Fig. 12.—SKELETON OF A BIRD.a, the Skull;b, Vertebræ of the Neck;c, Dorsal Region of the Spine;d, Vertebræ that support the Tail;e,e,e, the Sternum or Breast-bone;f,f,f,f, the Ribs;h, the Scapula, or Shoulder-blade;i,i, the conjoined Clavicles or Collar-bones, forming the Furculum, or "Merry-thought;"k, the Coracoid Bones;l, the Humerus, or Arm-bone;m,n, Bones of the Fore-arm;o,b', Bones of the Wrist or Carpus;p,p, the Metacarpal Bones and Rudimentary Thumb;q,q, Pieces representing the Middle Finger;r,s,s, the Pelvis, formed by the consolidation of the hinder Vertebræ of the Back into one piece;t, the Thigh-bone;u, the Leg;x,x, the Tarso-Metatarsal Bones, usually called the Tarsus;y, the Hallux, or Hinder Toe;z,z, the Front Toes.
Fig. 12.—SKELETON OF A BIRD.a, the Skull;b, Vertebræ of the Neck;c, Dorsal Region of the Spine;d, Vertebræ that support the Tail;e,e,e, the Sternum or Breast-bone;f,f,f,f, the Ribs;h, the Scapula, or Shoulder-blade;i,i, the conjoined Clavicles or Collar-bones, forming the Furculum, or "Merry-thought;"k, the Coracoid Bones;l, the Humerus, or Arm-bone;m,n, Bones of the Fore-arm;o,b', Bones of the Wrist or Carpus;p,p, the Metacarpal Bones and Rudimentary Thumb;q,q, Pieces representing the Middle Finger;r,s,s, the Pelvis, formed by the consolidation of the hinder Vertebræ of the Back into one piece;t, the Thigh-bone;u, the Leg;x,x, the Tarso-Metatarsal Bones, usually called the Tarsus;y, the Hallux, or Hinder Toe;z,z, the Front Toes.
Fig. 12.—SKELETON OF A BIRD.
a, the Skull;b, Vertebræ of the Neck;c, Dorsal Region of the Spine;d, Vertebræ that support the Tail;e,e,e, the Sternum or Breast-bone;f,f,f,f, the Ribs;h, the Scapula, or Shoulder-blade;i,i, the conjoined Clavicles or Collar-bones, forming the Furculum, or "Merry-thought;"k, the Coracoid Bones;l, the Humerus, or Arm-bone;m,n, Bones of the Fore-arm;o,b', Bones of the Wrist or Carpus;p,p, the Metacarpal Bones and Rudimentary Thumb;q,q, Pieces representing the Middle Finger;r,s,s, the Pelvis, formed by the consolidation of the hinder Vertebræ of the Back into one piece;t, the Thigh-bone;u, the Leg;x,x, the Tarso-Metatarsal Bones, usually called the Tarsus;y, the Hallux, or Hinder Toe;z,z, the Front Toes.
The skeleton of an animal formed for flight must be constructed upon mechanical principles of a very refined character. The utmost lightness is indispensable; nevertheless, in a framework which has to sustain the powerful action of muscles so vigorous, strength and firmness are equally essential. It is in combining these two opposite qualities that the human mechanician exhibits the extent of his resources and the accuracy of his knowledge; but let the best and most ingenious mechanic carefully examine the skeleton of a bird, and we doubt not that in its construction he will find all his ingenuity surpassed, and perhaps derive not a little instruction from the survey.
In order to render the following account of the structure of a bird's skeleton intelligible to the non-scientific reader, we have delineated that of the Pigeon, and with this figure before us we shall have but little difficulty in indicating those points with which it is essential that the reader of the present volume should be intimately acquainted. (See Fig. 12.)
In the back-bone, or vertebral column, we find three principal regions, each of which will merit distinct notice.
Thecervical region, or that portion belonging to the neck (Fig. 12,b), is exceedingly variable in its proportionate length, and forms the only flexible portion of the spine; it performs, indeed, the functions of an arm, at the end of which the beak, the chief instrument of prehension, is situated. The number of vertebræ entering into the composition of this part of the skeleton is very variable; in the Swan there are as many as twenty-three, in the Crane nineteen, while in the Sparrow there are only nine. As a general rule, it may be observed that the neck of a bird is never so short as not to be able to reach to every part of the body; in many aquatic species it is remarkably elongated, whether they swim upon the surface by means of webbed or natatory feet, like the Swan, or wade into rivers and marshes, like the Crane or the Heron. Throughout the entire class a very beautiful contrivance is observable in the S-shaped curvature of this region, the joints of the upper vertebræ being so disposed that they will bend forwards, while in the lower part they can only be bent backwards, thus enabling the bird to lengthen or shorten its neck with the utmost facility and gracefulness.
But if flexibility is thus admirably provided for in the cervical region, in the thoracic portion of the skeleton which has to support the framework of the wings, and sustain the efforts of the powerful muscles connected with flight, firmness and rigidity become essential requisites, and, accordingly, in the dorsal region, every means has been employed to prevent those movements which in the neck are so advantageously permitted. The vertebræ of this region (Fig. 12,c) are therefore so consolidated as to be almost immovable; and, moreover, splints of bone laid along the back materially add to its stability and strength. There are likewise two sets of ribs, one firmly lashed to the back-bone, the other strongly attached to the sides of the sternum; these dorsal and sternal ribs are moreover united to each other by firm connections, and a thorax is thus formed, possessing sufficient mobility to perform the movements connected with respiration, but still affording a strong basis for muscular action; nay, still further to strengthen this part of the skeleton, from the hinder margin of each dorsal rib a broad flat plate of bone (Fig. 12,f) is prolonged backwards, so as to overlap the rib next behind, and thus bind the whole together as firmly as possible.
The sternum or breast-bone (Fig. 12,e) is developed in proportion to the size of the three pectoral muscles subservient to flight, and is prolonged beneath into a deep keel-like projection. In the cursorial races, such as the Ostriches and the Apteryx, whose wings are not available for flying, the keel is entirely wanting.
Whoever considers the position of the hip-joint in the skeleton of a bird, and reflects how far it is necessarily removed behind the centre of gravity when the bird walks with its body in a horizontal position, will at once perceive that the hinder portion of the spinal column, having to support the whole weight of the body under the most disadvantageous circumstances, and at the same time to give attachment to the strong and massive muscles that wield the thigh, must be consolidated and strengthened in every possible manner, and that even the slight degree of movement permitted in the region of the back would here be inadmissible. Most of the hinder vertebræ are, therefore, solidly conjoined into a single piece (Fig. 12,r,s), sufficiently strong and massive to bear the great strain to which it is continually subjected, leaving only a few of the hindmost pieces (Fig. 12,d) free, upon which the feathers of the tail are supported.
The fore limb of a bird, although used for the purpose of flight, when stripped of the feathersand quills that, as we have already seen, form the extensive surface of the wing, will be found very much to resemble the human arm in its general arrangement, presenting only such modifications as are required for the performance of its peculiar function.
The framework of the shoulder consists of three bones (Fig. 12,h,i,k), named respectively thescapulaorshoulder-blade, theclavicleorcollar-bone, and thecoracoid bone. The scapula (h) is a long and comparatively slender piece placed upon the ribs, and embedded in the muscles, to which it gives attachment. The coracoid bone (k) is the strongest piece of the shoulder; it supports the wing at one extremity, while at the opposite it is firmly united to the sternum by a broad and massive joint. But the most peculiarly formed part of the shoulder is thefurculum, or "merry-thought," as it is usually called (i i), consisting of the two collar-bones united, so as to form but a single fork-shaped apparatus, the presence of which materially enlarges and strengthens the shoulder, without unnecessarily adding to the weight. It is by the union of the three last-mentioned bones that a place is made for the socket of the shoulder, with which the wing is more immediately connected.
The skeleton of the wing presents the bone of the arm, called thehumerus(Fig. 12,l), and the two bones of the fore-arm, named respectively theradius(m) and theulna, orcubit(n). Thewrist, orcarpus, consists of two bones (b' o), and the metacarpus (p) is likewise made up of two pieces; these, with two, or sometimes three, rudimental fingers (p' q q), complete the framework of the wing. The largest finger consists of two, or sometimes of three joints; a second offers but a single joint; and the third, when present, is a mere appendage to the carpus, representing a sort of apology for a thumb.
The bones of the leg likewise exhibit the same parts as exist in the human skeleton, but modified. Thethigh, orfemur(Fig. 12,t), is a short and strong bone, to which succeeds the leg, consisting of two bones (u), named thetibiaand thefibula, but the latter is generally very imperfectly developed. That part which is commonly considered to be the leg consists of the bones of the ankle and a part of the foot (the tarsal and metatarsal bones) consolidated into a single piece, called by anatomists thetarso-metatarsalbone, but known to ornithologists as thetarsus(x). At the lower extremity of the tarsus are three joints that support the three front toes (z, z), while a fourth toe (technically called thehallux) (y), which is directed backwards, is attached to it by the intervention of a small accessory piece. In the gallinaceous order there exists a bony spur, considered by some as representing a fifth toe.
In order to facilitate the description of a bird, it is usual for the ornithologist to consider its exterior as being mapped out into sundryregions(see Fig. 13), to each of which has been assigned a definite and appropriate name; with the names of these regions, and their precise application, it is requisite that the reader should be intimately acquainted.
A bird, like any other vertebrate animal, is divisible into the head, the body, and the limbs; under one or other of which divisions all subordinate parts may be classed.
The head consists of theskulland thebill, and is joined to the body by theneck. Commencing with the bill, we see that it is composed of two pieces, corresponding to the jaws of quadrupeds; that which is above is called theupper mandible(Fig. 13,1), that which represents the under jaw is called thelower mandible(2). The upper mandible contains thenostrils(3); its highest part is called theculmenorridge(4), while the corresponding ridge of the lower mandible is called thegonysorkeel(9).
The lateral edges of the mandibles which meet when the bill is closed are called themargins. In some birds the margins of the upper mandible fold over those of the lower, while in others the edges meet; when this is the case, the line of junction between the two is called thecommissure(5).
In many birds the upper mandible is continued far back over the forehead, and there dilated, so as to form acasqueorhelmet. In rapacious birds and parrots there is a belt of soft naked skin at thebase of the upper mandible, named thecere, in which the nostrils are placed, while around the eye is a space, often denuded of feathers, called theophthalmicregion (11).
TheHeadis that part which lies immediately over the skull, extending from the base of the beak to the commencement of the neck. Thefrontorforehead(12) is that part of the head which lies close above the nostrils; then follows thecrownorsummit(17), which occupies the middle or centre of the head, forming that part which is usually occupied by the crest in birds so ornamented. Thehind head(18) commences at the declivity of the skull; its lower portion is called thenape(19).
Fig. 13.—ORNITHOLOGICAL REGIONS OF THE BODY OF A SMALL BIRD.
Fig. 13.—ORNITHOLOGICAL REGIONS OF THE BODY OF A SMALL BIRD.
Fig. 13.—ORNITHOLOGICAL REGIONS OF THE BODY OF A SMALL BIRD.
On the sides of the head the following parts have received distinct names:—The feathers that cover the ears, to save repetition, are usually called theears(20): they are generally rather more rigid and their webs more disconnected than the surrounding feathers. The space between these and thecorner of the mouth (usually called thegape)(13), is termed thecheek.
The parts of theNeckare thus designated:—The back of the neck is called theupper neck, ornucha(23), beneath which is thelower neckorauchenium. The under-side of the neck is divided into three regions; first, there is thechin(7), or that small space just beneath the lower mandible; to the chin succeeds theupper throat(8), between which and the broad part of the body is thelower throat(15).
TheBodypresents the following regions: first there is thebreast(22), which extends over the space which covers the breast-bone. To this succeeds thebelly(29), which is terminated by theventorcrissum(30). Immediately behind the vent are theunder-tail covers(32), which are frequently of a different colour from the surrounding feathers.
On the upper aspect of the body we have theinterscapular region, sometimes called theback(24), to which succeeds thelower back(26), which terminates at therump, or that part where theupper-tail covers(42) are inserted.
Last of all comes theTail, composed of long stiff feathers, called thetail-feathers(31), concerning which it is only necessary to observe that the two middle tail-feathers are theintermedial, while those on the sides are thelateraltail-feathers.
TheWingof a bird will be found to present a structure worthy of our highest admiration. The object aimed at in the arrangement of its different parts is evidently to obtain a very large and firm expanse of surface, by employing the smallest possible quantity of material. For the purposes of flight it is obviously necessary that the superficial extent of the wings shall be sufficiently ample, not only to sustain the weight of their possessor in the thin and yielding element in which it flies, but, by the vigour of their stroke and the violence of their impulse, to propel the bird with a rapidity proportioned to the occasion, and, moreover, by the lightness of their touch and the accuracy of their movements, to steer and steady its course through all the varied evolutions whereby it is enabled to capture prey, or sportively display the wonderful activity conferred upon the feathered tribes.
We have already seen, while examining the construction of the skeleton, that the bony framework of the wing essentially resembles that of the human arm, and that the limb when stripped of its feathers is no more adapted for flying than our own. The needful expansion is obtained altogether by the addition of the quill feathers, which, as explained in a preceding page, combine in their structure all the qualities requisite for the intended purpose, lightness, firmness, strength, elasticity, and extent of surface: the central part of the arm or wing forms merely a basis of support, into which the quills and other appendages to the wing are securely implanted. It will therefore be easily understood that the importance of the individual quills as instruments of flight will depend very much upon the position they hold in the wing, of which they form so considerable a portion, and, consequently, that they have received names expressive of their relative efficiency. Those that are affixed to the bones representing the hand (Fig. 12,p,q q), by the length of their stroke, and the peculiarity of their arrangement, are obviously of primary importance, both from their size and the situation they occupy, and have consequently been named the "primaries," or the "primary quills," (Figs. 2,f; 13,35); they might be called with equal propriety the "hand-quills," a term more particularly expressive of the parts to which they are attached. Upon the relative length and other proportions of the primary quills the shape and mechanical power of the instrument principally depend; if the first primary be the longest, the termination of the wing is sharp and pointed (acuminate), as in most birds that are remarkable for the swiftness of their flight; whereas if the second, third, or fourth of these quills should exceed the others in this respect, the wing becomes more and more rounded (obtuse), and the perfection of its action visibly deteriorated.
The "Secondary Quills," or "Secondaries" (Figs. 2,c; 13,34), are exclusively sustained by the bones of the fore-arm (Fig. 12,m,n); from their situation being much nearer to the shoulder-joint than the preceding, the extent of their sweep is more limited, and their stroke much feebler; they are, consequently, as their name indicates, of secondary importance in locomotion.
Plate 4 Cassell's Book of Birds1. Tyrant Shrike (Tyrannus intrepidus).—2. Virginian Chordeiles (Chordeiles Virginianus).—3. Cow-bird (Icterus pecoris).—4. Crimson Honeysucker (Myzantha garrula).—5. Masked Weaver-bird (Ploceus larvatus).—6. Fire-crested Wren (Regulus pyrocephalus).—7. Rice-bird (Padda oryzivora).—8. Variegated Grakle (Quiscalus versicolor).—9. White-tailed wheatear (Saxicola leucura).—10. The Wittal Oriole (Oriolus galbula).—11. The Alpine Accentor (Accentor Alpinus).—12. Nordman's Glareole (Glareola Nordmanni).—13. Alpine Tit (Parus Alpinus).—14. Crested Tit (Parus Cristatus).—15. African Parra (Parra Africana).—16. Piririguan Tick-eater (Crotophaga Piririgua).—17. Ptarmigan (Lagopus Scoticus).—18. Scapulated Crow (Corvus Scapulatus).—19. The Kestrel (Tinnunculus Cenchris).—20. The Senegal Thick-knee (Oedicnemus Senegalensis).—21. Rock Kestrel (Tinnunculus rupicolus).—22. Corythus (Corythus enucleator).—23. The Red-legged Stilt-Walker (Himantopus rufipes).—24. The Stone Thrush (Turdus saxatilis).—25. The Silk-tail (Bombycilla garrula).—26. Long-tailed Tit (Parus biarmicus).—27. The Wall-creeper (Tichodroma muraria).—28. The Troopial (Agelaius phœniceus).—29. The Yellow Bunting (Emberiza Cia).—30. The Red-eyed Coccyzus (Coccyzus erythropthalmus).—31. The Cirl-Bunting (Emberiza cirlus).]
Plate 4 Cassell's Book of Birds1. Tyrant Shrike (Tyrannus intrepidus).—2. Virginian Chordeiles (Chordeiles Virginianus).—3. Cow-bird (Icterus pecoris).—4. Crimson Honeysucker (Myzantha garrula).—5. Masked Weaver-bird (Ploceus larvatus).—6. Fire-crested Wren (Regulus pyrocephalus).—7. Rice-bird (Padda oryzivora).—8. Variegated Grakle (Quiscalus versicolor).—9. White-tailed wheatear (Saxicola leucura).—10. The Wittal Oriole (Oriolus galbula).—11. The Alpine Accentor (Accentor Alpinus).—12. Nordman's Glareole (Glareola Nordmanni).—13. Alpine Tit (Parus Alpinus).—14. Crested Tit (Parus Cristatus).—15. African Parra (Parra Africana).—16. Piririguan Tick-eater (Crotophaga Piririgua).—17. Ptarmigan (Lagopus Scoticus).—18. Scapulated Crow (Corvus Scapulatus).—19. The Kestrel (Tinnunculus Cenchris).—20. The Senegal Thick-knee (Oedicnemus Senegalensis).—21. Rock Kestrel (Tinnunculus rupicolus).—22. Corythus (Corythus enucleator).—23. The Red-legged Stilt-Walker (Himantopus rufipes).—24. The Stone Thrush (Turdus saxatilis).—25. The Silk-tail (Bombycilla garrula).—26. Long-tailed Tit (Parus biarmicus).—27. The Wall-creeper (Tichodroma muraria).—28. The Troopial (Agelaius phœniceus).—29. The Yellow Bunting (Emberiza Cia).—30. The Red-eyed Coccyzus (Coccyzus erythropthalmus).—31. The Cirl-Bunting (Emberiza cirlus).]
Plate 4 Cassell's Book of Birds
1. Tyrant Shrike (Tyrannus intrepidus).—2. Virginian Chordeiles (Chordeiles Virginianus).—3. Cow-bird (Icterus pecoris).—4. Crimson Honeysucker (Myzantha garrula).—5. Masked Weaver-bird (Ploceus larvatus).—6. Fire-crested Wren (Regulus pyrocephalus).—7. Rice-bird (Padda oryzivora).—8. Variegated Grakle (Quiscalus versicolor).—9. White-tailed wheatear (Saxicola leucura).—10. The Wittal Oriole (Oriolus galbula).—11. The Alpine Accentor (Accentor Alpinus).—12. Nordman's Glareole (Glareola Nordmanni).—13. Alpine Tit (Parus Alpinus).—14. Crested Tit (Parus Cristatus).—15. African Parra (Parra Africana).—16. Piririguan Tick-eater (Crotophaga Piririgua).—17. Ptarmigan (Lagopus Scoticus).—18. Scapulated Crow (Corvus Scapulatus).—19. The Kestrel (Tinnunculus Cenchris).—20. The Senegal Thick-knee (Oedicnemus Senegalensis).—21. Rock Kestrel (Tinnunculus rupicolus).—22. Corythus (Corythus enucleator).—23. The Red-legged Stilt-Walker (Himantopus rufipes).—24. The Stone Thrush (Turdus saxatilis).—25. The Silk-tail (Bombycilla garrula).—26. Long-tailed Tit (Parus biarmicus).—27. The Wall-creeper (Tichodroma muraria).—28. The Troopial (Agelaius phœniceus).—29. The Yellow Bunting (Emberiza Cia).—30. The Red-eyed Coccyzus (Coccyzus erythropthalmus).—31. The Cirl-Bunting (Emberiza cirlus).]
1. Tyrant Shrike (Tyrannus intrepidus).—2. Virginian Chordeiles (Chordeiles Virginianus).—3. Cow-bird (Icterus pecoris).—4. Crimson Honeysucker (Myzantha garrula).—5. Masked Weaver-bird (Ploceus larvatus).—6. Fire-crested Wren (Regulus pyrocephalus).—7. Rice-bird (Padda oryzivora).—8. Variegated Grakle (Quiscalus versicolor).—9. White-tailed wheatear (Saxicola leucura).—10. The Wittal Oriole (Oriolus galbula).—11. The Alpine Accentor (Accentor Alpinus).—12. Nordman's Glareole (Glareola Nordmanni).—13. Alpine Tit (Parus Alpinus).—14. Crested Tit (Parus Cristatus).—15. African Parra (Parra Africana).—16. Piririguan Tick-eater (Crotophaga Piririgua).—17. Ptarmigan (Lagopus Scoticus).—18. Scapulated Crow (Corvus Scapulatus).—19. The Kestrel (Tinnunculus Cenchris).—20. The Senegal Thick-knee (Oedicnemus Senegalensis).—21. Rock Kestrel (Tinnunculus rupicolus).—22. Corythus (Corythus enucleator).—23. The Red-legged Stilt-Walker (Himantopus rufipes).—24. The Stone Thrush (Turdus saxatilis).—25. The Silk-tail (Bombycilla garrula).—26. Long-tailed Tit (Parus biarmicus).—27. The Wall-creeper (Tichodroma muraria).—28. The Troopial (Agelaius phœniceus).—29. The Yellow Bunting (Emberiza Cia).—30. The Red-eyed Coccyzus (Coccyzus erythropthalmus).—31. The Cirl-Bunting (Emberiza cirlus).]
TheSpurious, orBastard Quills(Figs. 2,e; 13,33), are attached to the rudimental bone that represents the thumb (Figs. 2,g; 12,p); their size is diminutive, and their use in flight comparatively unimportant.
TheWing CoversorCoverts(Fig. 13,37) are small feathers arranged in several rows, which overlap and strengthen the bases of the quills; they are often variously coloured, and thus afford important features whereby different species may be distinguished. Besides the above, there are certain conventional terms employed by the ornithologist that will require enumeration. The arm-part of the wing in the living bird is generally known as theshoulder(27); the elbow-joint is theflexum; while that part of the fore-arm which corresponds to the edge of the wing is denominated theshoulder-margin(6).
The names appropriated to the different parts of the hinder-limb have been already sufficiently indicated when describing the composition of the skeleton.
There are many birds which have stripes of variously coloured feathers situated above, before, and behind the eye; while others sometimes occur at the base of the lower mandible. To all these distinct names have been appropriated. Asuperciliarystripe is situatedabovethe eye, occupying a position analogous to that of the human eyebrow. An ordinary eye-stripe is eitheranterior,posterior, orentire. It is calledanteriorwhen it only occupies the space between the eye and the bill;posteriorwhen it commences behind the eye, and advances towards or unites with the ear-feathers; andentirewhen it is both posterior and anterior. Amaxillarystripe commences at the base of the under mandible, and descends on the sides of the neck.
Fig. 14.—CHICKEN IN THE EGG, NEARLY ARRIVED AT MATURITY,Showing the little Hammer or "Bill-scale" on the end of its beak, wherewith it is enabled to break through the egg-shell.
Fig. 14.—CHICKEN IN THE EGG, NEARLY ARRIVED AT MATURITY,Showing the little Hammer or "Bill-scale" on the end of its beak, wherewith it is enabled to break through the egg-shell.
Fig. 14.—CHICKEN IN THE EGG, NEARLY ARRIVED AT MATURITY,
Showing the little Hammer or "Bill-scale" on the end of its beak, wherewith it is enabled to break through the egg-shell.
Such is the by no means very long list of names of parts used by the ornithologist in his description, and which in the course of the present volume will necessarily be of very frequent occurrence.
The oil with which birds preen their feathers, and the glands that supply it, constitute a remarkable provision peculiar to the feathered creation. Embedded among the feathers at the root of the tail, there is on each side a small nipple, yielding upon pressure a butter-like substance, which the bird extracts by squeezing the orifice with its bill. By means of the oil, or rather ointment, thus procured, it dresses its feathers, either for the purpose of increasing their brilliancy, or, as in the case of the swimming birds, to make them impenetrable to wet.
The pairing of birds is a feature in their history which draws a broad line of distinction between the feathered tribes and the generality of quadrupeds. Among mammiferous quadrupeds the young derive their nutriment during the earlier period of their existence entirely from the maternal breast, the male parent contributing nothing towards its support; but in the winged races the callow brood derive their supply of food from the industry of both parents, whose united exertions are not more than is requisite to procure the needful supply. In this circumstance we may see a reason for the faithful love of the feathered mate as contrasted with the vagrant disposition of the quadruped. The parental fondness of birds towards their young has escaped no observer; no historian of nature is silent upon this subject. "How well they caress them," says Derham, "with their affectionate notes, lull and quiet them with their voice, put food into their mouths, cherish and keep them warm, teachthem to peck and eat, and gather food for themselves, and, in a word, perform the part of so many nurses deputed by the Sovereign Lord and preserver of the world to help such young and shiftless creatures."
It would lead us far beyond the limits of our space were we to do more than indicate the close relationship that exists between the exalted temperature and warm clothing of the feathered creation and the wonderful instinct which urges them to build nests for the reception of their eggs, or the still more remarkable blind perseverance with which they devote themselves to the task of incubation. "There is nothing," says Paley, "either in the aspect or in the internal composition of an egg which could lead even the most daring imagination to conjecture that it was hereafter to turn out from its shell a perfect living bird. From the contents of an egg would any one expect the production of a feathered goldfinch? To suppose the female bird to act in this process from a sagacity and reason of her own is to suppose her to arrive at conclusions there are no premises to justify." And yetHewho made the egg not only ordained that such should be the result of the simple process of incubation; but, as though to confound scepticism, by giving, as it were, the last touch toHisinscrutable work, provided the young bird with the means of escaping from incarceration, by attaching to the end of its beak a little hammer, called the "bill-scale," the only use of which is to crack the egg-shell, and allow the little prisoner to come forth. (See Fig. 14.)
With these few prefatory remarks, we leave our author in the reader's hands, at the same time promising that he will find in the succeeding pages a rich store of valuable information.
Fig. 15.—A YOUNG BLACKBIRD SHORTLY AFTER ITS ESCAPE FROM THE EGG, SHOWING THE ARRANGEMENT AND CONDITION OF THE FEATHERS.
Fig. 15.—A YOUNG BLACKBIRD SHORTLY AFTER ITS ESCAPE FROM THE EGG, SHOWING THE ARRANGEMENT AND CONDITION OF THE FEATHERS.
Fig. 15.—A YOUNG BLACKBIRD SHORTLY AFTER ITS ESCAPE FROM THE EGG, SHOWING THE ARRANGEMENT AND CONDITION OF THE FEATHERS.
Those who are familiar with modern works on ornithology will have observed that it is usual to commence the history of the feathered tribes by a description of the vultures—the most disagreeable and least intelligent of the race. Some writers, however, consider the singing birds as entitled to the first place, the remaining members of the heterogeneous multitude being arranged according to the pleasure of individual naturalists more or less acquainted with their subject. For our own part, we recognise in the parrots the qualifications most fitted to entitle them to take the precedence, and it is, consequently, with these that we shall commence our history. Ornithologists, moreover, differ widely among themselves as regards the relation that exists between the parrots and other members of the class to which they belong, either placing them in a group by themselves, in a manner never intended by Nature, or associating them with toucans, woodpeckers, and cuckoos, with which they possess but few characteristics in common. Under these circumstances, we have considered ourselves at liberty to adopt our own views upon the subject, and have, accordingly, constituted for the parrots a distinct order, under the quaint but expressive name of
CRACKERS (Enucleatores),
in allusion to the facility with which, owing to the construction of their beaks, they are enabled to crack nuts, and other hard seeds, that form the usual staple of their food.
The order that we have thus thought it advisable to establish is, however, by no means limited to the parrots; it includes various other seed-eating birds, chiefly belonging to the passerine tribes, the resemblance of which to parrots has been in some cases generally acknowledged in selecting the names ordinarily conferred upon them. Thus, the Cross-bills have long been known in Germany as theFir-tree Parrots, and, on the other hand, the epithet ofSparrow-parrots, applied to some races of climbing-birds, clearly shows the relationship that exists between these generally dissevered groups.
The birds thus associated will be found to present many features in common. They live chiefly upon vegetable substances, and their strong beaks enable them to break up hard kinds of food, such as nuts, seeds, and grain. They will also eat fruit and leaf-buds, or the tender shoots of plants; many will devour insects; and a few do not altogether reject the flesh of other animals. They are all clever, lively, and active, much attached to the society of birds of their own species, though they do not often cultivate acquaintance with those belonging to a different family. Their great intelligence enables them to live comfortably even under disadvantageous circumstances, and their temperament allows them to fight the "battle of life" very cheerfully. Owing to the diversity of their habits, they are necessarily widely distributed, and some of them are to be met with in every climate; the parrots only are restricted to the torrid zones, the remaining members of the order being citizens of the world. As to the localities they frequent, much depends upon the absence or presence of the trees to which they usually resort, by far the greater number being strictly arboreal, passing their whole lives in flying from tree to tree, and confining their excursions to a very limited district. Only such as live in cold countries migrate; indeed, regular migrations—that is to say, such as take place at stated periods—orjourneys to any considerable distance, are quite exceptional among them. They are, in general, very affectionate and docile; the male has frequently but one mate during his whole life, and nearly all of them brood more than once in the year.
The nests of this order of birds are of very various construction, and the number of eggs never large. The task of incubation usually devolves upon the female, who is cheered and tended by her mate during the period of her seclusion, but he also occasionally shares her labours, and both parents co-operate in feeding and taking care of their young. Many species are considered inimical to mankind, on account of their marauding attacks upon property; and yet the benefits they confer far outweigh any injuries of which they may be guilty. They clear away the seeds of noxious weeds, free the plants from insects; and their lively and cheering presence in the woods, their beauty, their song, and the ease with which they are tamed, together with other good qualities, fully entitle them to our admiration and regard. The flesh of most of them affords an appetising and healthy food, and the plumage of some species forms a beautiful and admired decoration.
PARROTS (Psittacini).
If it is ever permissible to compare animals of one class with those of another, we would state our opinion that the parrots hold among birds much the same position as that occupied by monkeys among quadrupeds. The truth of this remark will become obvious as we proceed with their history. Most systematists have considered parrots as entitled to take but an inferior place in the zoological series, founding this opinion upon a single characteristic which they share with many other birds of far humbler endowments; we allude to the prehensile structure of the foot. Parrots, Woodpeckers, Pepper-eaters, Curacus, Barbets, and Jacamars, are all climbing birds; that is to say, they all have two toes placed in front and two directed backwards; and, immaterial as this structure of the foot may appear, it has been deemed a sufficient reason for forming an order embracing several races of most dissimilar form, which present only this one feature in common. Little stress should, in reality, be laid upon this disposition of the toes, from whatever point of view it is regarded, seeing that Woodpeckers, Tree-creepers, and a great number of others that do not possess the scansorial foot, vie with the so-called climbing birds in the facility with which they climb. The three-toed Woodpecker is not inferior in the dexterity with which it can use its claws to any four-toed scansorial species; and we shall, we believe, be giving this climbing foot its proper appreciation if we compare it to and rank it with the flexible tail of some mammalia, the possession of which is not confined to any particular race, but bestowed alike upon arboreal species of the most various kinds. A foot of this description is by no means of such uniform structure as is usually supposed, and, in truth, is scarcely less varied than are the birds themselves; the foot of the parrot, in particular, differs essentially from the pair-toed foot of other Scansores, in the development of the central part, which renders it in its functions comparable to a hand. The parrots, in fact, constitute a distinct and very clearly defined race, their most distinguishing characteristic being found in the structure of their beak, which can never be mistaken for that of any other bird. At the first glance, indeed, the beak of the parrot would appear to resemble that of the birds of prey; but it is, in reality, much thicker and stronger, and also comparatively higher and more symmetrical in its form. The legs are thick, strong, and fleshy, but never long; the tarsus much shorter than the middle toe, and always covered with small scaly plates; the toes are moderately long, and have a thick sole, but this exists only on certain peculiar ball-like elevations; upon their upper surface the feet are covered with minute scales, resembling those of the tarsus; and these scales, as they approach the ends of the toes, become gradually larger, and project beyond the base of the claw upon the terminal joint in the shape of short tubular or band-like plates;the claws are not long, but much bent and tolerably sharp, never very powerful. The structure of the wings is in exact correspondence with that of the feet; the bones are of moderate length, but strong; the pinion feathers tolerably numerous—twenty to twenty-four. The compactly formed primary quills are seldom long, but so disposed that the outspread wing is generally pointed; the tail-feathers vary considerably in different species, both as regards length and shape. The general plumage is remarkable on account of its compactness; it consists of few feathers, but these are usually of large size, with the exception of those covering the head, which are small. The eye is in many instances surrounded by a naked patch of skin, which during life is usually powdered over with white dust. The body feathers are each furnished on the under side with a large downy appendage. The coloration of the plumage, notwithstanding its great diversity, will require notice, as presenting a feature very distinctive of the different races of parrots. The prevailing tint is a more or less vivid leaf-green; but we also meet with hyacinth, blue, purple, red, golden yellow, and at times darker hues; their distribution is also characteristic, more especially the frequent occurrence of complementary colours upon the upper and under sides of the same feather—blue-violet, dark blue, light blue or green above, with light yellow, orange-yellow, cinnabar red, or purple underneath. Not less peculiar is the frequent concealment of glowing tints among others which are less conspicuous, as, for example, in the case of some Cockatoos in which we meet with feathers having their lower portion and their downy roots of a deep cinnabar red or brilliant yellow, and yet this portion is seldom visible, on account of the length of the white feathers among which it is hidden.
The extraordinary intelligence exhibited by some parrots is particularly remarkable; it is, indeed, their sensible behaviour, not their form, that makes us regard these creatures as representatives of the Quadrumana. The parrot has, superadded to the form of a bird, all the qualifications and troublesome propensities of the monkey—humoursome and fickle at one moment, gentle and agreeable at the next; it is intelligent, active and circumspect, provident and crafty, very quick in discernment, and possessed of an excellent memory; on this account it is eminently susceptible of instruction, and may be taught almost anything. On the other hand, it is choleric, malicious, spiteful, and deceitful; it forgets injuries as little as it does kindnesses; it is cruel and inconsiderate to creatures weaker than itself, tyrannically ill-treating the helpless and unfortunate, as does the monkey. It has been the fashion to rank parrots as inferior to many other birds, because they do not exhibit such conspicuous capabilities of locomotion; they are, nevertheless, very well endowed, even in this respect. The larger species fly with apparent heaviness, but with considerable rapidity; the smaller, wonderfully well—so well, indeed, that we have been almost consoled for the loss of a favourite bird whilst watching the beauty of its flight. Very many appear to be quite out of their element when upon the ground, they seem to hobble rather than to walk, but there are some Ground Parrots that run swiftly and with much facility; and Gould makes mention of a Grass Parrot that he saw running upon the ground like a plover. The capability of hopping from bough to bough is an accomplishment in which parrots are deficient, nevertheless they have their own mode of progression among the branches; any considerable space they fly over, but smaller distances they pass by climbing, and that with considerable rapidity, unwieldy as some of them appear; helping themselves along by means of their beak, as well as their feet, while other birds use their feet only. Parrots are unable to swim, and are quite incapable of diving. The bill is far more movable than that of any other bird, and is useful for many purposes. Their voice is harsh and screaming, but yet not entirely destitute of an agreeable sound when heard in their native haunts. Some species will learn to whistle tunes with remarkable clearness and accuracy; the faculty which they possess of imitating the human voice and speech is well known—their performance, indeed, is wonderful; they do not babble, they speak, and seem to know the meaning of the words they use.
With the exception of Europe, parrots are to be met with in all parts of the world, more especially in tropical regions; one American species ranges as far north as 42°, and another is found in the southern hemisphere, as far as the inhospitable wastes of Tierra del Fuego, in 53° south latitude. Cockatoos are known to inhabit New Zealand and Macquarrie's island, 52° south. In Asia and Africa, the parrots are principally confined to the limits of the torrid zone; in China, they rarely pass 27° north latitude, and in India, at furthest, only extend to the foot of the Himalaya mountains. In Western Africa, they rarely go beyond 16° north, and in Eastern Africa, according to our information, not further than 15°; but towards the southern hemisphere they probably are to be met with at a greater distance from the equator.
Generally speaking, the woods are their favourite haunts; but this is by no means universally the case. There are certain species, for example, which only frequent treeless plains or wide steppes; in the Andes some are to be found living far beyond the region of trees, even at an altitude of 11,000 feet above the level of the sea.
In the north-east of Africa, according to our own experience, they almost exclusively reside in places frequented by monkeys, insomuch that apes and monkeys seem to be their inseparable companions. The more extensive the forests—that is, the richer they are in vegetation—the more these birds abound; indeed, in the tropical forests, they constitute a large—we might almost say, the largest—proportion of the feathered inhabitants. The same remark applies to Australia, as well as to many localities in India, and in part also to Africa; in these countries parrots are as numerous as crows are in Europe, and as common as sparrows.
They would seem to understand how to make themselves conspicuous; and while they deafen the ear with their discordant cries, enliven the dark shades of tropical forests with their lavishly-coloured plumage. "It is impossible," says Gould, "to describe the enchanting scene afforded by certain parrots, more especially by those adorned with feathers of glowing red, as they wheel their varied flight among the silver-leaved gum-trees of Australia, their gorgeous plumage standing out amid the surrounding scenery with wonderful effect."
"Morning and evening," writes Schomburgk, "countless multitudes may be seen at a considerable height, making an insufferable noise; one afternoon I saw such a prodigious flight descend upon the trees by the river-side, that the branches bent low under the weight of the birds." "It is necessary to have lived in these countries, more especially in the hot valleys of the Andes," says Humboldt, "to believe it possible that the shrieking of the parrots actually drowns the roar of the mountain torrents as the waters leap from rock to rock. What would those wondrous tropical forests be without parrots? Lifeless gardens of enchantment, a wilderness of silence, a solitary desert; by these birds they are awakened and kept alive, for the parrots know equally well how to find occupation both for the ear and eye of the traveller."
Except in the breeding season, parrots live in society, or, we might rather say, in great flocks; they select a locality in the forest as their settlement, and thence make daily excursions to considerable distances. Early in the morning they simultaneously quit their roosting-place, to invade the same tree or the same field in search of food, stationing sentinels, whose duty it is to protect the community from a sudden surprise. They pay instant attention to any voice of warning, and when alarmed, immediately take flight, either all together or shortly after each other.
"At the first glimmering of the clear morning sun of the tropics," says the Prince von Wied, "the parrots rouse themselves from their sleeping-places, dry their wings, which have become wetted with the dews of night, and playfully call aloud to each other; then, after describing many sweeping circles above the high woods, they quickly depart in search of the morning's meal. In the evening they invariably come back again to their usual roost."
Le Vaillant tells us that in south-eastern Africa the native parrots fly in little flocks in search of food, bathe about noon, and hide themselves among the foliage during the overpowering heat of the sun. Towards evening they disperse themselves, after which they again bathe, and then fly back to the same roosting-place from which they had departed in the morning. These roosting-places are very various—sometimes the thickly-leaved top of a tree, sometimes a rock full of holes, often a hollow tree trunk; the situation last mentioned seems to be especially sought after. "Their sleeping-place," says Audubon, speaking of the American parrakeets, "is a hollow tree, or the hole chiselled out in some tree's trunk, to be the nestling-place of the larger woodpeckers, that is, in case these are not occupied by their true owners. In the gloaming large flocks of parrots assemble around old hollow sycamores, or other trees of similar character; and may be seen immediately in front of the entrance clinging to the bark, until one after another they disappear through the hole that leads into the interior, in order to pass the night. When a hollow of this description is not sufficiently large to accommodate the numbers that are assembled, those that come last are content to suspend themselves by their bill and claws from the bark before the entrance.
"We have ourselves, in the primitive forests around the Blue River, in Africa, repeatedly watched the parrots at twilight, slipping one after another into their hole, and have observed them ranged with great regularity around the many perforations in the trunk of some old Adansonia.
"In India, the Collared Parrot, as Layard informs us, sleeps among the thickets of bamboos. "All Parrots, Bee-eaters, Grakles, and Crows from districts extending for many miles around, pass the night in flocks among the great bamboo plantations, where the dull rushing sound caused by their flutterings, constantly heard from sundown till dark, and from the first grey dawning in the east until long after sunrise, might almost be supposed by the observer to proceed from numerous steam-engines in full work. Many of these flocks returning late in the evening from their excursions, fly so near to the ground that they scarcely clear the obstacles to their course; indeed, they do not always succeed in doing so; for, several nights together, we have picked up parrots which had flown against walls or similar obstructions, and had been killed in consequence."
Layard gives a very lively account of the behaviour and doings of the Alexander parrot (a species commonly met with in Ceylon), at one of their sleeping-places.
In Chilau, he relates, that he has seen such massive flights of these birds winging their way to their roosting-places among the cocoa-nut trees that overshadow the market-place, that their cries completely drowned the Babel-like confusion of tongues heard among the buyers and sellers in the streets. He had previously been told of the flocks which thus pay their nightly visits, and placed himself, accordingly, towards evening, upon one of the neighbouring bridges, in order to form a calculation of the numbers that might make their appearance in a certain given direction. At about four o'clock in the afternoon they began to arrive; scattered swarms were seen wending their way homewards, to these there succeeded others still more numerous, and in the course of half an hour the homeward stream was apparently in full flow. He very soon found that it was impossible even to count the flocks, which seemed gradually to unite into one great living, roaring torrent. Some flew high in the air, until they were immediately over their roosting-place, and then suddenly plunged down, wheeling round and round towards the tree-tops, of which they were in search. Others crowded onwards, flying close to the ground—indeed, so closely that some of them nearly grazed his face. They swept along with the rapidity of thought, and their dazzling plumage seemed to be lit up with gorgeous brilliancy, as it glanced in the rays of the sun. He waited at his post of observation until the evening closed in, and he could see no longer, but even then the flight of the birds as they made towards their nests was audible. When he fired off a gun, they rose with a sound like that of a furiously rushing wind; soon, however, they again settled down, and commenced an indescribablehubbub. The shrill screams of the birds, the noise caused by the fluttering of their wings, and the rattling of the leaves of the palm-trees was so deafening, that he was heartily glad when he escaped from such a turmoil, and took refuge in his own house.