Fig. 211.Fig. 211.
Fig. 212.Fig. 212.
The Tongue and Groove.—This form of uniting members has only a limited application. It isserviceable for floors, table tops, paneling, etc. In Fig. 213, a door panel is shown, and the door mullions (B) are also so secured to the rail (C). The tongue-and-groove method is never used by itself. It must always have some support or reinforcing means.
Fig. 213.Fig. 213.
Fig. 214.Fig. 215.Fig. 214.Fig. 215.
Fig. 214.
Fig. 215.
Beading.—This part of the work pertains to surface finishings, and may or may not be used in connection with rabbeting.
Figs. 214 and 215 show the simplest and most generally adopted forms in which it is made and used in connection with rabbeting, or with the tongue and groove. The bead is placed on one or both sides of that margin of the board (Fig. 214) which has the tongue, and the adjoining board has the usual flooring groove to butt against and receive the tongue. It is frequently the case that a blind bead, as in Fig. 215, runs throughthe middle of the board, so as to give the appearance of narrow strips when used for wainscoting, or for ceilings. The beads also serve to hide the joints of the boards.
Fig. 216.Fig. 217.Fig. 218.Fig. 216.Fig. 217.Fig. 218.
Fig. 216.
Fig. 217.
Fig. 218.
Ornamental Bead Finish.—These figures show how the bead may be used for finishing corners, edges and projections. Fig. 216 has a bead at each corner of a stile (A), and a finishing strip of half-round material (B) is nailed to the flat edge. Fig. 217 has simply the corners themselves beaded, and it makes a most serviceable finish for the edges of projecting members.
Fig. 218, used for wider members, has the corners beaded and a fancy molding (C); or the reduced edge of the stile itself is rounded off.
Fig. 219.Fig. 220.Fig. 219.Fig. 220.
Fig. 219.
Fig. 220.
The Bead and Rabbet.—A more amplified form of work is available where the rabbet plane is used with the beader. These two planes togetherwill, if properly used, offer a strong substitute for molding and molding effects.
Fig. 219 has both sides first rabbeted, as at A, and the corners then beaded, as at B, with the reduced part of the member rounded off, as at C. Or, as in Fig. 220, the reduced edge of the member may have the corners beaded, as at D, and the rabbeted corners filled in with a round or concaved moulding (E).
Shading with Beads and Rabbets.—You will see from the foregoing, that these embellishments are serviceable because they provide the article with a large number of angles and surfaces to cast lights and shadows; and for this reason the boy should strive to produce the effects which this class of work requires.
House building is the carpenter's craft; cabinet-making the joiner's trade, yet both are so intimately associated, that it is difficult to draw a line. The same tools, the same methods and the same materials are employed.
There is no trade more ennobling than home building. It is a vocation which touches every man and woman, and to make it really an art is, or should be, the true aspiration of every craftsman.
The House and Embellishments.—The refined arts, such as sculpture and painting, merely embellish the home or the castle, so that when we build the structure it should be made with an eye not only to comfort and convenience, but fitting in an artistic and æsthetic sense. It is just as easy to build a beautiful home as an ugly, ungainly, illy proportioned structure.
Beauty Not Ornamentation.—The boy, in his early training, should learn this fundamental truth, that beauty, architecturally, does not depend upon ornamentation. Some of the most beautiful structures in the world are very plain.Beauty consists in proportions, in proper correlation of parts, and in adaptation for the uses to which the structure is to be put.
Plain Structures.—A house with a plain façade, having a roof properly pitched and with a simple cornice, if joined to a wing which is not ungainly or out of proper proportions, is infinitely more beautiful than a rambling structure, in which one part suggests one order of architecture and the other part some other type or no type at all, and in which the embellishments are out of keeping with the size or pretensions of the house.
Colonial Type.—For real beauty, on a larger scale, there is nothing to-day which equals the old Colonial type with the Corinthian columns and entablature. The Lee mansion, now the National Cemetery, at Washington, is a fine example. Such houses are usually square or rectangular in plan, severely plain, with the whole ornamentation consisting of the columns and the portico. This type presents an appearance of massiveness and grandeur and is an excellent illustration of a form wherein the main characteristic of the structure is concentrated or massed at one point.
The Church of the Madelaine, Paris, is another striking example of this period of architecture.
Of course, it would be out of place with cottages and small houses, but it is well to study and toknow what forms are most available and desirable to adopt, and particularly to know something of the art in which you are interested.
The Roof the Keynote.—Now, there is one thing which should, and does, distinguish the residence from other types of buildings, excepting churches. It is the roof. A house is dominated by its covering. I refer to the modern home. It is not true with the Colonial or the Grecian types. In those the façade or the columns and cornices predominate over everything else.
Bungalow Types.—If you will take up any book on bungalow work and note the outlines of the views you will see that the roof forms the main element or theme. In fact, in most buildings of this kind everything is submerged but the roof and roof details. They are made exceedingly flat, with different pitches with dormers and gables intermingled and indiscriminately placed, with cornices illy assorted and of different kinds, so that the multiplicity of diversified details gives an appearance of great elaboration. Many of those designs are monstrosities and should, if possible, be legally prohibited.
I cannot attempt to give even so much as an outline of what constitutes art in its relation to building, but my object is to call attention to this phase of the question, and as you proceed inyour studies and your work you will realize the value and truthfulness of the foregoing observations.
General House Building.—We are to treat, generally, on the subject of house building, how the work is laid out, and how built, and in doing so I shall take a concrete example of the work. This can be made more effectual for the purpose if it is on simple lines.
Building Plans.—We must first have a plan; and the real carpenter must have the ability to plan as well as to do the work. We want a five-room house, comprising a parlor, dining room, two bedrooms, a kitchen and a bathroom. Just a modest little home, to which we can devote our spare hours, and which will be neat and comfortable when finished. It must be a one-story house, and that fact at once settles the roof question. We can make the house perfectly square in plan, or rectangular, and divide up the space into the proper divisions.
The Plain Square Floor Planwill first be taken up, as it is such an easy roof to build. Of course, it is severely plain.
Fig. 221 shows our proposed plan, drawn in the rough, without any attempts to measure the different apartments, and with the floor plan exactly square. Supposing we run a hall (A) through the middle. On one side of this let us plan for a dining room and a kitchen, a portion of the kitchen space to be given over to a closet and a bathroom.
Fig. 221.Fig. 221.
The chimney (B) must be made accessible from both rooms. On the other side of the hallway the space is divided into a parlor and two bedrooms.
The Rectangular Plan.—In the rectangular floor plan (Fig. 222) a portion of the floor space is cut out for a porch (A), so that we may use the end or the side for the entrance. Supposing we use the end of the house for this purpose. The entrance room (B) may be a bedroom, or a reception and living room, and to the rear of this room is the dining room, connected with the reception room by a hall (C). This hall also leads to the kitchen and to the bathroom, as well as to the other bedroom. The parlor is connected with the entrance room (B), and also with the bedroom. All of this is optional, of course.
Fig. 222.Fig. 222.
There are also two chimneys, one chimney (D) having two flues and the other chimney (E) having three flues, so that every room is accommodated.
Fig. 223.Fig. 223.
Room Measurements.—We must now determine the dimensions of each room, and then how we shall build the roof.
In Figs. 223 and 224, we have now drawn outin detail the sizes, the locations of the door and windows, the chimneys and the closets, as well as the bathroom. All this work may be changed or modified to suit conditions and the taste of the designer.
Fig. 224.Fig. 224.
Front and Side Lines.—From the floor diagram, and the door and window spaces, as marked out, we may now proceed to lay out rough front and side outlines of the building. The ceilings are to be 9 feet, and if we put a rather low-pitched roof on the square structure (Fig. 223) the front may look something like Fig. 225, and a greater pitch given to the rectangular plan (Fig. 224) will present a view as shown in Fig. 226.
Fig. 225.Fig. 225.
Fig. 226.Fig. 226.
The Roof.—The pitch of the roof (Fig. 225) is what is called "third pitch," and the roof (Fig. 226) has a half pitch. A "third" pitch is determined as follows:
Roof Pitch.—In Fig. 227 draw a vertical line (A) and join it by a horizontal line (B). Then strike a circle (C) and step it off into three parts. The line (D), which intersects the first mark (E) and the angle of the lines (A, B), is the pitch.
In Fig. 228 the line A is struck at 15 degrees, which is halfway between lines B and C, and it is, therefore, termed "half-pitch."
Fig. 227.Fig. 228.Fig. 227.Fig. 228.
Fig. 227.
Fig. 228.
Thus, we have made the ground plans, the elevations and the roofs as simple as possible. Let us proceed next with the details of the building.
The Foundation.—This may be of brick, stone or concrete, and its dimensions should be at least 1½ inches further out than the sill.
The Sills.—We are going to build what is called a "balloon frame"; and, first, we put down the sills, which will be a course of 2" × 6", or 2" × 8" joists, as in Fig. 229.
The Flooring Joist.—The flooring joists (A) are then put down (Fig. 230). These should extendclear across the house from side to side, if possible, or, if the plan is too wide, they should be lapped at the middle wall and spiked together. The ends should extend out flush with the outer margins of the sills, as shown, but in putting down the first and last sill, space must be left along the sides of the joist of sufficient width to place the studding.
Fig. 229.Fig. 229.
Fig. 230.Fig. 230.
The Studding.—The next step is to put the studding into position. 4" × 4" must be used for corners and at the sides of door and window openings.4" × 6" may be used at corners, if preferred. Consult your plan and see where the openings are for doors and windows. Measure the widths of the door and window frames, and make a measuring stick for this purpose. You must leave at least one-half inch clearance for the window or door frame, so as to give sufficient room to plumb and set the frame.
Setting Up.—First set up the corner posts, plumbing and bracing them. Cut a top plate for each side you are working on.
Fig. 231.Fig. 231.
The Plate.—As it will be necessary in our job to use two or more lengths of 2" × 4" scantling for the plate, it will be necessary to join them together. Do this with a lap-and-butt joint (Fig. 231).
Then set up the 4" × 4" posts for the sides of the doors and windows, and for the partition walls.
The plate should be laid down on the sill, and marked with a pencil for every scantling to correspond with the sill markings. The plate is then put on and spiked to the 4" × 4" posts.
Intermediate Studding.—It will then be aneasy matter to put in the intermediate 2" × 4" studding, placing them as nearly as possible 16 inches apart to accommodate the 48-inch plastering lath.
Fig. 232.Fig. 232.
Wall Headers.—When all the studding are in you will need headers above and rails below the windows and headers above all the doors, so that you will have timbers to nail the siding to, as well as for the lathing.
Ceiling Joists.—We are now ready for the ceiling joists, which are, usually, 2" × 6", unless there is an upper floor. These are laid 16 inches apart from center to center, preferably parallel with the floor joist.
It should be borne in mind that the ceilingjoist must always be put on with reference to the roof.
Thus, in Fig. 232, the ceiling joists (A) have their ends resting on the plate (B), so that the rafters are in line with the joists.
Braces.—It would also be well, in putting up the studding, to use plenty of braces, although for a one-story building this is not so essential as in two-story structures, because the weather boarding serves as a system of bracing.
Fig. 233.Fig. 233.
The Rafters.—These may be made to provide for the gutter or not, as may be desired. They should be of 2" × 4" scantling.
The Gutter.—In Fig. 233 I show a most serviceable way to provide for the gutter. A V-shaped notch is cut out of the upper side of the rafter, in which is placed the floor and a side. Thisfloor piece is raised at one end to provide an incline for the water.
A face-board is then applied and nailed to the ends of the rafters. This face-board is surmounted by a cap, which has an overhang, beneath which is a molding of any convenient pattern. The face-board projects down at least two inches below the angled cut of the rafter, so that when the base-board is applied, the lower margin of the face-board will project one inch below the base.
Fig. 234.Fig. 234.
This base-board is horizontal, as you will see. The facia-board may be of any desired width, and a corner molding should be added. It is optional to use the brackets, but if added they should be spaced apart a distance not greater than twice the height of the bracket.
A much simpler form of gutter is shown in Fig. 234, in which a V-shaped notch is also cut in therafter, and the channel is made by the pieces. The end of the rafter is cut at right angles, so the face-board is at an angle. This is also surmounted by an overhanging cap and a molding. The base is nailed to the lower edges of the rafters, and the facia is then applied.
Fig. 234a.Fig. 234a.
In Fig. 234athe roof has no gutter, so that the end of the rafter is cut off at an angle and a molding applied on the face-board. The base is nailed to the rafters. This is the cheapest and simplest form of structure for the roof.
Setting Door and Window Frames.—The next step in order is to set the door and window frames preparatory to applying the weather boarding. It is then ready for the roof, which should be put on before the floor is laid.
Plastering and Inside Finish.—Next in order is the plastering, then the base-boards and thecasing; and, finally, the door and windows should be fitted into position.
Enough has been said here merely to give a general outline, with some details, how to proceed with the work.
Bridges.—Bridge building is not, strictly, a part of the carpenter's education at the present day, because most structures of this kind are now built of steel; but there are certain principles involved in bridge construction which the carpenter should master.
Self-supporting Roofs.—In putting up, for instance, self-supporting roofs, or ceilings with wide spans, and steeples or towers, the bridge principle of trussed members should be understood.
The most simple bridge or trussed form is the well-known A-shaped arch.
Fig. 235.Fig. 235.
Common Trusses.—One form is shown in Fig. 235, with a vertical king post. In Fig. 236 there are two vertical supporting members, called queen posts, used in longer structures. Both of theseforms are equally well adapted for small bridges or for roof supports.
The Vertical Upright Truss.—This form of truss naturally develops into a type of wooden bridge known all over the country, as its framing is simple, and calculations as to its capacity to sustain loads may readily be made. Figs. 237, 238 and 239 illustrate these forms.
Fig. 236.Fig. 236.
Fig. 237.Fig. 237.
The Warren Girder.—Out of this simple truss grew the Warren girder, a type of bridge particularly adapted for iron and steel construction.
This is the simplest form for metal bridge truss, or girder. It is now also largely used in steel buildings and for other work requiring strength with small weight.
Fig. 238.Fig. 238.
Fig. 239.Fig. 239.
Fig. 240.Fig. 240.
The Bowstring Girder.—Only one other form ofbridge truss need be mentioned here, and that is thebowstringshown in Fig. 240.
In this type the bow receives the entire compression thrust, and the chords act merely as suspending members.
Fundamental Truss Form.—In every form of truss, whether for building or for bridge work, the principles of the famous A-truss must be employed in some form or other; and the boy who is experimentally inclined will readily evolve means to determine what degree of strength the upper and the lower members must have for a given length of truss to sustain a specified weight.
There are rules for all these problems, some of them very intricate, but all of them intensely interesting. It will be a valuable addition to your knowledge to give this subject earnest study.
In this place consideration will be given to some of the features relating to the materials to be employed, particularly with reference to the manner in which they can be worked to the best advantage, rather than to their uses.
The Best Woods.—The prime wood, and the one with which most boys are familiar, is white pine. It has an even texture throughout, is generally straight grained, and is soft and easily worked. White pine is a wood requiring a very sharp tool. It is, therefore, the best material for the beginner, as it will at the outset teach him the important lesson of keeping the tools in a good, sharp condition.
Soft Woods.—It is also well for the novice to do his initial work with a soft wood, because in joining the parts together inaccuracies may be easily corrected. If, for instance, in mortising and tenoning, the edge of the mortised member is not true, or, rather, is not "square," the shoulder of the tenon on one side will abut before the other side does, and thus leave a crack, if the wood is hard. If the wood is soft there is always enough yield toenable the workman to spring it together. Therefore, until you have learned how to make a true joint, use soft wood.
Poplar is another good wood for the beginner, as well as redwood, a western product.
Hard Woods.—Of the hard woods, cherry is the most desirable for the carpenter's tool. For working purposes it has all the advantages of a soft wood, and none of its disadvantages. It is not apt to warp, like poplar or birch, and its shrinking unit is less than that of any other wood, excepting redwood. There is practically no shrinkage in redwood.
The Most Difficult Woods.—Ash is by far the most difficult wood to work. While not as hard as oak, it has the disadvantage that the entire board is seamed with growth ribs which are extremely hard, while the intervening layers between these ribs are soft, and have open pores, so that, for instance, in making a mortise, the chisel is liable to follow the hard ribs, if the grain runs at an angle to the course of the mortise.
The Hard-ribbed Grain in Wood.—This peculiarity of the grain in ash makes it a beautiful wood when finished. Of the light-colored woods, oak only excels it, because in this latter wood each year's growth shows a wider band, and the interstices between the ribs have stronger contrastingcolors than ash; so that in filling the surface, before finishing it, the grain of the wood is brought out with most effective clearness and with a beautifully blended contrast.
The Easiest Working Woods.—The same thing may be said, relatively, concerning cherry and walnut. While cherry has a beautiful finishing surface, the blending contrasts of colors are not so effective as in walnut.
Oregon pine is extremely hard to work, owing to the same difficulties experienced in handling ash; but the finished Oregon pine surface makes it a most desirable material for certain articles of furniture.
Do not attempt to employ this nor ash until you have mastered the trade. Confine yourself to pine, poplar, cherry and walnut. These woods are all easily obtainable everywhere, and from them you can make a most creditable variety of useful articles.
Sugar and maple are two hard woods which may be added to the list. Sugar, particularly, is a good-working wood, but maple is more difficult. Spruce, on the other hand, is the strongest and toughest wood, considering its weight, which is but a little more than that of pine.
Differences in the Working of Woods.—Different woods are not worked with equal facility byall the tools. Oak is an easy wood to handle with a saw, but is, probably, aside from ash, the most difficult wood known to plane.
Ash is hard for the saw or the plane. On the other hand, there is no wood so easy to manipulate with the saw or plane as cherry. Pine is easily worked with a plane, but difficult to saw; not on account of hardness, but because it is so soft that the saw is liable to tear it.
Forcing Saws in Wood.—One of the reasons why the forcing of saws is such a bad practice will be observed in cutting white or yellow pine. For cross-cutting, the saw should have fine teeth, not heavily set, and evenly filed. To do a good job of cross-cutting, the saw must be held at a greater angle, or should lay down flatter than in ripping, as by so doing the lower side of the board will not break away as much as if the saw should be held more nearly vertical.
These general observations are made in the hope that they will serve as a guide to enable you to select your lumber with some degree of intelligence before you commence work.
Advantages of Wood Turning.—This is not, strictly, in the carpenter's domain; but a knowledge of its use will be of great service in the trade, and particularly in cabinet making. I urge the ingenious youth to rig up a wood-turning lathe, for the reason that it is a tool easily made and one which may be readily turned by foot, if other power is not available.
Simple Turning Lathe.—A very simple turning lathe may be made by following these instructions:
The Rails.—Procure two straight 2" × 4" scantling (A), four feet long, and planed on all sides. Bore four ⅜-inch holes at each end, as shown, and 10 inches from one end four more holes. A plan of these holes is shown in B, where the exact spacing is indicated. Then prepare two pieces 2" × 4" scantling (C), planed, 42 inches long, one end of each being chamfered off, as at 2, and provided with four bolt holes. Ten inches down, and on the same side, with the chamfer (2) is a cross gain (3), the same angle as the chamfer. Midway between the cross gain (3) and the lower end of the leg isa gain (4) in the edge, at right angles to the cross gain (3).
The Legs.—Now prepare two legs (D) for the tail end of the frame, each 32 inches long, with a chamfer (5) at one end, and provided with four bolt holes. At the lower end bore a bolt hole for the cross base piece. This piece (E) is 4" × 4", 21 inches long, and has a bolt hole at each end and one near the middle. The next piece (F) is 2" × 4", 14½ inches long, provided with a rebate (6) at each end, to fit the cross gains (4) of the legs (C). Near the middle is a journal block (7).
Fig. 241. Frame details.Fig. 241. Frame details.
Centering Blocks.—Next provide a 4" × 4" piece (G), 40 inches long, through which bore a ¾-inch hole (8), 2 inches from the upper end, andfour bolt holes at right angles to the shaft hole (8). Then, with a saw split down this bearing, as shown at 9, to a point 4 inches from the end. Ten inches below the upper end prepare two cross gains (10), each an inch deep and four inches wide. In these gains are placed the top rails (A), so the bolt holes in the gains (10) will coincide with the bolt holes (11) in the piece A. Below the gains (10) this post has a journal block (12), intended to be in line with the journal block (7) of the piece F.
Fig. 242. Tail Stock.Fig. 242. Tail Stock.
Then make a block (H) 2" × 4", and 6 inches long. This also must have a shaft hole (B), and a saw kerf (14), similar to the arrangement on the upper end of the post (G); also bore four bolt holes, as shown. This block rests between the upper ends of the lugs (C).
Another block (I), 2" × 4", and 6 feet long, with four bolt holes, will be required for the tail end of the frame, to keep the rails (A) two inches apart at that end.
The Tail Stock.—This part of the structure is made of the following described material:
Procure a scantling (J), planed, 4" × 4", 24 inches long, the upper end of which is to be provided with four bolt holes, and a centering hole (15). At the lower end of the piece is a slot (16) 8 inches long and 1½ inches wide, and there are also two bolt holes bored transversely through the piece to receive bolts for reinforcing the end.
A pair of cheekpieces (K), 2" × 4", and each 12 inches long, are mitered at the ends, and each has four bolt holes by means of which the ends may be bolted to the upright (J).
Then a step wedge (L) is made of 1⅜" × 2" material, 10 inches long. This has at least four steps (17), each step being 2 inches long. A wedge 1⅜ inches thick, 10 inches long, and tapering from 2 inches to 1⅜ inches, completes the tail-stock.
The Tool Rest.—This is the most difficult part of the whole lathe, as it must be rigid, and so constructed that it has a revolvable motion as well as being capable of a movement to and from the material in the lathe.
Select a good 4" × 4" scantling (M), 14 inches long, as shown in Fig. 243. Two inches from one end cut a cross gain (I), 1½ inches deep and 1 inch wide, and round off the upper edge, as at 2.
Then prepare a piece (N), 1 inch thick, 8 inches wide, and 10 inches long. Round off the upper edge to form a nose, and midway between its endscut a cross gain 4 inches wide and 1½ inches deep. The lower margin may be cut away, at an angle on each side of the gain. All that is necessary now is to make a block (O), 8 inches long, rounded on one edge, and a wedge (P).
Fig 243. Tool Rest.Fig 243. Tool Rest.
A leather belt or strap (Q), 1½ inches wide, formed into a loop, as shown in the perspective view (R), serves as a means for holding the rest rigidly when the wedge is driven in.
The Tool Rest.—This is the most difficult part of the whole lathe, as it must be rigid, and so constructed that it has a revolvable motion as well as being capable of a movement to and from the material in the lathe.
Materials.—Then procure the following bolts:
4⅜"bolts,10"long.8⅜"bolts,6"long.20⅜"bolts,5"long.5⅜"bolts,9"long.
The Mandrel.—A piece of steel tubing (S), No. 10 gage, ¾ inch in diameter, 11½ inches long, will be required for the mandrel. Get a blacksmith, if a machine shop is not convenient, to put a fixed center (1) in one end, and a removable centering member (2) in the other end.
On this mandrel place a collar (3), held by a set screw, and alongside of it a pair of pulleys, each 1½ inches wide, one of them, being, say, 2 inches in diameter, and the other 3 inches. This mandrel is held in position by means of the posts of the frame which carry the split journal bearings. This form of bearing will make a durable lathe, free from chattering, as the bolts can be used for tightening the mandrel whenever they wear.
Fig. 244. Mandrel.Fig. 244. Mandrel.
The center point (1) is designed to rest against a metal plate (4) bolted to the wooden post, as shown in the large drawing.
Fly-wheel.—It now remains only to provide a fly-wheel and treadle with the communicating belt. The fly-wheel may be of any convenient size, or it may be some discarded pulley or wheel. Suppose it is two feet in diameter; then, as your small pulley is 2 inches in diameter, each revolution of the large wheel makes twelve revolutions in the mandrel, and you can readily turn the wheel eightytimes a minute. In that case your mandrel will revolve 960 revolutions per minute, which is ample speed for your purposes.
The wheel should be mounted on a piece of ¾-inch steel tubing, one end having a crank 3 inches long. This crank is connected up by a pitman rod, with the triangularly shaped treadle frame.
Such a lathe is easily made, as it requires but little metal or machine work, and it is here described because it will be a pleasure for a boy to make such a useful tool. What he needs is the proper plan and the right dimensions to carry out the work, and his own ingenuity will make the modifications suitable to his purpose.
The illustration (Fig. 245) shows such a lathe assembled ready for work.
The Tools Required.—A few simple tools will complete an outfit capable of doing a great variety of work. The illustration (Fig. 246) shows five chisels, of which all other chisels are modifications.
A and B are both oblique firmer chisels, A being ground with a bevel on one side only, and B with a bevel on each side.
C is a broad gage, with a hollow blade, and a curved cutting edge, ground with a taper on the rounded side only.
D is a narrow gage similarly ground, and E is a V-shaped gage.
Fig. 245.Fig. 245.
Fig. 246.Fig. 246.
It may be observed that in wood-turning sharp tools are absolutely necessary, hence a good oil stone, or several small, round and V-shaped stones should be used.
As this subject properly belongs to the painter and decorator, it is not necessary to go into details concerning the methods used to finish off your work. As you may not be able to afford the luxury of having your productions painted or stained, enough information will be given to enable you, if the character of the wood justifies it, to do the work yourself to a limited extent.
Soft Wood.—As, presumably, most of your first work will be done with pine, poplar, or other light-colored material, and, as many people prefer the furniture to be dark in color, you should be prepared to accommodate them.
Use of Stains.—Our subject has nothing to do with the technique of staining, but has reference, solely, to the use of stains. I recommend, therefore, that, since all kinds of stains are now kept in stock, and for sale everywhere, you would better rely upon the manufactured goods rather than to endeavor to mix up the paints yourself.
Stains as Imitations.—It will be well to remember one thing as to stains. Never attempt to stain anything unless that stain is intended toproduce an imitation of some real wood. There are stains made up which, when applied, do not imitate any known wood. This is bad taste and should be avoided. Again you should know that the same stain tint will not produce like effects on the different light-colored woods. Try the cherry stain on pieces of pine, poplar, and birch, and you will readily see that while pine gives a brilliant red, comparatively speaking, pine or birch will be much darker, and the effect on poplar will be that of a muddy color. In fact, poplar does not stain cherry to good advantage; and for birch the ordinary stain should have a small addition of vermilion.
By making trials of your stains before applying them to the furniture, you will readily see the value of this suggestion.
Good Taste in Staining.—Oak, mahogany, cherry, black walnut, and like imitations are always good in an artistic sense, but imitations of unfamiliar woods mean nothing to the average person. The too common mistake is to try to imitate oak by staining pine or poplar or birch. It may, with good effect, be stained to imitate cherry.
Oregon pine, or some light-colored wood, with a strong contrasting grain may be used for staining in imitation of oak.
Great Contrasts Bad.—Violent contrasts in furniturestaining have the effect of cheapness, unless the contrasting outlines are artistically distributed throughout the article, from base to top finish.
Staining Contrasting Woods.—Then, again, do not stain a piece of furniture so that one part represents a cheap, soft wood, and the other part a dark or costly wood. Imagine, for instance, a cabinet with the stiles, rails and mullions of mahogany, and the panels of pine or poplar, or the reverse, and you can understand how incongruous would be the result produced.
On the other hand, it would not be a very artistic job to make the panels of cherry and the mullions and stiles of mahogany, because the two woods do not harmonize, although frequently wrongly combined.
Hard Wood Imitations.—It would be better to use, for instance, ash or oak for one portion of the work, and a dark wood, like cherry or walnut, for the other part; but usually a cherry cabinet should be made of cherry throughout; while a curly maple chiffonier could not be improved by having the legs of some other material.
These considerations should determine for you whether or not you can safely use stains to represent different woods in the same article.
Natural Effects.—If effects are wanted, the skilled workman will properly rely upon the naturalgrain of the wood; hence, in staining, you should try to imitate nature, because in staining you will depend for contrast on the natural grain of the wood to help you out in producing pleasing effects.
Natural Wood Stains.—It should be said, in general, however, that a stain is, at best, a poor makeshift. There is nothing so pleasing as the natural wood. It always has an appearance of cleanliness and openness. To stain the wood shows an attempt to cover up cheapness by a cheap contrivance. The exception to this rule is mahogany, which is generally enriched by the application of a ruby tint which serves principally to emphasize the beautiful markings of the wood.
Polishing Stained Surfaces.—If, on the other hand, you wish to go to the labor of polishing the furniture to a high degree, staining becomes an art, and will add to the beauty and durability of any soft or cheap wood, excepting poplar.
When the article is highly polished, so a good, smooth surface is provided, staining does not cheapen, but, on the other hand, serves to embellish the article.
As a rule, therefore, it is well to inculcate this lesson: Do not stain unless you polish; otherwise, it is far better to preserve the natural color of the wood. One of the most beautiful sideboards I eversaw was made of Oregon pine, and the natural wood, well filled and highly polished. That finish gave it an effect which enhanced its value to a price which equaled any cherry or mahogany product.
A carpenter has a trade; the architect a profession. It is not to be assumed that one vocation is more honorable than the other. Aprofessionis defined as a calling, or occupation, "if not mechanical, agricultural, or the like," to which one devotes himself and his energies. Atradeis defined as an occupation "which a person has learned and engages in, especially mechanical employment, as distinguished from the liberal arts," or the learned professions.
Opportunityis the great boon in life. To the ambitious young man the carpenter's trade offers a field for venturing into the learned professions by a route which cannot be equaled in any other pursuit. In his work he daily enters into contact with problems which require mathematics of the highest order, geometry, the methods of calculating strains and stresses, as well as laying out angles and curves.
This is a trade wherein he must keep in mind many calculations as to materials, number, size, and methods of joining; he must remember all thesmall details which go to make up the entire structure. This exercise necessitates a mental picture of the finished product. His imagination is thus directed to concrete objects. As the mind develops, it becomes creative in its character, and the foundation is laid for a higher sphere of usefulness in what is called the professional field.
A good carpenter naturally develops into an architect, and the best architect is he who knows the trade. It is a profession which requires not only the artistic taste, but a technical knowledge of details, of how practically to carry out the work, how to superintend construction, and what the different methods are for doing things.
The architect must have a scientific education, which gives him a knowledge of the strength of materials, and of structural forms; of the durability of materials; of the price, quality, and use of everything which goes into a structure; of labor conditions; and of the laws pertaining to buildings.
Many of these questions will naturally present themselves to the carpenter. They are in the sphere of his employment, but it depends upon himself to make the proper use of the material thus daily brought to him.
It is with a view to instil that desire and ambition in every young man, to make the brain dowhat the hand has heretofore done, that I suggest this course. The learned profession is yours if you deserve it, and you can deserve it only through study, application, and perseverance.
Do well that which you attempt to do.Don'tdo it in that manner because some one has done it in that way before you. If, in the trade, the experience of ages has taught the craftsman that some particular way of doing things is correct, there is no law to prevent you from combating that method. Your way may be better. But you must remember that in every plan for doing a thing there is some particular reason, or reasons, why it is carried out in that way. Study and learn to apply those reasons.
So in your leisure or in your active moments, if you wish to advance, you must be alert.Know for yourself the reasons for things, and you will thereby form the stepping stones that will lead you upward and contribute to your success.
As stated in the Introductory, the purpose of this book is to showhow to do the things, and not to draw a picture in order to write a description of it. Merely in the line of suggestion, we give in this chapter views and brief descriptions of useful household articles, all of which may be made by the boy who has carefully studied the preceding pages.