XXIBORING TOOLS

Fig. 117. "Setting" the marking gauge

"Seventh. Set the gauge at the required thickness, in this case7⁄8inch—and with gauge block against working face, make a line full length on both of the squared edges.

"Eighth. Dress down the remaining rough face to or near both gauge lines just drawn, and test with straight edge, as in the working face. The stock is now to the second dimension—thickness.

"Ninth. Secure the last dimension—length. As near one end as possible make a line across the working face with a knife and try square, and continue it around the four sides back to the starting place.If it does not come out exactly at this point, the stock is not square.

"From this knife line, measure off the length on the working face, and square a knife line on the four sides, as on the first end. Block-plane both ends to the knife lines, and test.

Fig. 118. The shooting board

"If these nine successive steps are carried out accurately, the answer is correct," as Ralph remarked after Harry had worked faithfully throughout the whole explanation.

The boys realized that they needed a shooting board as a necessary part of their equipment, and after Ralph had worked out the drawing shown in Fig. 118, Harry was told to square up the four pieces of stock to be used in its construction.

"Now let me show you a new trick," said Ralph. "It is always a good plan after making a drawing to write out a bill of material something like this:

1 pc. pine 14 × 8 ×1⁄21 pc. pine 6 × 2 ×1⁄21 pc. maple 14 × 6 ×1⁄24 11⁄4-inch f. h. screws1 pc. pine 8 × 11⁄2×7⁄853⁄4-inch f. h. screws

"There you have in a nutshell all the items needed for the shooting board, and you can proceed to square all your pieces to these dimensions without consulting the drawing until you are ready to assemble the parts. The five3⁄4-inch screws are for fastening the maple pieces to the flat piece of pine, and the 11⁄4screws to fasten the cleats. All the holes for screws are to be bored and countersunk."

"What's countersunk?" asked Harry.

This led to a talk on screws and boring tools, and as it is valuable to the young worker in wood, we will give it as fully as possible.

Fig. 119. The use of screws

"There are several kinds of screws," began Ralph, "but the two most commonly used are flat heads and round heads. (Fig. 119). Flat-head screws are those we generally think of, but unless the hole which has been bored or drilled is reamed out at the top, countersunk as we call it, the screw head willstand out from the surface ready to tear your clothes and to scratch anything it may come in contact with, so you can readily see the importance of sinking them below the surface.

"On the other hand, there are often cases where we have no desire to hide the screw. The round heads are used for such cases, and because of their shape they do not catch hold of things. These screws are usually blued—treated with acid to give them a dull, more artistic colour. Screws treated in this way do not rust as readily as the bright ones. You can buy brass screws in both flat and round head forms; in fact you can get tinned, Japanned, lacquered, bronzed, copper, nickel, and even silver plated screws—if you have the money.

"In buying them, you must always give two numbers—the length, in inches, and the diameter. This is the diameter of the wire forming the body and runs from 0 to 30, number 0 being about1⁄16inch.

"A one-inch screw No. 8 would be fatter or larger in diameter than a one-inch No. 6, which is of comparatively slight or thin proportions. They are sold in boxes containing a gross.

"In fastening two pieces of wood together, theyshould be prepared as shown ata(Fig. 119) for a flat head and as atbfor a round head. The screw slips through the first board, and the screw threads engage only in the second in each case."

"Boring tools are very interesting," said Ralph. The brace and bit for soft woods have practically taken the place of the old fashioned augers, gimlets, etc. The reason is not hard to find. An auger or gimlet could bore but one size of hole, while with a brace and set of bits almost any diameter can be secured. A little later on, I'll tell you about a Yankee invention along this line.

"The brace is a sort of universal tool holder, and any tool designed to fit into it is known as a bit, as for example a countersink bit, or a screw driver bit, and several varieties of drills.

"The shank, or part that fits into the brace, is usually square and tapering, and the part of the brace which engages this shank is called the 'chuck.' (Fig. 120.)

Fig. 120. Gimlet bit and centre bit

"The centre bit, an old-fashioned form, had all the necessary features of a good boring tool but one. It had a sharp centre for accurately locating thehole, a knife edge for cutting the fibres, and a chisel for removing the wood, but it lacked the spiral screw thread of the modern tool, and had to be forced through the wood by main strength. On a modern auger bit, this spiral screw relieves the worker of a large part of the labour; all he has to do is to turn the brace and keep it straight, supposing of course that the bit is sharp. (Fig. 121.)

"The auger bit is most commonly used by woodworkers. It has two knife edges and two chisels besides the spiral spur in the centre. A short form of this tool, called the dowel bit, has the advantage of bending less readily than the ordinary auger bit. The size in sixteenths of an inch is stamped into the metal shank, but if this number is not distinct or for any reason is missing, the diameter may be measured by holding the rule across the knife edges."

Fig. 121. The auger bit

"What's the Yankee invention you were going to tell me about?" interrupted Harry.

"Well, suppose you wanted to bore a large hole, say 21⁄2inches in diameter, the probabilities are that you wouldn't have a bit that size. In fact, to have a full set of bits from3⁄16inch up to 3 inches would mean a very expensive lot of tools. This difficulty has been overcome by a very clever invention called the extension or expansive bit. (Fig. 122). On this tool the knife edge and chisel are part of a moving lip, which may be fastened at any desired point by means of a set screw.

"Besides being adjustable in diameter, the lip of the bit has a scale, and the body a single line engraved on it. By bringing this line to the various measurements on the scale, you can set it to a definite size without the trouble of measuring it.

Fig. 122. The expansive bit

"The tool has certain limitations, of course. It is made in two sizes; one will bore holes of any size from1⁄2inch up to 11⁄2inches, and the other any size from7⁄8inch to 3 inches, while extra lips or cutters are made to bore as large as 4 inches, but if you ever try to bore a hole of this size you will want all your muscle."

The screw-driver bit is simply a screw-driver with a bit shank instead of a wood handle, and the countersink has a cone-shaped end with enough grooves cut in it to give one or more cutting edges. Its use was illustrated in making the bench hook and shooting board.

Fig. 123. The Forstner bit

The gimlet bit may be used for boring holes for screws. It is made from2⁄32inch up to12⁄32inch, and is valuable for preparing articles for the smaller-sized screws where the auger bit would be too large.

We find for sale drill bits for electricians, warranted to go through a nail if necessary, and dozens of special bits.

In working with thin wood, the auger bit is very apt to split it, especially brittle woods, like red gum. Even this contingency is provided for in the Forstner bit, which will bore a hole in a sheet of paper (Fig. 123), and is therefore very valuable for work in veneering or other very thin material.

The brace is represented by several styles and makers, but the beginner must look for the same qualities in the brace as he would in any other tool—good workmanship and material, simplicity and durability.

The old-fashioned Spofford brace was strong, simple, and reliable. For working in corners orany place where a full revolution of the tool is not possible, a ratchet attachment is necessary. This is found on most of the modern tools, and may be obtained at any hardware store. (Fig. 124).

Fig. 124. Common types of the brace

The hand drill (Fig. 125) is one of the most useful tools any one can have about the shop or the house. To be able to make holes in soft or hard wood, tin, zinc, brass, copper, or iron is certainly a great advantage, and some form of the tool should be in every establishment. Our boys found it useful in making moving toys, wind vanes, anemometers, and dozens of other pieces, and never regretted its cost. It may be bought for fifty cents and upward, a verygood one costing about $1.50. The drills designed to be used with this tool vary by1⁄64inch, beginning with5⁄64inch up to3⁄8inch. Above this a larger chuck is required. They have round shanks instead of the ordinary square bit shank.

Fig. 125. The hand drill

The need of a screw-driver is too obvious to require special mention. They are made with blades from two inches up to thirty inches long, and have round, flat, or corrugated handles. The best grip is obtained on either a flat or corrugated one, and two sizes are desirable, a small one with about a three-inch blade, the other with an eight or ten. (Fig. 126.)

Some of the magazine brad awls containing a dozen awls and screw-driver are very convenient, but the combinations supposed to contain a whole tool outfit, including saws, are poor investments.

Ratchet screw-drivers, from which the hand is not removed during the operation of driving or withdrawing a screw, are on the market, but they are luxuries rather than necessities.

Pliers with wire-cutting attachments are convenient, and should be added to the kit when possible; some ofthem are powerful enough to cut a heavy wire nail. (Fig. 127.)

Fig. 126. Screw-drivers

The Mallet.This simple tool is made in a dozen different forms for various trades. The round-headed kind is perhaps the cheapest. It is made of hickory or lignum vitæ. (Fig. 128.)

The best form for woodwork has an oblong or square head of lignum vitæ. The handle should pass clear through the head and be fastened with a wedge.

Fig. 127. Pliers

A blow from this tool does not shatter the tool handle as would a blow from a hammer. A comparison of the two blows might be likened to the action of gun powder and dynamite. The slow burning powder represents the action of the mallet. The hammer should never be used on a chisel or gouge.

Hand screws for holding glued-up work together, sometimes for holding special work on the bench top, are made of wood, with either wood or metal spindles. For ordinary work, the jawsshould be parallel, but special forms are on the market which will hold irregular forms, as shown inFig. 129.

Fig. 128. The mallet

They are made in several sizes, from little ones with 4-inch jaws up to 22-inch jaws. For large and heavy work, clamps of wood or metal may be had as large as eight feet in length. They are useful in the making of drawing boards, doors, etc., but are not a real necessity for boys' ordinary woodwork. Clamps in the form of trestles for specially important large work are made as large as twelve feet in length.

For ordinary purposes, a pair of 6-inch and a pair of 12 or 14 inch wood hand screws will answer. The ingenuity of the young woodworker will suggest other ways of holding glued-up work in the absence of hand screws, such as winding with heavy twine or rope, and twisting a stick through the strands, after the old method of tightening a buck saw or turning saw. In building up a drawing board and gluing the strips together, the requisite pressure may be obtained by laying it on the floor between blocks temporarily nailed there, and wedges driven in, after the method described for picture frames.

Fig. 129. Clamp and hand screws

A large part of the value derived from woodwork is in the exercise of ingenuity required to meet unexpected contingencies. Just so the owner ofan automobile learns more about mechanics and the construction of his machine by being obliged to make repairs on the road, miles from any repair shop, and with a limited number of tools and appliances.

Fig. 130. Hammers

This common tool is made in at least thirty different forms, and some styles in nine or ten different weights. For woodwork, the adze-eye claw hammer, weight sixteen ounces, will answer all requirements. For use with brads as small as3⁄8inch, a brad hammer of three or four ounces is desirable. Both of these forms are provided with claws for withdrawing nails. (Fig. 130.)

Claw hammers are comparatively modern inventions, and there are men now living who, when serving their apprenticeship, were obliged to withdraw their nails with a pair of pinchers. At that period all nails were wrought by hand, and housesare standing to-day on which the clapboards are still held in place by nails forged on an anvil by hand.

A volume might be written about the various shapes, sizes, and methods of cutting of this tool. Its place in woodwork is limited, and it should never be used where another tool will do the work. Like sand-paper, it has a tendency to lead to bad habits and slovenly work. On certain pieces of curved work in hard wood it may be used to remove the sharp edges left by chisel or gouge, especially the latter, but its action even there is apt to tear away the fibres.

An eight-inch, half-round, cabinet wood file and an eight-inch, round, slim No. 0 cut Swiss pattern file are sufficient.

For sharpening bits, a special auger bit file is made, and this may be used for sharpening the marking gauge point and such small work. For sharpening saw teeth, triangular saw files are sold at all hardware stores.

This is necessary on outdoor structures which are to be placed on foundations, in securing level or horizontal timbers, and in plumbing the uprights.The human eye is not equal to the task. Masons and builders make use of wooden plumb rods, but as the level is necessary to secure the horizontals, it will be at hand for the uprights, the two glass tubes being at right angles. (Fig. 131.)

Fig. 131. The spirit level

A two-foot, four-fold, boxwood rule, graduated to eighths outside and sixteenths inside, will answer all ordinary requirements. (Fig. 132.)

Fig. 132. Steel square and rule

This simple but valuable tool, about which volumes have been written, is necessary for building construction, but is not needed in the making of furniture or cabinet work.

The boys now became very busy completing their shop equipment, and the first project was a box for holding different sizes of nails. This was to be kept on the bench where it could be reached conveniently, and it is shown inFig. 133.

After studying the sketch, Harry made out the bill of material:

2 pcs. pine 15 × 13⁄4×1⁄22 pcs. pine 3 × 13⁄4×1⁄22 pcs. pine 31⁄2× 13⁄4×3⁄8

Fig. 133. The nail box

These six pieces were squared up, and the joints for the two partitions laid out by placing them edge to edge in the vise. Pencil lines were drawn across the faces at random,a. Ralph explained that by fitting these pencil lines they could at any timebring the two pieces together in the original position.

Fig. 134. Socket chisels

The four knife lines representing the edges of the grooves were next drawn, and squared half-way down on each edge, using the face with the pencil lines as a working face. The bottom of the groove was laid off with the marking gauge set at1⁄4inch. The wood inside the lines was removed by making a saw cut just inside the knife lines, and cutting out with a3⁄8-inch chisel.

This led to a talk on chisels. Ralph explained that for fine work a "firmer" chisel was used, having a comparatively thin body.

There are two kinds of handles, known as "socket" and "tang." The chisels having "tangs" should never be hammered, as the tang acts as a wedge and splits the handle. Where blows are to be struck with the mallet, a socket handle should be used. (Fig. 134.) For heavy work, where hard blows are to be struck, as in house-framing, and out-of-door work generally, the heavy framing tool should be used. The handle of this chisel has a heavyiron ring near the top to keep it from going to pieces.

Our boys' equipment at this time consisted of one half-inch and a one-inch firmer chisel with tang handles, a1⁄8-inch and3⁄8-inch socket firmer, and one1⁄2-inch framing chisel. Later on they added a1⁄4-inch firmer with tang handle.

The grooves for the nail box were cut with the3⁄8-inch chisel without the aid of the mallet.

Ralph showed how, by inclining the tool at a slight angle, a paring action could be obtained, and by working from both ends of the groove no corners were destroyed.

When the four grooves were finished, the box was ready for assembling. This called for hammer and nails.

Wire nails are so cheap now that the old-fashioned cut nails have been largely driven from the market.

The nails used on the box were one-inch brads.

The holding power of flat-head nails is of course much greater than bung head, but in this case the box was to be squared up after nailing, exactly as if it were a solid block of wood. This meant planing the sides and ends, and as the nails would ruin the plane iron, they were all sunk below the surface with a nail set or punch. (Fig. 135). This is a usefultool, but not absolutely necessary, as for light work a wire nail, with the point ground flat on the grindstone, will answer the same purpose. A carpenter frequently uses the edge of a flat-head nail instead of the punch.

Photograph by Arthur G. EldredgeThe Correct Way to Hold the Chisel.

Photograph by Arthur G. Eldredge

The Correct Way to Hold the Chisel.

The box was assembled by nailing together the sides and ends. The bottom was next put on, holding the try square along one side and end to make sure everything was square, and last of all the two partitions were pushed down into their grooves, and tied in place by one brad from each side. Next, all nails were set, and the outside tested with the try square and trued up with the plane.

Fig. 135. Wire nails and nail sets

Fig. 135a Wire nails and nail sets

The cabinet of drawers shown inFig. 136was next designed to keep the assortment of screws and nails, which the boys knew would soon accumulate. As far as possible, they were kept in their original paper boxes, on which the sizes were plainly printed.

The twelve drawers were simply boxes withoutcovers or partitions, and Ralph suggested that it was not necessary to make them all at once, but that they could often fill in spare time that way, and gradually complete the dozen.

Fig. 136. Cabinet for nails and screws

After making the nail box with partitions, this was a simple job, it being only important that they all be of the same size.

The construction of the cabinet, however, brought new problems. The shelves, being short, did not require any vertical support except at the ends, where they were gained into the sides, and to give Harry practice the top and bottom were to be "rabbeted" into the sides. The sides then werethe most important parts. All six pieces were first squared up to the dimensions called for in the drawing. The list of material was as follows:

4 pcs. 245⁄8× 12 ×1⁄2shelves2 pcs. 14 × 12 ×1⁄2ends1 pcs. 251⁄8× 14 ×1⁄4back

"The grain must run the long way," said Ralph, "so the grooves will be across the grain."

The four grooves were laid out with knife and try square, and the lines scored as deeply with the knife as possible.

Then another cut was made with the knife inside of the first, and with the knife held at about 45 degrees, cutting out a V-shaped groove, as shown ata.

In each of these grooves a cut with the buck saw was made down to the line, and the wood removed with the3⁄8-inch chisel. There are special planes, called rabbet planes, and plows for doing this kind of work, but it is good practice for beginners to use the chisel.

The grooves finished, the cabinet was put together with 11⁄2-inch brads, except the back. This being of thin material, and having no special strain on it, was nailed on with 1-inch brads. The total width of the drawers in each tier was1⁄8inch lessthan the space. This gave clearance, so that they could be moved in or out easily.

Later, when all twelve drawers were finished, the boys bought a dozen simple drawer pulls, and screwed one in the centre of each box.

The centre was found by drawing the diagonals in light pencil lines. The front and ends were sand-papered, and given two coats of dark-green stain, and the cabinet was placed on a shelf against the wall.

The boys felt that they were ready for business, and Ralph suggested that they had provided enough weather vanes and windmills, but had made no provisions for the birds.

The cat, that arch enemy of the native birds, had driven the robins, martins, and wrens all away. Each year some of these brave little birds started homes in the trees near the house only to have their families devoured as soon as they were hatched.

A bird house to be attractive need not be very pretentious, but it must absolutely be cat-proof, or the birds will inspect it carefully from all points of view and leave it severely alone. A nest well hidden in the tree foliage or shrubbery is not nearly so conspicuous as a brightly painted house fastened to the limbs of a tree. The side of a barn or outhouse, far enough down from the roof so that the cat cannot reach it, or a tall pole covered on the upper part with tin, so that the feline bird hunter cannot gain a foothold, are about the only safeplaces for a house which the birds will actually adopt. The first house our woodworkers manufactured is shown inFig. 137.

This was a single or one-family house, and its construction was very simple.

The list of material follows:

One pc.1⁄2-inch pine or white wood 10 × 61⁄2ins.Two pcs.1⁄2-inch pine or white wood 71⁄2× 3 ins.One pc.1⁄2-inch pine or white wood 91⁄2× 5 ins.One pc.1⁄2-inch pine or white wood 91⁄2× 41⁄2ins.Two pcs.1⁄2-inch pine or white wood 51⁄4× 41⁄2ins.

The first piece, 10 × 61⁄2inches, was simply squared up for the bottom. The two pieces for the sides, 71⁄2× 3 inches, were squared up, and one edge of each planed to a 45-degree bevel, to engage with the roof boards.

The latter were squared up, and nailed together at right angles with 11⁄4-inch brads.

The two ends, 51⁄2× 41⁄2inches, were carefully laid out as shown in the drawing, sawed, and planed to the lines with square edges.

In the end which was to contain the circular door a hole 13⁄4inches in diameter was bored with its centre two inches from the bottom line. This required the services of the extension bit, and, to avoid splitting the wood, as soon as the spur of thebit showed on the further side, the wood was turned about, and the hole finished from the other side.

The house was next turned upside down, and fastened in the bench vise. Holes were drilled along the sides of the bottom piece3⁄4inch in from the edge—three on each side—countersunk, and the piece fastened to the sides with 1-inch No. 8 screws. The top pieces already nailed together were now nailed in position on the sides and ends with 1-inch brads.

Fig. 137. One family bird house, and house for high-hole

The pole they used was 13 feet long and about 3inches in diameter at the small end. It was rounded at this end by using a draw knife. (Fig. 138). A block of7⁄8-inch pine was bored out, and fitted snugly over the end of the pole. This block was then removed, and four holes bored through it for screws.

Fig. 138. The draw knife

Before replacing the block on the top of the pole a cut was made across the end of the pole about two inches deep, by means of the rip saw.

The block was replaced, and wooden wedges driven into the saw cut. This fastened the block securely on the end of the pole, and after making sure that it was level, the bird house was fastened to the block by four 11⁄4-inch screws from the under side.

A piece of sheet tin was wound around just under the house to discourage pussy, and the pole set into the ground about three feet, bringing the under side of the house ten feet above the ground.

A double or two-family house of similar proportions was built next, as shown inFig. 139. The list of material called for:

One pc.1⁄2-inch wood 181⁄2× 61⁄2(bottom)One pc.1⁄2-inch wood 181⁄2× 51⁄2(roof)One pc.1⁄2-inch wood 181⁄2× 41⁄2(roof)Two pcs.1⁄2-inch wood 151⁄2× 3 (sides)Three pcs.1⁄2-inch wood 51⁄4× 41⁄2(ends and partition)

The construction was the same as before, each end having a door, and the partition of course being solid. The block for supporting the house on the pole was larger, being 8 × 5 × 11⁄4inches, and called for six 11⁄2-inch No. 10 screws, to secure it to the under side of the floor. Harry wanted to make it more complete by adding a small wind vane, but Ralph said it might frighten the birds, so it was omitted.

Of course larger and more ornamental houses may be built, but where there are too many families in such close proximity there is apt to be trouble, while houses that are too conspicuous do not appeal to the beautiful American wild birds that we want to attract. With the English sparrow it does not matter so much. For these birds, a tenement house against the side of a barn may be built easily, in the form shown inFig. 139.

This may be made any length, each door leadingto a compartment separated from the others by partitions. Make as many pieces plus one as there are to be compartments, apartments, or flats; have the bottom project as shown in side view for a perch and walk, and have the roof also project to shed rain.

If not fastened from the inside of the barn by stout screws, this house must be secured to a shelf, or by brackets.

Fig. 139. Two family house and tenement

The side view shows a simple shelf made of a back piece secured to the side of the barn by screws or nails, a plain shelf nailed to this back piece, and two wooden brackets. If iron brackets are used, both the shelf and back piece may be omitted, thebrackets being fastened to the under side of the bird house and to the siding of the barn by screws.

For birds like the high-hole, or flicker, a piece of hollow log, or an elongated box fastened securely to the side of a pole, made cat proof, is very acceptable. This should not be painted, but should be provided with a door on the side and a perch. (Fig. 137.) The opening should be about three inches for these large birds, and the location should be as secluded as possible. Any number of devices will suggest themselves, but always remember the cat, and study the location from the bird point of view. The martins and swallows are especially to be encouraged, as they are wonderful destroyers of insects.

Fig. 140. The bird bath

One device, especially grateful to these feathered friends in hot weather, is a pan of water, in a place where they can drink and bathe without being eternally on the watch for that crouching enemy, who is always stalking them—Tabby.

A pedestal with a platform about four feet above the ground will do nicely, and it can be placed soclose to the house that you can watch them, and enjoy their ablutions almost as much as they do. (Fig. 140.)

The construction is too simple to require an explanation.

The boys thought it was about time to pay some attention to the wants of the family, who had been clamouring for weeks to have this article or that for the kitchen, dining room, and in fact for every part of the house.

Ralph was a wise teacher, however. He knew that the cause of ninety out of every hundred failures was due to the young mechanic's trying some problem too far advanced.

It seems strange that people cannot learn this lesson. We have seen hundreds of boys led along, say in carving, from one simple lesson to another, until at the end of five or six carefully graded exercises, these boys could carve beautifully any design given them.

On the other hand, we have seen boys start in on their own hook, without any direction from older people, and ruining everything they tried, simply because they wanted to do the most difficult thing first, before they had developed any skill.

Ralph was determined that his boy should be an expert and successful user of tools, so he paid no attention to the clamours of the family, and allowed Harry to make only those things which were within his power to do well. Each time a piece of work was finished, and inspected by the family, the universal chorus was something like this:

"Well, if he can make such a fine bird house, I don't see why he can't make half a dozen picture frames for these water colors," or, "If he can make such a fine pen tray, I don't see why he can't make a new stool for the piano!"

In vain Ralph explained that these things could be made in due time, that a picture frame required much more skill than a bird house, etc.

Their household articles commenced with a bread board for the kitchen. (Fig. 141). This gave Harry his first experience in planing a broad surface. He used jack and smoothing planes for the working face, and squared the rest of the board as he had smaller pieces. This required some time. The wood about the semi-circular top was removed with saw and chisel, the board held for the chiselling flat on the bench hook. After getting this curve as true as possible with the chisel, it was finished with a sand-paper block. A1⁄2-inch hole was bored at thecentre of the semi-circle to hang it up by, and the two lower corners were rounded with chisel and sand-paper. No sand-paper was used on the flat surface, as Ralph explained this was a board for cutting bread, and the grit from the sand-paper would become more or less embedded in the wood, and it would spoil the bread knife. Sand-paper is made of ground quartz, and it soon dulls the edge of a cutting tool.

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