected with a certain definite historical movement from persons interested in reform. Many persons might consider that the Reformers were not reformers.

12. Names of persons.

John Smith,George V.

But writeJohn o’ Groat,Tam o’ Shanter, and the like whereo’is an abbreviation ofofand not the GælicO’asO’Neil, etc.

In writing foreign names which contain particles, capitalize the particles when not preceded by a Christian name or title.

Alfred de MussetbutDe Musset,le Due de MornybutDe Morny,Prince von BismarckbutVon Bismarck.

By exception the Dutch particle “van” is always capitalized.

Van Hoorn,Stephen Van Rensselær.

13. Epithets appended to proper names or substituted for them.

Frederick the GreatPeter the HermitWilliam Red Head (Rufus)the Conqueror.

14. Names of races of men.

Aryan,Caucasian, etc., but generallynegroandgypsy, by exception.

15. Names of places.

a. Cities, rivers, oceans, lakes, mountains, etc.

ChicagoMississippi RiverAtlantic OceanLake SuperiorPike’s PeakStrawberry Hill.

Note that the generic terms ocean, lake, mountain and the like are capitalized only when they are an actual part of the name itself. We would say “The Atlantic Ocean lies east of the United States,” but we would say “The states which form the North American republic look out on two great oceans, the Atlantic and the Pacific.”

The following tables are taken fromA Manual for Writersby John Matthews Manley and John Arthur Powell (University of Chicago Press, Chicago).

Subject to the rule just stated, they will be found very useful.

Capitalize, in singular form only, when immediately following the name

ArchipelagoBoroughBranch (stream)ButteCanyonCountyCraterCreekDeltaForestForkGapGlacierGulchHarborHeadHollowMesaNarrowsOceanParish (La.)ParkPlateauRangeReservationRidgeRiverRun

Capitalize in singular or plural form when immediately following the name

HillIslandMountainSpring

Capitalize, in singular form, either before or after the name; and in plural form before the name

BayBayouCamp (military)CapeDallesDesertFallsFortIsleLakeMountOasisPassPeakPointPortSeaStraitValleyVolcano

b. Names of streets, squares, parks, buildings, etc.

Amsterdam AvenueVan Buren StreetIndependence SquareLincoln ParkTransportation Building.

The same rule as to capitalization of the generic name holds here as in the preceding section. The usual tendency to drop capitals is at work here and newspapers now writeWashington streetandFederal building. It is very probable that the capitals will finally be dropped from the generic terms wherever used.

Printers should keep a careful watch on the usage of the best offices so as to keep advised as to the progress of these changes.

c. Nouns, and adjectives derived from them designating recognized geographical divisions of a country or of the world.

East,West,North,South,Westerner,Oriental.

When these words are used in their ordinary significance of mere direction or location they are not capitalized except that in writing of Biblical history we speak of theNorthern Kingdomand theSouthern Kingdominto which Solomon’s territory was split after his death.

16. Generic terms for political divisions.

a. When the term is part of the name and directly follows it.

Holy Roman EmpireBritish EmpireNorthwest TerritoryQueen’s County.

b. When it is used with the preposition of in such phrases asBorough of the Bronx,Department of the Gulf.

c. When part of a nickname,The Crescent City,the Buckeye State,the City of Brotherly Love.

Be careful not to capitalize such words when they are not an actual part of the name.French Republicis the name of the county, exactly translatingRepublique Francaise, butAmerican republicis not such a name. You would writeState of New Yorkin a legal document in which the state would be considered as a corporate person, but in ordinary references it would bestate of New York.

17. The days of the week and the months of the year, but not the seasons unless personified.

Monday the fifth of August.April is the first month of spring.Spring, beautiful Spring.

But writeten o’clock,nine a.m.,ten p.m.

18. Festivals and historic or famous days.

Easter DayFast DayIndependence DayBlack Friday.

19. Stars, planets, constellations, and the like, exceptsun,moon,stars,earth.

Mars,the Milky Way,the Pleiades.

20. Ordinal numbers used to designate numbered political divisions, sessions of Congress, names of regiments, Egyptian dynasties, and the like.

Second Congressional District,First Ward,Ninth Precinct,Forty-thirdCongress,Sixth Massachusetts Regiment,Fifth Dynasty.

21. Names of genera but not of species: except that in botanical and zoölogical copy the species may be capitalized if derived from a proper name.

Agaricus campestrisParkinsonia TorreyanaPterygomatopus schmidti, (Medical).

The English derivatives from these scientific words are not capitalized. We write of theagarics, thefelids, thecarnivores, etc.

22.Father,mother, and other words denoting relationship when used with a proper name or without a personal pronoun.

I saw Aunt Lucy and Cousin Charles.I saw my aunt Lucy and my cousin Charles.I have received a letter from my mother.I have received a letter from Mother.

23. Names of political parties and of philosophical, literary, and artistic schools, and their adherents.

Republican,National Liberal,Social Democrats,Stoics(butneo-Platonism,pseudo-Christianity, etc.)the Lake school,the Romantic movement,the Symbolic school of painters.

24. Political and historical designations which have been much used and have come to have special significances such as names of leagues, parties, classes, movements, and the like.

Holy Alliance,Dreibund,Roundheads,Independents,Reformation,Dissenter.

25. Names of well-known historic epochs, periods in the history of language, and geological ages and strata. The word “age” is not capitalized except when necessary to avoid ambiguity.

Stone age,Middle Ages,Age of Elizabeth,Crusades,Commune (of Paris),Middle English,Neolithic.

26. Names of important events.

Hundred Years War,Battle of Trenton,Louisiana Purchase,Norman Conquest.

27. Names of specific treaties, important laws, and the like.

Peace of Amiens,Edict of Nantes,Concordat,Emancipation Proclamation,Fourteenth Amendment.

28. Names of governmental bodies and departments and their branches when specifically designated.

Congress,the Senate,the Board of Aldermen,the House of Commons,the Committee on Education.

Care must be taken to distinguish between these specific references and general uses of the same word.

The state legislature of Massachusetts is officially termed the General Court.

The matter was referred to the War Department but was sent back on the ground that it belonged to another department.

29. The official titles of corporations, organizations, and institutions, social, religious, educational, political, business, and the like.

Knights Templars,Knights of Columbus,Associated Charities,Cook County Normal School,Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals,Chicago,Rock Island and Pacific Railroad.

In long titles, like the last example given, the important words are capitalized as in book titles (see Sec. 31). Use capitals when referring to such organizations by initials,C. R. I. & P. R. R.Here again it must be remembered that the capitals are used in specific references only.

The Young People’s Society of Christian Endeavor of the Third Congregational Church.

The young people’s societies connected with the Congregational churches do great good.

30. The names of conventions, congresses, expositions, etc.

Parliament of Religions,International Peace Congress,Panama-Pacific Exposition.

31. The first words, principal words, and last word in English tides of books and other publications; of their divisions (parts, chapters, cantos, etc.); of the topics of speeches, sermons, toasts, and the like; of pictures; of plays; of musical compositions, etc.

In long titles nouns and pronouns are capitalized always; verbs, participles, and adverbs usually; articles, prepositions and conjunctions never.

Standard Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases,Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures,Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address,Paradise Lost,Measure for Measure,A New Way to Pay Old Debts,The Coronation of Charles VII at Rheims,the Moonlight Sonata.

The word “the” is capitalized when it forms an actual part of the title of a book but not otherwise.

The Printer’s Dictionary.The Life and Times of Charles V.the Review of Reviews,the Laacoon,the Fifth Symphony.

32. Dedications; headings of parts and chapters; headings of many important minor parts of a book.

To All Who Love Good Printing.Chapter Twenty-Seven.Part Three.The Invention of Movable Types.The Practical Value of Gutenberg’s Invention.(These last as sections of a book on the originof printing).

33. In foreign languages the usage is somewhat different. The following rules will be found useful:

a. Always capitalize the first word.

b. In Latin capitalize only proper nouns and adjectives derived therefrom.

Commentarii Cæsaris de bello Gallico.

c. In French, Italian, Spanish, Swedish, and Norwegian, capitalize proper names but not adjectives derived therefrom.

La vie de Ronsard;Histoire de la litterature francaise,Novelle e racconti popolari italiani,Antologia de poetas liricos castellanos.

d. In German capitalize all nouns and all adjectives derived from the names of persons but not those derived from other proper nouns.

Geschichte des deutsches ReichDie Homerische Frage.

e. In Danish capitalize all nouns.

f. In Dutch capitalize all nouns and all adjectives derived from proper nouns.

34. Titles of ancient manuscripts.

Codex Alexandrinus.

35. In titles of books, etc. all nouns forming parts of hyphenated compounds should be capitalized.

36. In side heads capitalize the first word and proper nouns only.

37. Personal titles as follows:

a. Titles preceding a name and so forming part of it.

King George V.Pope Benedict XV.Duke William of Aquitaine.

But not otherwise.

Woodrow Wilson,president of the United States,the emperor of Germany,the present king of Spain is Alfonso XIII.

b. Titles used in place of the name with reference to a particular person or to the present holder of an office.

I hope when in Rome to see the Pope.He hoped some day to become pope.

c. Familiar names applied to a particular person.

the Father of his Country.Unser Fritz.the Little Corporal.

d. Orders of knighthood and titles attached to them.

Knight of the Garter,Knight Commander of St. Michael and St. George.

e. Titles used in direct address.

Good morning, Mr. President.

f. Academic degrees in abbreviated form following a name.

David Starr Jordan, Ph. D., LL. D.

So also letters following a name indicating membership of certain scientific and artistic organizations.

F. R. G. S.(Fellow of the Royal Geographic Society).R. A.(Member of the Royal Academy).

So also in the United States and Great Britain,M. C.(Member of Congress) andM. P.(Member of Parliament).

.Where a person has many titles the following of this rule involves certain difficulties. Such a name as

John Smith, A. M., D. D., Ph. D., L. H. D., D. C. L., LL. D.is by no means impossible.

In such a case the titles become much more prominent than the name and the page is disfigured by the spotty appearance of the text. Small capitals may sometimes be used with good effect in such a case but this should not be done without obtaining proper permission.

The difficulty of handling these long and numerous titles in the composition of title pages is sometimes considerable. Three methods of dealing with the difficulty are open.

a. The honorary titles may be put in capitals regardless of the unsightly appearance of the line.

b. The honorary titles may be put in a small size of the same face and justified in the line. This lessens the undue prominence of the titles, but puts the line out of balance.

c. The honorary titles may be put in a separate line, or lines, below the name, set in small type, and spelled out in full. It is not necessary to capitalizejr.andsr.in lower-case text matter unless so desired by the author.

In compound titles capitalize each word if it would be capitalized separately.

Major General Leonard Wood,Chief Justice Taney,Commander-in-Chief FieldMarshal Sir John French.

38. Names of things personified.

Nature,Vice,Thrift, and the like.

39. Adjectives derived from proper nouns.

The Elizabethan age.Roman law.

Such adjectives and even proper nouns themselves lose the capital when they are applied as trade or scientific names to articles of common use or reference.

roman type,india ink,chinese white,volt,watt,boycott,platonic,bohemian.

40. The first word of a direct quotation.

As he turned to go he said: “Farewell, we shall never meet again.”

41. The first word after “Whereas” and “Resolved” in resolutions.

WHEREAS. It has pleased God....therefore be itRESOLVED, That....

42. The first word after a colon when the colon introduces a logically complete phrase not very closely connected with what precedes.

My conclusion is: A policy of consistent neutrality is the only proper one for the country.

As the proverb well says: Beware the anger of a patient man.

43.Ointerjection, but notohunless it begins a sentence.

In Latin sentences of exclamation, denunciation or appeal the lower-caseois used.

O tempora, o mores temporum.

44. The first personal pronounIwherever it occurs.

45. Emphasized words.

We stand for Liberty and Union.

This use should be avoided except for advertising display, or job work.

We call attention to our Stock of Boots, Shoes, and Furnishings.

The use of small capitals presents its own peculiar problems to the printer. The small capital has the form of the large capital but without its size and conspicuousness. The small capitals are ordinarily no taller than the round letters of the lower-case. They are usually on a smaller set, with a lighter face and obscured by more connecting lines. In many fonts of type they are really the weakest and least distinguished of all the five series. Wide enough to cover the body of the type fairly thoroughly in most letters and thus to reduce the apparent space between letters, without ascenders and without descenders, they are very monotonous and singularly ineffective when used in any considerable quantity. When used in masses it is at times even difficult to read them.

The use of small capitals is quite different from that of large ones. For the reasons just given they are not suited to display. For this purpose they are no better than italics, if as good. Owing to their lack of striking appearance and commanding quality they are not used for emphasis. Display and emphasis it will be remembered are the two principal uses of the full capital.

Small capitals are used more for variety than for display. They are commonly used for:

Side headsRunning titlesCatch lines of title pages when particular display is not desired.

Side heads

Running titles

Catch lines of title pages when particular display is not desired.

They are sometimes used for the first word after a blank line, especially for the first word of a new chapter.

Long quotations of poetry are often printed with the first word in small capitals. In this, as in the preceding case,the whole word is printed in small capitals except the first letter which is a full capital.

Proper names standing at the beginning of a chapter, occasionally even of a paragraph, are sometimes spelled in capitals or small capitals. If small capitals are used the initials of the name are put in full capitals.

Until within a comparatively short time tables of contents were often set in small capitals. At the same time it was customary to give a fairly full synopsis of the contents of each chapter under the chapter head. The result was a very monotonous page, dull, dense, hard to read. It is much better and now more common to use small caps for the chapter heads and ordinary text type for abstracts, using dashes or dots to separate the phrases in the synopsis and beginning each phrase with a capital.

The following reproduction of a part of a page from the table of contents of DeVinne’sModern Methods of Book Compositionshows this method of treatment.

Where chapter synopses are not given, ordinary text type may be used for the table of contents.

The following reproduction of the table of contents of DeVinne’sCorrect Compositionshows this method of treatment.

Small capitals are best for subheads when of not more than two lines. If the subheads are longer it is best to use lower-case.

Signatures and credits are often put in small capitals. It is usually, however, better to use italics for the purpose. There is no need of a dash to connect the name with the quotation. When two or more quotations from the same author are used as mottoes, with reference to the works from which they are taken or the occasion on which they were said, the name of the author may be put in small capitals in a separate line, the name of the book or speech in italics, and the occasion in smaller roman type.

Numerous signatures to a document or petition, such as theMayflower Compactor theDeclaration of Independence, are often set in columns using capitals for the initials and small capitals for the rest of the name. Full capitals are too large for the purpose.

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