CHAPTER XIII.GENERAL REMARKS ON THE QUADRUMANA.
The Classification of the Monkeys of the New World—The Geographical Distribution of the Genera—The Fossil Monkeys of the New and Old World and their Alliances—The Former Old Fauna of Europe, Asia, and Africa—The Resemblance of Quadrumana to other Animals and Man
The Classification of the Monkeys of the New World—The Geographical Distribution of the Genera—The Fossil Monkeys of the New and Old World and their Alliances—The Former Old Fauna of Europe, Asia, and Africa—The Resemblance of Quadrumana to other Animals and Man
WITHregard to the Monkeys of the New World, they are to be grouped and classified as follows:—The Howlers must be placed by themselves, then the Spider Monkeys; the Lagothrix and the Sajous form a very distinct group; and thus the prehensile-tailed series is complete. Then come the non-prehensile-tailed. The Sakis form one group, and the Squirrel Monkeys, and the Night, or Owl Monkeys (the Douroucoulis), make a second. The Arctopithecini are another family, and consist of the Marmosets and Tamarins.
Family.
Sub-Family.
Genus.
Example.
The American Monkeys present some remarkable instances of the localisation and dispersion of species; allied kinds of different species, but with the same habits, occupying neighbouring districts, or being rather remote. And it is noticed that the great rivers form barriers between the homes of different kinds, which, however, mingle at the river source, and in the country not rendered impassable to them by broad streams. Thus Wallace noticed that the Howler (Mycetes Beelzebub) is apparently confined to the Lower Amazon, in the vicinity of Para, and a black species to the Upper Amazon, the Red Ursine Howler having the Rio Negro and the Upper Amazon as its forest ground.
One Spider Monkey is found only in the Guiana district north of the Amazons, and another, theAteles ater, inhabits West Brazil, but the species of the genus range, as a whole, over the forest regions from the south of Mexico to 30° south latitude, and even on the west of the Andes.
The Lagothrix Monkeys, with their fine, furry coats, are found in the Ecuador district of theAmazons, but are unknown in Guiana and Eastern Brazil, and the species of the short-tailed Sakis are restricted to special districts; thus the Couxio is from Guiana, and does not pass the Rio Negro on the west, or the Amazon on the south. The white-skinned one is found on the Rio Negro, and theB. rubicunduson the Upper Amazon, another species being found on the lower part of the same river. So it is with the other Sakis with long tails. The genus is found widely dispersed, but the species are restricted in their roaming. One is found, according to Wallace, on the north bank of the Upper Amazon, and another, with a red beard, only to the south-west of the Rio Negro. The genus Cebus has a very wide range in South America, so has the Squirrel Monkey group, for they are found on both banks of the Amazon and Rio Negro; but the white-collared species is found only on the Upper Rio Negro, and another on the Upper Amazon.
The same author noticed the range of the Douroucoulis in the Amazon districts; one (N. trivirgatus) is found in Ecuador, and the Cat-like kind on the Upper Amazon. Equally restricted to limited districts were three kinds of Marmosets.
Fossil remains of Monkeys have been found in the New World in the Brazils, which belong to the existing genera Cebus, Callithrix, and Hapale. The fossil Cebus is at least four feet in height, and the Callithrix was of a very large kind. The fossil Ouistitis are large and small. The geological age of the Brazilian fossils is probably about that of the last European deposits. Now, the remarkable part of this interesting story is, that in the olden time there was the same division of the Monkeys into those of the Old and of the New World. The Catarhini were then, as now, restricted to Europe, Asia, and doubtless to Africa; and the Platyrhini were only found in America, and moreover the resemblance of the old forms to the new is remarkable, the large size of the fossils being in keeping with what is known about the large dimensions of most of the old forms of life. Rütimeyer’s discovery in Switzerland of a fossil with bones like those of the Howler (Mycetes), and yet like a Lemur in structure, and of vast antiquity, carries us back to a time when a different distribution of animals prevailed. Then there were American-looking and Madagascar-looking things in Europe, and associated with them were Opossums and other creatures foreign enough to it at the present time. Nevertheless, this fact gives the hint of the origin of the American Monkeys from the Lemurs. Lately the fossil remains of a Lemur-like animal have been found in North America. In concluding this short notice of the extinct Monkeys, it must be remembered that in the days when there were those agreeable northern climates which made Greenland a land of flowers, Indian Monkeys lived in the dense woods of Greece, Central Europe, and Southern France.
Mr. Darwin, who has collected a vast array of facts relating to the resemblance of the Monkeys to other beings, writes very much as follows:—
“The resemblance of Monkeys to man is greatly caused by the relative position of the features of the face. The eyes are arched over; they are separated by a long nose, the end of which in some is very human. The mouth is not carried back, but occupies the same general position as in man, and the forehead, so often wrinkled, is usually prominent, and like that of a child. The likeness is increased by the fact that anger, sorrow, pleasure, and satisfaction are displayed by the Monkey by nearly similar movements of the muscles and skin, chiefly above the eyebrows, and round the mouth. Some few expressions,” writes Mr. Darwin, “are, indeed, almost the same, as in the weeping of certain kinds of Monkeys, and in the laughing noise made by others, during which the corners of the mouth are drawn backwards, and the eyelids wrinkled. In man the nose is much more prominent than in most Monkeys; but,” writes the same author, “we may trace the commencement of an aquiline curvature in the nose of the Hoolock Gibbon, and this in the great-nosed Monkey is carried to a ridiculous extreme.” All this is disappointing to those who pride themselves on “the family nose,” especially if it is a Roman. Again, the faces of many Monkeys are furnished with beards, whiskers, and moustaches. The hair grows to a great length in some species of Semnopithecus, and in the Bonnet Monkey (Macacus radiatus) it radiates from a point on the crown, with a parting down the middle. This is a human fashion; moreover, in this Monkey the front hair ends rather abruptly, and a downy and almost smooth-looking forehead is shown. They have eyebrows in some instances. Mr. Darwin, in carrying out his investigations into the resemblances between men and Monkeys, said he is, as, indeed, have been all anatomists, very interested regarding the hair of the limbs of those he places in comparison. “It is well known,” he writes,“that the hair on our arms tends to converge from above and below to a point at the elbow. This curious arrangement, so unlike that in most of the lower Mammals, is common to the Gorilla, Chimpanzee, Orang, some species of Hylobates, and even to some American Monkeys. It is not invariable in the same genus, for inHylobates agilisthe hair on the forearm is directed downwards, or towards the wrist, in the ordinary manner, and inHylobates lar, it is nearly erect, with only a slight forward inclination. It can,” he adds, “hardly be doubted that with most Mammals the thickness of the hair and its direction on the back are adapted to throw off rain, and even the transverse hairs of the Dog’s leg may serve for this end when he is curled up asleep.”
HEAD OF THE BLACK HOWLER.(From theProceedings of the Zoological Society.)
HEAD OF THE BLACK HOWLER.(From theProceedings of the Zoological Society.)
Mr. Wallace remarks that the convergence of the hair towards the elbow on the arms of the Orang serves to throw off the rain when, as is the custom of this animal, the arms are bent, with the hands clasped round a branch, or over its own head. But the previously-mentioned naturalist aptly remarks that the attitude may not determine the direction of the hair; and that, on the contrary, the direction of the hair may determine the attitude. Of course the darkness of the negro makes any likeness, real or imaginary, with the Monkey, all the greater, and really the resemblance of the American Monkey—whose name (Satanas) indicates his ill looks with its jet-black skin, white rolling eyeballs, and hair parted at the top of its head, to a young negro, is laughable enough.
Any one who visits the Zoological Gardens soon becomes aware that there is a great variety of expression in the eyes and muscles of the face of Monkeys, and infinitely greater in amount than in any other animals, and in some points infinitely less than in man. Mr. Darwin has collected facts, and given the result of his own observations upon the different methods of expression produced by the facial and other muscles, and the following is from his work on the “Expression of the Emotions”:—
“It is not possible to distinguish in Monkeys, at least, without more experience than I have had, the expression of pleasure or joy from that of affection. Young Chimpanzees make a kind of barking noise when pleased by the return of any one to whom they are attached. When this noise—which the keepers call a laugh—is uttered, the lips are protruded; but so they are under various other emotions.Nevertheless, I could perceive that when they were pleased, the form of the lips differed a little from that assumed when they were angered. If a young Chimpanzee be tickled, and the armpits are particularly sensitive to tickling—as in the case of our children—a more decided chuckling or laughing sound is uttered, though the laughter is sometimes noiseless. The corners of the mouth are then drawn backwards, and this sometimes causes the lower eyelids to be slightly wrinkled. But this wrinkling, which is so characteristic of our own laughter, is more plainly seen in some other Monkeys. The teeth in the upper jaw in the Chimpanzee are not exposed when they utter their laughing noise, in which respect they differ from us; but their eyes sparkle and grow brighter, as Mr. W. L. Martin, who has particularly attended to their expression, states.
“Young Orangs when tickled likewise grin and make a chuckling sound, and Mr. Martin says that their eyes grow brighter. As soon as their laughter ceases, an expression may be detected passing over their faces, which, as Mr. Wallace remarked, may be called a smile. I have also noticed something of the same kind with the Chimpanzee. Dr. Duchenne—and I cannot quote a better authority—informs me that he kept a very tame Monkey in his house for a year, and when he gave it during meal times some choice delicacy, he observed that the corners of its mouth were slightly raised; thus an expression of satisfaction, partaking of the nature of an incipient smile, and resembling that often seen on the face of man, could be plainly perceived in this animal.
“TheCebus azaræ, when rejoiced at again seeing a beloved person, utters a peculiar twittering sound. It also expresses agreeable sensations by drawing back the corners of its mouth, without producing any sound. Rengger calls this movement laughter, but it would be more appropriately called a smile. The form of the mouth is different when either pain or terror is expressed, and shrill shrieks are uttered. Another species of Cebus in the Zoological Gardens when pleased makes a reiterated shrill note, and likewise draws back the corners of its mouth, apparently through the contraction of the same muscles as with us. So does the Barbary Ape (Inuus ecaudatus) to an extraordinary degree; and I observed in this Monkey that the skin of the lower eyelids then became much wrinkled. At the same time it rapidly moved its lower jaw or lips in a spasmodic manner, the teeth being exposed; but the noise produced was hardly more distinct than that which we sometimes call silent laughter. Two of the keepers affirmed that this slight sound was the animal’s laughter, and when I expressed some doubt on this head (being at the time quite inexperienced), they made it attack, or rather threaten, a hated Entellus Monkey living in the same compartment. Instantly the whole expression of the face of the Inuus changed; the mouth was opened much more widely, the canine teeth were more fully exposed, and a hoarse barking noise was uttered.
“The Anubis Baboon was first insulted, and put into a furious rage, as was easily done by his keeper, who then made friends with him, and shook hands. As the reconciliation was effected the Baboon rapidly moved his jaws and lips up and down, and looked pleased. Two or three species of Macacus, and theCynocephalus niger, draw back their ears, and utter a slight jabbering noise when they are pleased by being caressed. With the Cynocephalus the corners of the mouth are at the same time drawn backwards and upwards, so that the teeth are exposed; hence this expression would never be recognised by a stranger as one of pleasure. The crest of long hairs on the forehead is depressed, and apparently the whole skin of the head drawn backwards. The eyebrows are thus raised a little, and the eyes assume a staring appearance. The lower eyelids also become slightly wrinkled, but this wrinkling is not conspicuous, owing to the permanent transverse furrows on the face. With Monkeys the expression of slight pain, or of any painful emotion, such as grief, vexation, jealousy, &c., is not easily distinguished from that of moderate anger, and these states of mind readily and quickly pass into each other. Grief, however, with some species, is certainly exhibited by weeping. A woman who sold a Monkey to the Zoological Society, believed to have come from Borneo (Macacus maurus), said that it often cried, and Mr. Bartlett, as well as the keeper, Mr. Sutton, has repeatedly seen it when grieved, or even when much pitied, weeping so copiously, that the tears rolled down its cheeks. There is, however, something strange about this case, for two specimens subsequently kept in the Gardens, and believed to be the same species, have never been seen to weep, though they were carefully observed by the keeper and myself when much distressed and loudly screaming. Rengger states that the eyes of theCebus azaræfill with tears, but not sufficiently to overflow, when it is prevented getting some much-desired object, or is much frightened. Humboldt also asserts thatthe eyes of theCallithrix sciureusinstantly fill with tears when it is ‘seized with fear,’ but when this pretty little Monkey in the Zoological Gardens was teased so as to cry out loudly, this did not occur. I do not, however, wish to throw the least doubt on the accuracy of Humboldt’s statement.
“The appearance of dejection in young Orangs and Chimpanzees when out of health is as plain and almost as pathetic as in the case of our children. Their state of mind and body is shown by their listless movements, fallen countenances, dull eyes, and changed complexion.
“This emotion is often exhibited by many kinds of Monkeys, and is expressed, as Mr. Martin remarks, in many different ways. Some species, when irritated, pout the lips, gaze with a fixed and savage glare on their foe, and make repeated short starts as if about to spring forward, uttering at the same time inward guttural sounds. Many display their anger by suddenly advancing, making abrupt starts, at the same time opening the mouth, and pursing up the lips so as to conceal the teeth, while the eyes are daringly fixed on the enemy as if in savage defiance. Some again, and principally the long-tailed Monkeys, or Guenons, display their teeth, and accompany their malicious grins with a sharp, abrupt, reiterated cry. Mr. Sutton confirms the statement that some species uncover their teeth when enraged, whilst others conceal them by the protrusion of their lips, and some kinds draw back their ears. TheCynocephalus niger, lately referred to, acts in this manner, at the same time depressing the crest of hair on its forehead, and showing its teeth, so that the movements of the features from anger are nearly the same as those from pleasure; and the two expressions can be distinguished only by those familiar with the animal.
“Baboons often show their passion, and threaten their enemies in a very odd manner, namely, by opening their mouths widely, as in the act of yawning. Mr. Bartlett has often seen two Baboons, when first placed in the same compartment, sitting opposite to each other, and thus alternately opening their mouths; and this action seems frequently to end in a real yawn. Mr. Bartlett believes that both animals wished to show to each other that they are provided with a formidable set of teeth, as is undoubtedly the case. As I could hardly credit the reality of this yawning gesture, Mr. Bartlett insulted an old Baboon, and put him into a violent passion, and he almost immediately thus acted. Some species of Macacus and of Cercopithecus behave in the same manner. Baboons likewise show their anger—as was observed by Brehm with those which he kept alive in Abyssinia—in another manner, namely, by striking the ground with one hand, like an angry man striking the table with his fist. I have seen this movement with the Baboons in the Zoological Gardens, but sometimes the action seems rather to represent the searching for a stone or other objects in their beds of straw. Mr. Sutton has often observed the face of the Rhesus Monkey, when much enraged, growing red. As he was mentioning this to me another Monkey attacked a Rhesus, and I saw its face redden as plainly as that of a man in a violent passion. In the course of a few minutes after the battle the face of this Monkey recovered its natural tint; at the same time that the face reddened, the naked posterior part of the body, which is always red, seemed to grow still redder, but I cannot positively assert that this was the case. When the Mandrill is any way excited the brilliantly-coloured naked parts of the skin are said to become still more vividly coloured.
“With several species of Baboons the ridge of the forehead projects much over the eyes, and is studded with a few long hairs representing our eyebrows. These animals are always looking about them, and in order to look upwards they raise their eyebrows. They have thus, as it would appear, acquired the habit of frequently moving their eyebrows. However this may be, many kinds of Monkeys, especially the Baboons, when angered or in any way excited, rapidly and incessantly move their eyebrows up and down, as well as the hairy skin of their foreheads. As we associate in the case of man raising and lowering of the eyebrows with definite states of the mind, the almost incessant movement of the eyebrows by Monkeys gives them a senseless expression. I once observed a man who had a trick of continually raising his eyebrows with any corresponding emotion, and this gave to him a foolish appearance; so it is with some persons who keep the corners of their mouths a little drawn backwards and upwards, as if by an incipient smile, though at the time they are not amused or pleased.
“A young Orang, made jealous by her keeper attending to another Monkey, slightly uncovered her teeth, and uttering a peevish noise, like ‘tish-shist,’ turned her back on him. Both Orangs and Chimpanzees when a little more angered protrude their lips greatly, and make a harsh barking noise.A young female Chimpanzee in a violent passion presented a curious resemblance to a child in the same state. She screamed loudly, with widely-open mouth, the lips being retracted so that the teeth were fully exposed. She threw her arms wildly about, sometimes clasping them over her head. She rolled on the ground, sometimes on her back, sometimes on her belly, and hit everything within reach. A young Gibbon in a passion has been described as behaving in almost exactly the same manner. The lips of young Orangs and Chimpanzees are protruded sometimes to a wonderful degree under various circumstances. They act thus not only when slightly angered, sulky, or disappointed, but when alarmed at anything—in one instance at the sight of a Turtle—and likewise when pleased. But neither the degree of protrusion nor the shape of the mouth is exactly the same, as I believe, in all cases; and the sounds which are then uttered are different.
“Frowning, which is one of the most important of all the expressions in man, is due to the contraction of the corrugations by which the eyebrows are covered and brought together, so that vertical furrows are formed on the forehead. Both the Orang and Chimpanzee are said to possess this muscle, but it seems rarely brought into action, at least in a conspicuous manner. I made my hands into a sort of cage, and placing some tempting fruit within, allowed both a young Orang and Chimpanzee to try their utmost to get it out; but, although they grew rather cross, they showed not a trace of a frown, nor was there any frown when they were enraged. Twice I took two Chimpanzees from their rather dark room suddenly into bright sunshine, which would certainly have caused us to frown. They blinked and winked their eyes, but only once did I see a very slight frown. On another occasion I tickled the nose of a Chimpanzee with a straw, and, as it crumpled up its face, slight vertical furrows appeared between the eyebrows. I have never seen a frown on the forehead of the Orang.
“A fresh-water Turtle was placed, at my request, in the same compartment in the Zoological Gardens with many Monkeys, and they showed unbounded astonishment, as well as some fear. This was displayed by their remaining motionless, staring intently with widely-opened eyes, their eyebrows being often moved up and down. Their faces seemed somewhat lengthened. They occasionally raised themselves on their hind legs to get a better view. They often retreated a few feet, and then, turning their heads over one shoulder, again stared intently. It was curious to observe how much less afraid they were of the Turtle than of a living Snake, which I had formerly placed in their compartment, for in the course of a few minutes some of the Monkeys ventured to approach and touch the Turtle. On the other hand some of the larger Baboons were greatly terrified, and grinned as if on the point of screaming out. When I showed a little dressed-up doll to the black Baboon, it stood motionless, stared intently with widely-opened eyes, and advanced its ears a little forwards; but when the Turtle was placed in its compartment, this Monkey also moved its lips in an odd, rapid, jabbering manner, which the keeper declared was meant to conciliate or please the Turtle. I was never able clearly to perceive that the eyebrows of astonished Monkeys were kept permanently raised, though they were frequently moved up and down. Attention, which precedes astonishment, is expressed by man by a slight raising of the eyebrows, and Dr. Duchenne informs me that when he gave to the Monkey formerly mentioned some quite new article of food, it elevated its eyebrows a little, thus assuming an appearance of close attention. It then took the food in its fingers, and with lowered or rectilinear eyebrows scratched, smelt, and examined it, an expression of reflection being thus exhibited. Sometimes it would throw back its head a little, and again with suddenly-raised eyebrows re-examine, and finally taste, the food.
“In no case did any Monkey keep its mouth open when it was astonished. Mr. Sutton observed for me a young Orang and Chimpanzee during a considerable length of time; and, however much they were astonished, or whilst listening intently to some strange sound, they did not keep their mouths open. This fact is surprising, as with mankind hardly any expression is more general than a widely-open mouth, under the sense of astonishment. As far as I have been able to observe, Monkeys breathe more freely through their nostrils than men do, and this may account for their not opening their mouths when they are astonished, for, as can be discovered with care, man apparently acts in this manner when startled, at first for the sake of quickly drawing a full inspiration, and afterwards for the sake of breathing as quietly as possible.
“Terror is expressed by many kinds of Monkeys by the utterance of shrill screams, the lips being drawn back so that the teeth are exposed. The hair becomes erect, especially when some anger is likewise felt. Mr. Sutton has distinctly seen the face of the Rhesus Monkey grow pale from fear. Monkeys also tremble from fear, and sometimes they void their excretions. I have seen one which, when caught, almost fainted from an excess of terror.”
Rengger, who studied the American Monkeys carefully, says that they evidently understand each others’ gestures, and this is plain enough to all who spend a little time in a large collection of them. They have their likes and dislikes, and submit to be teased and bullied by some favourite, although of a different species; the contrary, however, is the usual occurrence, and they resent familiarities very readily. Perhaps the most amusing instance of this fondness is given by Mr. Darwin, who had it from the Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens. Two Chimpanzees, rather older animals than those usually brought to England, were introduced to each other for the first time:—“They sat opposite, touching each other with their much-protruding lips, and the one put his hand on the shoulder of the other. They then mutually folded each other in their arms. Afterwards they stood up, each with one arm on the shoulder of the other, lifted up their heads, opened their mouths, and yelled with delight.”
YOUNG ORANGS. (From a Sketch at the Zoological Gardens.)
YOUNG ORANGS. (From a Sketch at the Zoological Gardens.)
Mr. Bartlett, of the Zoological Gardens, states that the faculty of attention which is necessary for imitation, obedience, and teaching, is a very variable one amongst the same species of Monkeys, and told Mr. Darwin the following anecdote:—“A man who trains Monkeys to act used to purchase common kinds from the Zoological Society at the cost of five pounds for each, but he offered to give double that price if he might keep three or four of them for a few days, in order to select one. When asked how he could possibly so soon learn whether a particular Monkey world turn out a good actor, he answered that it all depended on their power of attention. If, when he was talking and explaining anything to a Monkey, its attention was easily distracted, as by a fly on the wall, or other trifling object, the case was hopeless. If he tried punishment to make an inattentive Monkey act, it turned sulky. On the other hand, a Monkey which carefully attended to him could always be trained.”
Very little is known about the family habits of the Monkey, and whether they have one, two, ormany wives; but in some instances, where the colour of the male and his ornamentation differs from that of the female, it has been possible to trace their habits. Thus, the Gorilla is undoubtedly a polygamist, and the males and females differ. So it is with the Baboons, which live in troops or herds containing twice as many adult females as males. Amongst the South American Monkeys the Howler (Mycetes caraya) usually lives with two or three wives, and is distinguished from them by his voice, colour, and beard; and the Capuchin, which also differs from the female, is probably polygamous. The good example of having one wife set by some Monkeys is utterly lost upon some Eastern potentates. Thus, Sir John Lubbock states, that an intelligent Kandyan chief—of course a polygamist—was perfectly scandalised at the utter barbarism of living with only one wife, and never parting until separated by death. “It was,” he said, “just like the Wanderoo Monkey.”
P. MARTINDUNCAN.