CHAPTER IV.SUB-ORDER—MONOTREMATA.[129]

THE PORCUPINE OR LONG-SPINED ECHIDNA AND DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS.[130]

Why the Monotremata are formed into a Sub-order—The lowest of the Mammalian Class—THEPORCUPINEORLONG-SPINEDECHIDNA—An Ant-eater, but not an Edentate—Its Correct Name—Description of the Animal—Habits and Disposition—Manner of Using the Tongue—Where it is Found—Anatomical Features: Skull, Brain, Marsupial Bones—The Young—Species of Van Diemen’s Land and New Guinea—THEWATER-MOLE,ORDUCK-BILLEDPLATYPUS—The most Bird-like Mammal—Various Names—Description—Their Appearance and Movements in Water—Their Burrows—Habits of an Individual kept in Confinement—Used by Natives as Food—How they are Captured—The Young—A Family in Captivity—The Snout—Jaws—Teeth—Tongue—Fore and Hind Feet—Heel—Spur—The Shoulder Girdle—Breastbone—Concluding Remarks on the Sub-orders—Postscript on the Monotremes.

THISanimal is the first example of some Marsupial beasts which are separated into a sub-order, because, in addition to the marsupial bones, there are some internal points of construction which are more bird- and lizard-like than those of the Kangaroo tribes. It contains animals which are the lowest of the Mammalian class, and are found only in the Australian natural history province. The Porcupine Ant-eater, as its name implies, has somewhat the shape of a Hedgehog or Porcupine, and it is fond of burrowing with its peculiar limbs, as well as of eating Ants with the assistance of its long tongue. But its internal anatomy and the construction of the skeleton differ from those of the true Ant-eaters, which belong to the order Edentata. It was called Ant-eater by its first describer (Shaw) in 1792, but a few years afterwards it was decided to belong to the same group as an animal about to be described—the Duck-billed Platypus, or Water Mole—and Cuvier, whilst believing that they both belonged to a peculiar order, separated this false Ant-eater from the Water Mole as a species and genus. He called this Hedgehog-like creature Echidna, from the presence of a spur on the heel, which is perforated, and which was erroneously supposed to be poisonous, like the fang of a Viper (Ἔχιδνα). The correct name is the Long-spined Echidna, or the Porcupine Echidna (Echidna hystrix).

PELVIC ARCH OF THE ECHIDNA.(aa) Marsupial Bones.

The creature greatly resembles a Hedgehog with a very long snout, at first sight, but a slight examination will show that it differs much from the insect-eating and spiny little Hystrix. The Echidna is about a foot in length, and the upper part of its short body is covered with strong spines, and the rest is hairy, the front of the head, and the long, slender, and tapering snout being naked. The legs are short and strong, and the five toes of the fore leg have large and strong claws. This is in order to permit the creature to bury itself in sand and soft earth quickly, and this operation is assisted by a broad and rounded nail on the inner toe of the hind foot and by large claws on the other toes, and especially by a long nail to the second toe. A very long and flexible tongue enables the creature to catch prey. There are no teeth. The skull, when the skin and flesh have been removed, has a very pear-like appearance. It is a great burrower, and manages to get out of the way of observers as soon as is possible, for working actively with its strong limbs and claws, it pokes its snout into the earth and soon gets out of view. Ants are its favourite food, and they are captured in the same way as by the Great Ant-eaters belonging to the Edentata: for in both there is a long slimy tongue, which can be poked far out of the mouth into Ants’ nests. The saliva required to make the tongue sticky comes from large glands under the lower jaw from the ear on to the fore part of the chest. When the Ants have collected on the sticky tongue it is taken into the mouth, and they are swallowed. The absence of teeth is made up by the presence of horny spines on the palate and tongue, which look backwards, and these crush and directthe food to the throat. It is an apathetic and stupid animal, and usually tries to get out of the light, and it will lie and roll itself up, but not so successfully as a Hedgehog. One of the first which was seen was attacked by the Dogs of two of the travellers, Bass and Flinders, whose names are so familiar from places having been named after them in Australia. The Dogs did not come off victorious, for the new animal burrowed in the loose sand, but not head foremost; it sank itself directly downwards, and left its prickly back just on a level with the surface.

An Echidna was watched, so that the manner in which it could use its tongue was observed. Ants could not be had, but a diet of chopped-up eggs, liver, and meat was readily received, and it was noticed that the tongue was used in the same manner as that of the Chameleon, by simple protrusion and bringing in, and also as a mower moves his scythe, it being curved sideways, and the food swept into the mouth. The Echidna is fond of water and milk, which are licked up by a rapid putting out and drawing in of the long tongue.

PORCUPINE ECHIDNA. (After Gervais.)

Gerard Krefft says that they are usually found in mountain ranges, and among rocks in the Lower Murray district. He failed to feed them on Ants and their eggs. On hen’s eggs they fed for a time, and liked bread-and-milk. He has reason to believe that they live on grass also, as those whose stomachs and intestines he examined had fed on herbs and grasses. The spur on the heel is not used as a weapon of offence.

It inhabits Australia, and has been found as far north as the Bellenden Plains, Queensland, about 18° south latitude. A specimen has also been captured at Cape York, and others at Plain Creek, Queensland. It is not found in Van Diemen’s Land.

With regard to the anatomy of the Echidna, it may be said that the long muzzle and the very slender lower jaw give the skull a bird-like look which is increased by the swollen and ball shape of the brain-case. The bones of the skull remain imperfectly united for some time, andthen they are united by plain lines of junction, and not by jagged sutures. The shoulder and the bones of the upper part of the chest resemble those of the Water Mole, and will be noticed in its description. The brain of the Echidna weighs about one-fiftieth of the whole body, and the hemispheres do not conceal the cerebellum. There are three convolutions behind, and in front of them is a large one bent on itself, and on its outside are some oblique folds. The sense of smell, evidently acute in the Echidna, is assisted by a large development of the olfactory lobes of the brain and their nerves.

The Echidnas have large marsupial bones. They have not a true pouch, but only a rudimentary one, or rather an infolding of the skin, during the breeding season, in the female. The orifices of the teats are situated beneath the level of the skin, and inverted; and as the surrounding parts swell under the influence of suckling, there is a little cavity made, at the bottom of which are the so-called nipples. They are really little depressions with hair around them. The young Echidnas are placed in this temporary cavity by the mother, and help themselves by placing their snouts in the small depressions leading to the milk gland. Captain Armit says that some force is required to get the young out of the pouch, and that there is probably a muscular ring to it. They are at first very small. When about a month or so old, the hinder parts of the young may be seen sticking out of the region of the fold, and at three months the body may be observed, the animal still adhering by its snout. When the prickles of the young begin to harden, the old one turns them out into the world. (But see Postscript, p. 234.)

A short-spined Echidna (Echidna setosa) inhabits Van Diemen’s Land, whose hair is sufficiently long to hide most of the spines, but little is known regarding its habits. Quoy and Gaimard, two French naturalists, kept one for a month, and it took no food, but after that time it began to lap and to eat a mixture of flour, sugar, and water. It burrowed very rapidly, and got to the bottom of a large can full of earth and plants in the course of a few minutes, and it was assisted in this by its snout.

MOUTH (A) AND NOSE-SNOUT (B) OF ECHIDNA.

A species of Echidna has been found in the north of the Island of New Guinea, at the Mont des Karous and Mount Arfak, at an altitude in the first place of 1,150 yards. It likes the rocky broken ground, and is unknown on the sea coast. The natives call it “Nokdiak,” and hunt it for the flesh. As the animal burrows well, the natives dig down about a yard in different places, and generally cut across one of the underground runs. It has been described, and has been named after the explorer, M. Brujn. It is more robust and larger than the species from Australia and Van Diemen’s Land, has a very long snout—three times the length of the head—a short tail, and is black in colour with white points. The fur is plentiful, and like velvet, whilst the spines are scanty, and about midway in strength between those of the two Australian kinds. The number of nails on the fore and hind feet is singular in this New Guinea Echidna, for there are three on each instead of five. The tongue of the species is longer and more spiny; moreover, the number of vertebræ differs in this new kind. There are seventeen dorsal instead of fifteen, and there is one caudal more than in the others. The spiny pimples on the tongue and palate, so well developed in this Echidna, have tempted Professor Gervais to include it in a new genus, Acanthoglossus; but it is as well to retain the old name, so that the creature is called Echidna Brujnii. Another species has been found in the south of New Guinea, at Port Moresby, which is distinguished chiefly by the long, thin, cylindrical form of the quills, and the stiff, flat, hair-like bristles on the face. The tint of the flattish bristles covering all the body and limbs, except the back, is brown; on the back are long cylindrical spines, some white and others black. There are five claws to each foot, and the second hind toe is said to be the largest. The fore limbs are short, stout, and strong. It has been named Echidna Lawesii (Ramsay), after its discoverer. All these animals can roll themselves up.

Like most of the other objects of natural history found in Australia and the neighbouring islands, the Water Mole is very singular in its construction, nature, and habits. It is of all animals thatsuckle their young the most like a bird, and it really deserves the title, from its external appearance of half beast, half bird. As its shape and method of life are peculiar, it has received several names, such as the Water Mole, the Flat-footed, Duck-billed Platypus, the Bird-beaked quadruped, and the Paradoxical Bird-beaked animal. It is very fond of the water and also of burrowing in the ground, and, of course, is admirably adapted for these pursuits: hence its construction relates to them to a certain extent, and also to that of the animals of which it was, as it were, a continuation in the scheme of nature.

The Ornithorhynchus anatinus has a rather flat body of about eighteen inches in length, and the head and snout greatly resemble those of a Duck, whilst the tail is short, broad, and flat, and resembles that of a small Beaver, but is shorter. The feet are webbed and flat, and the greater part of the creature is covered with a short dense fur of a dusky brown colour, darker on the upper and paler on the under parts of the body. A slight examination of the habits of the animal will explain the necessity for observing it a little more closely. Mr. Bennett describes his first interview with one shortly after his arrival in Australia. He writes: “We soon came to a tranquil part of the river, such as the colonists call a ‘pond,’ on the surface of which numerous aquatic plants grew. It is in places of this description that the Water Moles are most commonly seen, seeking their food among the aquatic plants, whilst the steep and shaded banks afford them excellent situations for excavating their burrows. We remained stationary on the banks, waiting their appearance with some degree of impatience, and it was not long before my companion quietly directed my attention to one of these animals, paddling on the surface of the water, not far distant from the bank on which we were then standing. In such circumstances they may be readily recognised by their dark bodies, just seen level with the surface, above which the head is slightly raised, and by the circles made in the water round them by their paddling action. On seeing them, the spectator must remain perfectly stationary, as the slightest noise or movement of his body would cause their instant disappearance, so acute are they in sight or hearing, or perhaps both; and they seldom appear when they have been frightened.” On ordinary occasions they do not remain more than a minute or two at a time on the surface of the water.

A burrow of an Ornithorhynchus, which Mr. Bennett opened, had its entrance on a steep part of a bank, situated about one foot from the water’s edge, and concealed among the long grass and other Plants. “This burrow ran up the bank in a serpentine course, approaching nearer to the surface of the earth towards its termination, at which part the nest is situated. No nest had yet been made in the termination of the burrow, for that appears to be formed about the time of bringing forth the young, and consists merely of dried grass, weeds, &c., strewed over the floor of this part of the habitation.” The expanded termination measured one foot in length and six inches in breadth, and the whole length of the burrow was twenty feet. Besides the entrance before alluded to, it appears there is usually a second opening into the burrows below the surface of the water, communicating with the interior, just within the upper aperture. A burrow subsequently examined by Mr. Bennett terminated at a distance of thirty-five feet from the entrance; and that gentleman stated that they have been found fifty feet in length.

From the burrow first opened by Mr. Bennett a living female was taken, and placed in a cask, with grass, mud, water, &c., and in this situation it soon became tranquil, and apparently reconciled to its confinement. On his return home to Sydney, Mr. Bennett determined to indulge it with a bathe; and with this view, when he arrived in the vicinity of some ponds, he tied a long cord to its leg. “When placed on the bank, it soon found its way into the water, and travelled up the stream, apparently delighting in those places which most abounded in aquatic weeds. When diving in deep and clear water, its motions were distinctly seen: it sank speedily to the bottom, swam there for a short distance, and then rose again to the surface. It appeared, however, to prefer keeping close to the bank, occasionally thrusting its beak into the mud, from whence it evidently procured food, as, on raising the head, after withdrawing the beak, the mandibles were seen in lateral motion, as is usual when the animal masticates. The motions of the mandibles were similar to those of a Duck under the same circumstances. After feeding, it would lie sometimes on the grassy bank, and at others partly in and partly out of the water, combing and cleaning its coat with the claws of the hind feet. This process occupied a considerable time, and greatly improved its sleek and glossy appearance.”

The Water Moles are said to have a peculiarly fishy smell, more especially when wet, which probably proceeds from an oily secretion. They are used by the aborigines for food; “but it is no particular recommendation of them,” Mr. Bennett remarks, “to say they are eaten by the native Australian, as nothing in the shape of provender comes amiss to him, whether it be Snakes, Rats, Frogs, Grubs, or the more delicate Opossum, Bandicoot, and Flying Squirrel.”

The Ornithorhynchus is captured by the natives when in its burrow. They first examine the neighbourhood of the burrow, to ascertain, by the presence of recent footmarks on the soil, whether it is inhabited, and if the examination proves satisfactory, they proceed to dig holes with pieces of sticks from the surface of the ground into the burrow, at distances from each other, until they discover its termination, when the Australians consider themselves exceedingly fortunate should they find the young, since they are regarded as a great delicacy.

The young have been found in their nests by Mr. Bennett about one inch and seven-eighths in length, in the early part of December, and near the end of the same month he found young Water Moles of ten inches in length. These latter were kept alive for nearly five weeks, and their habits whilst in captivity are described in detail in his paper, which is illustrated by some admirable figures, showing their various attitudes, &c. The young were allowed to run about the room; but an old Ornithorhynchus in the possession of our author was so restless, and damaged the walls of the room so much by her attempts at burrowing, that it was found necessary to confine her to the box. “During the day she would remain quiet, huddled up with her young ones; but at night she became very restless, and eager to escape. The little ones were as frolicsome as puppies, and apparently as fond of play; and many of their actions were not a little ludicrous. During the day they seemed to prefer a dark corner for repose, and generally resorted to the spot to which they had been accustomed, although they would change it on a sudden, apparently from mere caprice. They did not appear to like deep water, but enjoyed exceedingly a bathe in shallow water, with a turf of grass placed in one corner of the pan; they seldom remained longer than ten or fifteen minutes in the water at one time. Though apparently nocturnal, or at least preferring the cool and dusky evening to the glare and heat of noon, their movements in this respect were so irregular as to furnish no grounds for a definite conclusion. They slept much; and it frequently happened that one slept whilst the other was running about; and this occurred at almost all periods of the day. They climbed with great readiness to the summit of a book-case, and thus, by means of their strong cutaneous muscles and of their claws, mounting with much expedition to the top. Their food consisted of bread soaked in water, chopped eggs, and meat minced very small, and they did not seem to prefer milk to water.”

Mr. Foulerton states that the natives are seldom successful in catching the Water Moles alive, although in some places in the rivers and creeks of New England they are so numerous that from fifteen to eighteen have been shot in an afternoon. In the dark, rocky, shady rivers they may be seen at any time of the day, but in more open places seldom before sunset. He failed to see any young ones, and believes that they keep them concealed until near their maturity. They are very active in the water, and are more frequently under than above the surface. He never saw one leave the water, and states that they made very poor progress on land. As a rule they are to be found in good fellowship with the Australian Water Rat (Hydromys chrysogaster).

The young Water Moles are naked, and have a short beak with fleshy and smooth edges, and this conformation enables them to seize the space on the mother whence the milk comes, for there are no nipples. Their tongue is large and assists in the sucking also.

JAWS OF THE DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS.(After Waterhouse.)(A) Upper, (B) Lower Jaw; (a) Molar Teeth; (b) Narrow Anterior Teeth; (c) Tongue; (d) Integument projecting from Jaw; (e) Transverse Ridges on Covering of Beak.

JAWS OF THE DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS.(After Waterhouse.)

(A) Upper, (B) Lower Jaw; (a) Molar Teeth; (b) Narrow Anterior Teeth; (c) Tongue; (d) Integument projecting from Jaw; (e) Transverse Ridges on Covering of Beak.

The most curious feature in the Ornithorhynchus is the snout in the form of a beak. This is flat and broadest in front where it is rounded. It is hard, and is covered with a skin full of pores, and on each side this skin overlaps the sides to form a kind of fringe or flexible cheek, and this free membrane is carried round the front. Where this skin comes to the head, it forms a wide fold, which flaps over the front of the head and throat, and is a capital protectionwhen the creature is grubbing in the wet banks or burrowing, and evidently protects the face and the eyes from injury. The nostrils are close to the extremity of the snout. In the lower jaw, or part of the beak-like snout, there are some ridges, which mark it crosswise from the mouth to the outside, and corresponding structures may be noticed in a Duck, their use being to provide grooves or spaces through which water may pour out of the mouth when the creature is feeding on soft mud and wet substances. Inside the mouth there is a pouch in the cheek, one on each side, and this is to retain food. It has four teeth in the upper and four in the lower jaw, but they are horny and made up of tubes; the front ones are long and narrow, and the others are oblong and oval in form, with a hollow crown. Moreover, the tongue, as in some reptiles, has horny teeth on it. The eyes of the creature are small and brown, and are situated close to the beak, and they look upwards. The ear is hidden by the fur, but it is none the less sharp of hearing. As may be gleaned from the notice of its habits, the animal has great power of swimming but not much of running, although the limbs are short. The fore-feet have five toes, nearly equal in length, the first being rather the shortest, and all have solid and rounded claws. The toes are webbed, and the fold of skin even extends in front of the claws when swimming is going on, but is folded back in digging. In the hind-feet the web does not extend farther than the base of the claws, and there is a spur on the heel, which is movable and sharp. It is found on the adult males in perfection, and it may be useful as well as ornamental. On carefully examining the under and lower part of the body, the milk or mammary glands are to be seen, and there is no proper nipple; but when suckling, the swelling of the gland produces an eminence, which can be grasped by the wide, open, and soft beak of the young.

FORE (A) AND HIND (B) FOOT OF THE DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS.(After Waterhouse.)(a) Spur on Heel of Hind Foot.

FORE (A) AND HIND (B) FOOT OF THE DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS.(After Waterhouse.)

(a) Spur on Heel of Hind Foot.

SHOULDER-GIRDLE AND STERNUM OF THE ECHIDNA.(a) T-shaped interclavicle; (b) Manubrium; (c) Ensiform end of sternum; (d) Cartilages of ribs; (e) Scapula; (f) Coracoid; (g) Epicoracoid.

SHOULDER-GIRDLE AND STERNUM OF THE ECHIDNA.

(a) T-shaped interclavicle; (b) Manubrium; (c) Ensiform end of sternum; (d) Cartilages of ribs; (e) Scapula; (f) Coracoid; (g) Epicoracoid.

It was thought that this bird-like creature laid eggs, but the point was not easy to determine. (See Postscript, page 234.) It has a double uterus, leading to the common canal, called urogenital, and this ends in the common outlet. The Ornithorhynchus and Echidna have an arrangement of the bones of the shoulder and chest, which resembles to a certain extent that of the Lizards and of the Ichthyosaurus, and the annexed engraving will explain the position of the bones. Indeed, the most important peculiarity in the skeleton of the Monotremes is that of the shoulder-girdle and upper part of the chest; for a bone, the merest vestiges of which are noticed in some of the Mammalia, occurs, that is of some importance in the great groups of birds and reptiles, which are lower in the animal scale than the Vertebrata already described. In all the animals described hitherto, and including the Marsupiata, the large arm bone (humerus) is jointed at the shoulder with the blade bone, or scapula. The socket in this bone, which receives the somewhat ball-shaped top of the humerus, in order to permit of very general motion, is a part of the scapula, and is called the glenoid cavity; but in the Monotremes a bone called the coracoid joins with the scapula, and forms part of the socket;moreover, this coracoid is long enough to reach the breast bone, or sternum. The breast bone in the Mammalia hitherto noticed consists of an expanded part at its fore end (in the usual position of quadrupeds), or at its top in man, called the manubrium, and of some smaller pieces, which form the front bone of the chest and reach to the belly, having ribs attached to them on each side. This is the state of things in the Monotremes; and the coracoids are attached to the manubrium, one on each side. In other Mammalia it is the collar bone which is jointed there. In addition to these breast bones in the Monotremes, there are other bones in front, or between the neck and the top of the manubrium. Firstly, there is a bone in the shape of aT: the lower point is on the breast bone, and the cross-bar supports a collar bone on each side, which reaches outwards to the blade bone. Secondly, there is a bone on each side in front of the coracoid, reaching forwards towards the neck. This is called the epicoracoid. Some of these bones, now noticed for the first time, are more or less common to birds, reptiles, and amphibians.

DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS.

There are some other anatomical points which ally the Monotremes to the reptiles. For instance, the peg on the second, or axis vertebra of the neck, is not fixed to the bone by true bony matter, and some of the ribs which exist in the neck in the Monotremes are separate from the vertebræ until latein life, or altogether. And the cavity for jointing of the thigh bone with the pelvis (the acetabulum) is not perfect, there being a part of it not filled with bony matter.

The ear is singularly simple in its construction in this sub-order, and the cochlea is not coiled into a spiral; moreover, there is no external ear.

The hemispheres of the brain, which are convoluted in the Echidnas, are smooth in the Ornithorhynchus, and in both the central commissure, or corpus callosum, just exists, whilst the anterior one is large. The Ornithorhynchus inhabits Van Diemen’s Land and Australia, as far north as Queensland inclusive.

The Echidna and the Ornithorhynchus belong to a sub-order of the Marsupialia which, whilst it has some structures resembling those of the sub-order of Marsupiata, possesses others which link it with the birds and reptiles. This sub-order is the lowest amongst the Mammalia, and the animals which are included in it have the following peculiarities:—The marsupial bones are present, the uterus is double, and the young are not nourished when within the parent by a placenta; there is no inflection of the lower jaw; the shoulder-girdle has additional bones; there are no true nipples; the teeth are either absent or horny; the external ear is not present, and there is not a true pouch. The excretion of the kidneys and the contents of the bowels fall into one receptacle, through which the young also pass. It is called a cloaca, and receives the outlets of the rectum and urogenital canal. The presence of the spur on the heel is also a peculiarity.

A fossil Echidna has been discovered in deposits on the Darling Downs.

The Echidnas form one genus and the Ornithorhynchus another, and the classification of the whole is as follows:—

ORDER

MARSUPIALIA.

SUB-ORDER

MONOTREMATA.

Genus

Echidna.

Genus

Ornithorhynchus.

In concluding this Natural History of the Marsupiata and Monotremata, it is necessary to direct attention to the fact that they are less well defined than the other great groups of the Mammalia. As sub-orders, they are very artificial, for some of their most important structural peculiarities are deficient in some of the genera. The inflected lower jaw is not invariably found, the marsupium does not always exist, and the marsupial bones differ in shape and size, and are occasionally absent. With regard to these bones or cartilages, they are not connected with the pouch, but with the muscular system of the belly. They have been shown by Huxley to be present in Crocodiles, and in the amphibian called the Salamander. Hence these structures are relics of a remote ancestry, and have but slight functional importance. The authorities whence I have derived most of this Natural History are Waterhouse, Owen, Huxley, Bennett, Gould, and Kreeft, to whom I am under great obligations.

P. MARTINDUNCAN.

Postscript.—Mr. W. H. Caldwell has discovered that the Monotremes lay eggs as has been suspected, and he has traced the development of the animal during the hatching. The eggs resemble those of a Reptile more than a Mammal, and the yolk is in such excess that it is not all subdivided during the early stages of the embryo of the Monotreme, but some remains over and above, upon which it is nourished in the early stages within the egg. The heart of Ornithorhynchus paradoxus is interesting because Meckel, and, subsequently, Prof. E. Ray Lankester, F.R.S., have shown that it differs from that of the higher Mammalia, and is not without considerable resemblance in some of the valvular structures to the hearts of Birds and Crocodiles. The last-named naturalist states that the reflux of blood into the right auricle on contraction of the ventricle, is not prevented by the presence of the special structure seen in Mammals, but by an arrangement which is observed in Reptiles and Birds. The mitral valve is with three divisions instead of two, as in the higher Mammalia, but the tendinous structures seen in this last group, to terminate the muscular structures, do not exist in the Monotreme. This increase of the muscular structure is not so palpable in Echidna. It is interesting to know that the special structures of the right side of the heart in the adult Ornithorhynchus are seen in the embryonic condition of the higher Mammalia.

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