THE OWLS.

THE BEARDED VULTURE, OR LÄMMERGEIER (Gypaëtos barbatus).

It remains at present undecided whether the Bearded Vultures found throughout Europe, Asia, and Africa are to be regarded as different, or merely as varieties of the same species. Of these the European is the largest, being, according to Tschudi, from four to four and a half feet long and nine and a half broad. The tail measures twenty-one inches. The female is generally larger than her mate. The different species, if such they be, vary somewhat in the coloration of their plumage. The Bearded Vulture, or Lämmergeier (Lamb Vulture), of the Swiss Alps inhabits all the lofty mountain ranges of Europe, Asia, and Africa, living usually in pairs, or alone, and but rarely appearing in parties of more than five. The flight of this truly formidable bird will bear comparison with that of many Falcons, and its powers of enduring fatigue are very considerable. Upon the ground it steps somewhat after the manner of the Raven, but with much less ease and nimbleness. Most wonderful tales have been told of theOssifragra(Bone-breaker), as the Bearded Vulture was called by the ancients, from the fact that its favourite method of despatching its victims is by precipitating them from lofty cliffs, in order that the carcase may be shattered by the fall. Gesner, who wrote about the fifteenth century, assures his readers that the eyrie of a Lämmergeier, found in Germany, "was placed upon three oaks, and was constructed of branches and other materials, so widely extended that a wagon could have been sheltered under it. In this nest were three young birds, already so large as to measure three ells in the spread of their wings. Their legs were thicker than those of a lion, and their claws as the fingers of a man." We smile at such exaggerations as these; there is no doubt, however, that these birds are by far the most dangerous and rapacious of the many feathered tyrants by which mountain ranges are infested. In 1819 so numerous did they become in Saxe Gotha that, after two children had been carried off by them, a price was set upon their heads. They destroy sheep, hares, she-goats, chamois, and calves, in large numbers, and hold even man himself in so little dread that he would be foolhardy indeed who should venture to molest them during the breeding season. From Simpson we learn that marrow-bones constitute the tid-bits of these feathered monsters, and that no sooner is the flesh stripped away than they either swallow the bones entire or dash them to pieces by dropping them upon a piece of rock. They will also devour tortoises, and the writer from whom we quote suggests that it was probably a Lämmergeier that made the unfortunate mistake of endeavouring to break the hard covering of one of thesecreatures by letting it fall upon the head of the poet Æschylus, imagining that worthy ancient's bald pate to be a stone.

Such of these birds as inhabit Asia and Africa are equally formidable. Bruce relates a fact that came under his own notice, well calculated to show that those on the latter continent are by no means behind their European congeners, either in audacity or strength. The traveller and his companions, while in the mountains, were seated at their dinner with several large dishes of goat's flesh before them, when a Bearded Vulture suddenly appeared. It did not swoop rapidly from a height, but came slowly flying along the ground, sat down close to the meat, within the ring formed by the men, and deliberately put its foot into the pan in which a large piece of meat was boiling, but, as may be supposed, soon withdrew it; there were, however, two other pieces, a leg and a shoulder; into these it struck its claws and carried them off. After a short time it returned for more, but was shot by one of the men, who by this time had recovered from their astonishment at such an unwelcome and unexpected intrusion.

The breeding time of the Bearded Vulture occurs in Europe during the first months of the year, and in Asia and Africa during the spring. The nest is variously constructed, and we cannot do better than give the words in which those built in Arabia were described by our guides: "The nest of this robber and son of a robber (may Allah curse him and all his generations!) is placed where the sons of Adam can rarely penetrate, and is formed of a huge bed of goat's hair, gathered from the animals the wretch has slaughtered. The nest contains but two eggs, with a white shell, spotted all over with the blood of its prey." The brother of Dr. Brehm was the first European who succeeded in finding one of the many nests built by these birds amid the solitudes of the Pyrenees. This eyrie was about five feet in diameter at its base and its height three feet; the interior was about two feet wide and five inches deep; the sides were constructed of branches varying greatly both in length and thickness; upon these was a heap of twigs, in the middle of which the hollow of the nest was excavated; the interior was lined with a bed of various kinds of hair. The eggs of such European species as we have seen were large and almost spherical, with a coarse-grained, dirty white shell, spotted with reddish brown, dark grey, or ochreous yellow. As may be easily imagined, the capture of these huge and fierce birds is attended with much difficulty; the Swiss endeavour to lure them down during the winter by sprinkling blood upon the snow, or laying a trap baited with carrion near the spots upon which the eyries are built.

The TRUE VULTURES (Vultures) have stout powerful bodies, which are of unusual breadth at the breast; the wings are long, broad, and rounded, their fourth quill being of greater length than the rest; the tail is of medium size, and slightly rounded at its extremity; the individual quills are stiff and ragged, or split towards their tip; the legs are strong, of moderate length, and destitute of feathers; the toes, though long and powerful, are almost useless for grasping; the talons are slightly bent and very blunt. The beak, which is as long as the head, is higher than it is broad, and straight except at its extremity, which terminates in a moderately long and very sharp hook; the mandibles bulge slightly outwards at their margins. The plumage is composed of very long and broad feathers, and does not entirely cover the body, the head and neck are either quite bare or overspread with a slight growth of hair-like down. In some species the legs and belly are covered with down, intermingled upon the latter with long narrow feathers. The bare or thinly-covered portions of the body are often brightly coloured, but the plumage itself is usually sombre and indistinct in its coloration, though occasionally variegated. The eyes are large and expressive, the formation of the nostril differs considerably according to the species. All the members of this group see, hear, and smell with great acuteness, and their intelligence is by no means inferior to that of the Bearded Vulture.

The CONDORS, or WATTLED VULTURES (Sarcorhamphi), as three of the largest species of True Vultures have been called, are at once recognisable by their comparatively slender bodies, long narrow wings, and long tails. The tarsi are high and the toes large; their neck is of moderate size, and the head long; the beak, compressed at the side, terminates in a powerful hook, which, in the male, is decorated above the base of the upper mandible with a kind of fleshy comb, and, in the region of the chin, with wattles or folds of skin. The nostrils are very peculiar in their formation, not having the usual division between them. The plumage is composed of small, brightly coloured feathers, and does not cover the whole body, some parts being left entirely bare. Unlike most of their family, the males of the three known species of Condors are larger than the females.

THE CONDOR.

The CONDOR(Sarcorhamphus gryphus, orSarcorhamphus condor) has been the subject of even more extravagant tales than its European representative, the Lämmergeier, as its name of Gryphus or Griffin indicates; indeed, the travellers of former times seem to have thought no anecdotes too absurd to impose upon the popular mind either concerning the bird itself, or other productions of the countries it inhabits. The plumage of the full-grown Condor is principally black, enlivened by a slight metallic lustre; the upper part of the wings is black, but all the quills are tipped with patches of white, which become gradually so broad that the shoulder feathers are almost entirely white, and only black at their origin. The back of the head, face, and throat are blackish grey, the neck flesh colour, and the region of the crop pale red; the fold of skin and two warty lappets on either side of the throat of the male are bright red. In both sexes the neck is surrounded by a ruff of white feathers; the eyes are fiery red, the beak horn colour, and the feet dark brown. Humboldt gives the dimensions of the Condor as follows:—The body three feet three inches, span across the wings eight feet nine inches, and the tail fourteen inches. The female, according to the same authority, is one inch shorter, and nine inches less in breadth.

All the highlands of South America, from Quito to fifteen degrees south latitude, afford a home to this huge bird, whose powers of flight are stupendous; indeed, we are told on reliable authority that it is capable of soaring to an altitude of 22,000 feet above the level of the sea, thus surpassing any other member of the feathered race in its wonderful strength of wing. In Peru and Bolivia it lives and breeds upon the sea-coast, but is by no means so numerous as in mountainous districts. Except during the period of incubation, Condors fly in large parties, spending the entire day in sailing majestically about in search of food, and pass the night perched upon one of their favourite ledges or lofty pinnacles of rock. "Near Lima," says Mr. Darwin, "I once watched several Condors for half-an-hour together. They moved in large curves, sweeping in circles, ascending and descending, without once flapping their pinions. As they glided close to my head I intently watched from an oblique position the outlines of the separate and terminal feathers of their wings. If there had been the slightest vibratory motion these would have been blended together; but they remained distinct under the blue sky. If the bird wished to descend, the wings for a moment collapsed, and then, when again expanded with an altered inclination, the momentum gained by the rapid descent seemed to urge it upward with the steady, even motion of a paper kite."

The food of these gigantic birds consists principally of carrion; but they also destroy pumas, vicunas, sheep, and even calves, and thus work terrible havoc among the flocks and herds of the sturdy mountaineers, who are compelled to train their watch-dogs for the especial duty of barking incessantly as long as one of these formidable marauders is within sight of their flocks. Modern writers all agree in corroborating the statement of the Indians that this species never molests children, and as much as possible avoids the vicinity of man, though, if actually attacked, it displays extraordinarycourage, as the following extract from the journal of Sir Francis Head fully shows:—"In riding along the plain I passed a dead horse, about which were forty or fifty Condors. Many of them were gorged and unable to fly from repletion, several were standing on the ground, devouring the carcase, the rest hovering over it. I rode within twenty yards of them, and saw one of them displaying his strength as he lifted the flesh and tore out great pieces, sometimes shaking his head and pulling with his beak, and sometimes pushing with his leg. Got to Mendoza and went to bed. Wakened by one of my party who arrived. He told me that, seeing the Condors hovering in the air, he also had ridden up to the dead horse, and as one of these enormous birds flew about fifty yards off and was unable to go any further, he rode up to him, and, jumping off his horse, seized him by the neck. The contest was as extraordinary as the rencontre was unexpected. My companion said that he had never had such a battle in his life; that he had put his knee upon the bird's breast and tried with all his strength to twist his neck, but that the Condor, objecting to this, struggled violently, and, moreover, that as several others were flying over his head he expected that they would attack him. At last he succeeded in killing his antagonist, and showed me with great pride the large feathers from his wings."

The preparations made by these birds for their young are extremely slight; indeed, in most instances the two eggs laid by the female are deposited upon the bare rock. The eggs are large, the shell yellowish white, spotted with brown. When first hatched, the young are covered with a coat of grey down; they grow but slowly, and remain under the protection of their parents long after they are fully fledged. Some tribes of Indians prize the heart and other portions of the body of the Condor as invaluable specifics for many serious maladies, and more than one modern writer has testified to their efficacy in certain complaints. When caged this gigantic bird has been known to become comparatively tame, and attached to its keeper.

THE CALIFORNIAN CONDOR.

The CALIFORNIANCONDOR(Sarcorhamphus Californianus), as the second member of this group is called, is found throughout the mountains of California. According to Taylor, this bird is four feet six inches in length (of which fifteen inches belong to the tail), and eight feet four inches across the span of the wings. Its plumage is of an uniform dark brown or black, marked upon the wings with a triangular spot; the breast is dirty white, as are the exterior feathers of the under surface of the wings; the head, with the exception of a three-cornered stripe covered with small feathers, is bright lemon yellow; the neck is of a dirty flesh colour. The habits of this species resemble those of its congeners, but it is found in larger numbers near the coast, and subsists principally upon fish.

THE KING OF THE VULTURES.

The KING OF THEVULTURES(Sarcorhamphus papa) has lately been separated from the preceding under the name ofGyparchus, owing to some slight variety in the shape of its nostrils. This bird, known to the writers of former days under the significant appellation, "King of the Vultures," is well worthy of the place thus assigned to it, both as regards its size and general aspect, as well as for the mastery it asserts over other members of its family. Its plumage is extremely beautiful; the fore part of the back and upper wing-covers are bright reddish white, the belly and lower covers pure white, and the wing and tail deep black; the ruff around the neck, and the outer web of the quills are grey; the top of the head and face are covered with short, stiff, flesh-coloured bristles or feathers. The region of the eye exhibits a number of remarkable warts, which, like the folds of skin that pass over the back of the head, are dark red; the cere, neck, and head are light yellow, the deep, lappet-like wattle is black, the beak yellowish white at its tip, bright red in themiddle, and black at its base; the feet are blackish grey, and the eye of a silvery whiteness. The plumage of the young is of an uniform nut brown, darkest upon the back and rump; the lower part of the thighs is white. The length of this species has been variously estimated—Tschudi gives it as thirty-two, Burmeister as thirty-four inches. Its breadth is about sixty-seven inches and a half, the wing measures twenty, and the tail nine inches. The female is larger than her mate, but has a somewhat smaller wattle.

THE CONDOR (Sarcorhamphus gryphus, orSarcorhamphus condor).

The King of the Vultures is found throughout all the lowland provinces of South America, from thirty-two degrees south latitude as far as Mexico, Teja, and Florida, where it usually frequents the primitive forests or fertile plains. It is occasionally met with upon mountains, at an altitude of 5,000 feet above the level of the sea, but is never seen in barren districts or upon bare rocks. This species mainly subsists upon carrion, and morning has scarcely dawned before it may be seen sweeping over the face of the country, in search of the carcase of some creature that has fallen a victim to the jaguar, or one of the many beasts of prey that abound in large forests. Such a repast once found, the bird does not immediately fall to and gorge itself after the manner of most Vultures, but seats itself at somedistance upon the ground, or on a neighbouring tree, from whence, with head sunk between its wings, it casts longing glances at the tempting meal, and appears to be endeavouring to put a very keen edge indeed upon its appetite by this self-enforced abstinence, which often lasts for a full half-hour. This unusual proceeding is followed by an onslaught so vigorous, that the royal glutton forgets its usual vigilant precautions for its own safety, and becomes so completely gorged as to be unable to rise from the spot on which it has breakfasted. Schomburghk tells us that whatever birds may be feasting on a dead animal, the Vulture King no sooner arrives at the scene of action than the busy crowd precipitately retire, leaving it in undisturbed possession of the spoil, and only return in case a few scraps should be left after the unwelcome monarch is fully satiated. Many writers have endeavoured to prove the falsity of this statement, but it tallies exactly with our own observations. We have frequently witnessed similar scenes, in which the disappointed birds never ventured to interfere with the lord of the feast, but perched around upon the trees, devouring with their eyes what was unattainable in a more satisfactory and substantial manner. Opinions also differ considerably as to the habits of this species during the breeding season; we shall, therefore, only say that, according to Burmeister, the King of the Vultures builds upon trees, and that the eggs are white.

THE KING OF THE VULTURES (Sarcorhamphus papa).

The GOOSE VULTURES (Gyps) are recognisable by their elongated body and long, slender wings. The tail is of moderate length, and the tarsi low. The neck, which constitutes the peculiar characteristic of this group, resembles in its formation that of the Goose, and is covered with white downy hair or bristles. The beak is comparatively long and feeble. The plumage is composed oflarge feathers, and varies in its coloration, according to the age of the bird. The young are easily distinguished from their parents by the fact that the feathers which cover their bodies are long and narrow, and that their necks are enveloped in a streaming, ragged kind of frill. The members of this group are found throughout the whole of the Eastern Hemisphere.

THE TAWNY GOOSE VULTURE.

The TAWNYGOOSEVULTURE(Gyps fulvus), the only species inhabiting Europe, is about forty-one inches long, and ninety-nine broad; the wing measures twenty-six, and the tail eleven inches. Its plumage is almost entirely of a pale tawny colour, darker on the lower parts of the body than upon the back; the large wing-covers are surrounded by a broad white border, the tail-feathers and primary quills are black, the secondaries greyish brown, edged with reddish brown upon the outer web. The eye is light brown, the beak rust colour, and the feet light greyish brown. The plumage of the young is darker than that of the old birds, and the feathers upon their necks are long, brown, and narrow.

This species is frequently met with in the southern countries of Europe, and occasionally appears in the more central provinces of that continent; it also frequents Egypt, Nubia, Algiers, and Morocco; but although it is sometimes seen around the Himalayas, it is replaced in the lowland districts of Hindostan by theGyps IndicusandGyps Bengalensis, two very similar birds.

THE SPARROW-HAWK GOOSE VULTURE.

The SPARROW-HAWKGOOSEVULTURE(Gyps Rüppellii), the handsomest member of this group, is three feet two inches long, and seven feet six inches broad; the wing measures two feet, and the tail nine inches and a half. In the adult bird all the large feathers, except the quills and those of the tail, are dark brown, tipped with a dirty white, crescent-shaped patch, thus giving a chequered appearance to the body. The skin of the neck is greyish blue, and shades downwards at its sides into a reddish hue, these colours being distinctly visible through the few scanty feathers with which it is overspread. The eye is silver grey, the beak yellow at the base and grey at the tip, the cere black, and the feet dark grey. The frill around the neck is formed of short, hairy, white feathers. In the young birds the small feathers are dark greyish brown, with yellowish brown shafts, and the quills and tail-feathers blackish brown. The eye is pale reddish brown, the cere and beak are black, the latter tipped with blue; the feet are greenish grey; the ruff is composed of long, narrow, dark brown feathers, each with a yellowish shaft. Several years elapse before the young acquire the full plumage of the adult birds.

The Sparrow-hawk Goose Vulture inhabits Nubia, and all the central portions of Africa with which we are acquainted. The southern portion of that continent possesses another species, theGyps Kolbii, but of its distinguishing features we cannot speak with certainty. All the various species of Goose Vultures usually frequent mountain ranges, and build their nests on the rocks or upon trees. They live for the most part in very large flocks, which form extensive settlements during the breeding season, and constantly associate with a variety of other birds. In many respects they are inferior to the rest of the family, but their flight is light and elegant, and they walk with such rapidity that a man must run very fast indeed in order to compete with one of them onterra firma. In disposition all are violent and mischievous, and so extremely quarrelsome that battles and disputes are of constant occurrence between them and other Vultures; even those of the same species do not live on much better terms, and often engage in such deadly encounters that they appear entirely regardless of danger, and will allow a man to approach close to them. We have heard, on reliable authority, of an instance in which a shepherd was compelled to employ the "argument of a thick stick" to a couple of Goose Vultures, with which he laid about him very freely before he could persuade them to relinquishtheir hold upon each other, and retire from the field. According to our own observations, these birds do not begin their search for carrion until the day is far advanced. When they have found a carcase, they at once commence upon the entrails, plunging their heads into the interior, and dragging out their favourite parts with great excitement and violence; Lázár tells us that they often fall upon sick and dying sheep, and kill the poor beasts in this revolting manner.

In Europe the Goose Vulture breeds about March, and places its nest, which is formed of small branches, upon a rock. Many couples often build but a few paces from each other, and it is not unusual to see the nests of the Black Stork and some species of Eagles forming part of their settlements. The brood consists but of one coarse-shelled white egg, which in size resembles that of a Goose. Both parents assist in the somewhat lengthy process of incubation, and tend their little, round, woolly ball of a nestling with great devotion and patience, for so weak is it when it first sees the light, that three months often elapse before it is able to fly. It would be almost impossible to render one of these birds really tame, but we have heard of an instance in which a Goose Vulture became so much attached to an old mastiff belonging to its master, that when the dog died its feathered companion refused to devour the body, even when very hungry, and, after pining for a few days, expired, apparently through grief at its loss. The feathers of the Goose Vulture are much esteemed in Egypt, and large sums, we are told, were formerly paid by Turkish merchants for articles of dress made with them by some tribes of Arabs.

The CRESTED VULTURES are distinguished from the above group by their strength and compactness of body, as well as by their muscular neck, large head, powerful, eagle-like beak, and broad wings. Their plumage is also thicker and softer than in the Goose Vultures; the head is covered with short, curly, wool-like down, which is prolonged at the nape into a kind of crest, the neck and part of the throat are bare, but the lower part is ornamented with a frill, formed of large, broad, dark feathers.

THE COWLED VULTURE.

The COWLED, or BROWNVULTURE(Vultur cinereus), as the European member of this group is called, is forty-one inches and a half long, and eighty-five broad; the wing measures twenty-nine, and the tail fifteen inches. The female is from one inch and a half longer, and from two to three inches broader than her mate. The plumage of this bird is of an uniform dark brown; the beak is marked towards the centre with red or violet, and the bare places on the throat with grey. The plumage of the young is glossier and darker than that of the adults, and the downy feathers on the top of the head are dirty whitish brown.

The Brown Vulture lives and breeds throughout all the most southern countries of Europe, and is met with in Africa in the regions around the Atlas Mountains. In Asia it is becoming extremely numerous, owing, it is supposed, to the rapid spread of disease amongst the cattle, whose carcases afford it a constant supply of food. The movements of this species are distinguished by a dignity that is very unusual amongst the Vultures. Its eye is fiery and intelligent, its bearing much like that of the Eagle, and its entire demeanour calm and almost majestic. Even when feeding, it exhibits none of the haste and violence observable in the Goose Vultures. Its principal food appears to be carrion, but it rarely touches the entrails, usually contenting itself with eating the flesh and swallowing the bones of the prey, which, we are told on good authority, it sometimes kills. Unlike those species above described, the Brown Vulture builds exclusively upon trees; its nest is large, and formed of thick boughs and small branches, the flat interior being lined with thin dry twigs. The one white coarse-shelled egg that constitutes the brood in size resembles that of the Goose. Bothparents tend their offspring with great care, and feed it upon flesh for four months, as until that time it is unable to fly. Attempts to render this bird tractable in captivity usually prove fruitless, but instances have been lately known in which the Brown Vulture has been made so tame as to run about a farm-yard on excellent terms with its inhabitants, and to allow children to play with it.

THE TAWNY GOOSE VULTURE (Gyps fulvus).

THE CRESTED VULTURE.

The VARIEGATEDor CRESTEDVULTURE(Vultur occipitalis) is an inhabitant of Central Africa, and is now regarded as the type of a distinct group (Lophogyps). In this bird the entire upper part of the body, breast, and tail, are covered with black feathers, edged with brown; the region of the crop, belly, feet, and secondary quills are pure white, the primaries black. The crest is composed of white woolly down; the bare neck is blueish white, and covered in front with from eight to ten lines of small blackish warts; the eye is dark brown, the beak blackish blue at its tip, and reddish brown at its base; the lower mandible and cere are light blue; the feet pale purple, or reddish white. The plumage of the young is of an uniform dark blackish brown colour, the eye is grey, the beak red, and the foot white. This species of Crested Vulture inhabits all the woodland districts of California, where it lives either alone or in pairs, and though by no means shy, seldom ventures near towns or villages. In its general habits it closely resembles its congeners already described.

The EARED VULTURES (Otogyps) may be regarded as by far the most powerful members of this voracious family; they are easily recognised by their large strong head and beak, large, broad, and slightly rounded wings, comparatively short tail, long legs, and very peculiarplumage. As respects the latter, only the upper part of the body resembles that of other Vultures, the lower portion being covered with thick, long, greyish down, interspersed with a few long, narrow, sabre-shaped feathers. The legs are covered either with a similar, but longer and reddish yellow down, or with small feathers of the usual description. The head, back of the neck, and entire front of the throat are bare, and the chin is overspread with hair-like feathers. A reddish brown of various shades predominates in the coloration of the plumage; the quills and feathers of the tail have adark, and those of the large wing-covers alightedge. Yellowish white feathers are often intermixed with those upon the back and nape. The young are distinguished by the darker hue of their plumage, and by the borders to the feathers on the lower part of the body being broader than in the parent birds. The eye is dark brown, the beak grey at its sides, deeper in shade upon the culmen and upon the lower mandible; the feet are light grey, as are the bare parts of the neck: the naked cheeks are violet. When the bird is excited these bare places become bright red.

The Eared Vultures are found throughout Africa, and have occasionally visited Europe. In Asia they are replaced by the Sukuni, or Bald Vulture (Otogyps calvus). In their habits they are bold and social, and everywhere frequent the vicinity of man, coming down into the villages with the utmost confidence, in order to gather up the refuse thrown from the slaughter-houses and dwellings. With such extraordinary eagerness and voracity do these birds attack their prey, that (as Jerdon witnessed) a party of Vultures devoured the body of a dead dog, and picked the bones completely clean in the course of a few minutes. The toils of the day completed, they go in search of water, and, after preening themselves, lie down to roll in the sand and bask in the sunshine; this performance over they retire to their sleeping-place in a tree, where they perch bolt upright, with head drawn in, and tail hanging loosely down, until a late hour in the following morning. So large an amount of rest do these Vultures require, that they do not commence the duties of the day until about ten o'clock, and seldom seek for food after about four or five in the afternoon; and, so soundly do they sleep, that upon one occasion we rode around the tree in which a large party was perched without arousing them. A shot fired amongst them only had the effect of causing them to rise drowsily into the air, and fly heavily to a distance of about five hundred paces, when they again settled upon some branches to finish their interrupted slumbers. The flight of these birds is very graceful, and particularly quiet and easy. When about to descend they open their wings, stretch out their feet, and reach the ground in a direct line, without the slightest movement of their broad pinions. The nests are built close to each other, upon a ledge of rock, and thus form a kind of settlement, which is for the most part quite inaccessible, owing to the precipitous nature of the locality usually selected; we have, however, made various successful attempts to reach them with the help of a Hottentot guide, but found the stench from the eyries intolerable, and the surrounding rock perilously slippery, being, as it were, polished by constant friction. The brood consists but of one white egg, which is laid about October: the nestling, when first hatched, is covered with white down, and is not fully fledged until the month of January. The Eared Vulture thrives in captivity, and can easily be rendered very tame.

The RAVEN VULTURES (Cathartæ), a group of much smaller birds than those above described, are recognisable by their long beaks, pointed wings, and slender tarsi; their heads are either wholly or partially bare, and in some species covered with warts. The members of this group, as their name suggests, in many respects resemble the Ravens, and may be regarded as replacing those birds throughout South America, whilst such as are found in Africa and India associate freely with Crows, and lead a very similar life. The nest is usually built upon rocks or trees, and the brood consists of one, or at most of two eggs.

The SCAVENGERor EGYPTIANRAVENVULTURE(Percnopterus stercorariusorNeophron Percnopterus), by far the most celebrated bird of the above group, was called by the ancient Egyptians "Pharaoh's Hen," and was treated with a considerable amount of superstitious reverence. This bird has been in all ages a favourite subject for the pencil of Eastern artists, and even at the present day the Egyptians preserve some remnant of the respect with which this remarkable species was formerly regarded. It is distinguished from its congeners by its long, pointed wings, by its graduated tail, which is of considerable length, and by the peculiarities of its plumage. Its beak is slender, and more than half covered by the cere; the upper mandible terminates in a long but feeble hook; the foot is weak, and its middle toe almost as long as the tarsus; the talons are of moderate size and but slightly curved. The third quill of the wing exceeds the rest in length, the second is larger than the fourth, and the sixth longer than the first. The exterior tail feathers are only about two-thirds the length of those in the centre. The plumage is extremely soft, and composed of large feathers, which become much longer and broader upon the nape and upper part of the back. In colour this species varies much, according to the age of the bird, but there is no perceptible difference in this respect between the male and female. In the coloration of the adults a dirty white predominates, which shades into deep yellow on the throat and upper part of the breast, but becomes somewhat purer in its tint on the back and belly; the primary quills are black, the shoulder feathers grey, the colour of the eye varies from reddish brown to light yellow; the bare portions of the head, warts upon the throat, and upper part of beak are bright orange, the latter being tipped with greyish blue; the skin of the neck is paler than that of the head, and the wings are blueish red, or light greyish yellow. In young birds, on the contrary, the shoulders, upper wing-covers, a stripe across the middle of the breast and belly, the frill around the throat, the neck, the rump, and tail-feathers are grey; the throat, breast, belly, and quills of a blackish brown; the feathers on the top of the leg are chequered grey and black; those at the side of the neck have brown shafts and tips. The face, cere, and head are deep grey; the eye is dark brown, the beak black, and the leg light grey. The body of the female is from twenty-five to twenty-seven inches long; her breadth from sixty-one to sixty-three inches; the wing measures eighteen inches and the tail nine and a half. The Scavenger Vultures are frequently met with throughout all the southern countries of Europe, and are very numerous in Western and Southern Asia, and in all parts of Africa, with the exception perhaps of the western coast. Such of these birds as are met with in Europe, migrate to warmer regions, whilst those inhabiting Asia and Africa are stationary throughout the year.

It would be impossible to over-estimate the immense services rendered to man by the Scavenger Vultures, to whose appetite no kind of filth or refuse comes amiss. They devour carrion freely, but this forms by no means their principal subsistence; offal of all kinds they consume with avidity, and were it not that Providence had assigned to these most active birds the task of clearing away the garbage that the inhabitants of tropical and of some European cities are too indolent to remove, fever and pestilence would rage with unremitting fury. Many writers speak of these invaluable benefactors to humanity in terms of strong disgust, but for our own part we consider this by no means warrantable. Ugly they certainly are, and the odours they spread around them somewhat of the strongest; but there is such a thing as thebeauty of fitness, and, to our minds, this is possessed by the Scavenger Vultures in an eminent degree, so exactly are they adapted to the part they have to play in the economy of Nature. So totally are these birds destitute of fear, that they not only approach, but enter the houses requiring their ministrations, and we have frequently seen them busied in clearing away the refuse strewn about the tents of the Arabs, or accompanying caravans for a whole day in the hope of obtaining the scraps thrown away by the travellers. Unlikemany of its congeners, the Neophron does not usually smear itself over with filth whilst eating; it even appears to exercise a certain care in this particular, as it steps quietly about, feeding after the manner of a Barn-door Fowl. When satiated it retires to a quiet tree or rock, and there remains in a kind of indolent doze, while the work of digestion is going on, a process which often occupies several hours. When about to fly it springs from the ground with considerable force, and, after a few sharp strokes of its wings, floats slowly and gracefully through the air, without any further movement of its wings. This species is very sociable, and flies about either in pairs or small parties, which usually form a settlement during the breeding season, building their nests as near to each other as possible, upon rocks, pagodas, tombs, or similar situations. The nest is made of twigs and a variety of materials, of which rags often form a part. The brood generally consists of two long eggs of a yellowish white colour, spotted with yellowish or reddish brown; we have seen them also marbled all over with deep crimson lines. The young are covered with greyish down when first hatched, and are fed with food regurgitated from the crop of the parent birds; many months elapse before they are fully capable of providing for their own wants. If trained while young, the Scavenger Vulture is as tractable as a Barn-door Fowl, and will learn to follow its master about with the affection of a dog. According to old Gesner, the gall of this species was regarded in his time as an infallible remedy for many most dissimilar complaints.

THE MONK VULTURE.

THE MONK VULTURE (Neophron pileatus).

AFRICAN VULTURES (Gyps fulvus).

The MONKVULTURE(Neophron pileatus) resembles the bird last mentioned in several respects, but differs from it in many particulars; the beak being comparatively short and the wings broader;the tail projects in a straight line; the forehead and the back of the head and nape are covered with a short woolly growth of feathers; the bare portions of the face and throat are also larger than in the Scavenger Vulture; the apertures of the ears are well developed, indeed almost muscular, and the fore part of the throat is covered with wart-like excrescences. The plumage is of an uniform chocolate brown, while the soft feathers at the back of the head are grey. The beak is greyish blue, darkest at its tip; the foot pale grey, the cere light violet, the bare head and throat are blueish red. The young are recognisable by the comparative paleness of their tints, and the dark brown colour of the back of the neck, the smooth skin upon the throat, and their less conspicuous ears. The length of this species is twenty-six, its breadth sixty-six inches; the wing measures seventeen inches, and the tail nine and a half.

THE SCAVENGER, OR EGYPTIAN VULTURE (Percnopterus stercorariusorNeophron Percnopterus).

The Monk Vulture is met with throughout almost the whole of the African continent, but is especially numerous upon the banks of the Blue and White Nile and on the shores of the Red Sea. So common is it in Abyssinia and Massowah, that large parties are often seen perching about the roofs and trees, as the crows do with us, or picking up their food around the houses with the utmost confidence and fearlessness. Before the natives have left their huts in the morning, theseactive servants are at the door, ready to begin their task of cleansing, as soon as the family will allow them to enter and remove whatever filth may have accumulated. So extremely feeble is the beak of these birds, that they seem to be almost entirely dependent upon man for the means of subsistence; and those who have never visited tropical countries can scarcely imagine how ably and perseveringly they perform the work that has been assigned to them. The movements of the Monk Vultures are active, and their habits very social; even during the breeding season the parties do not separate, but form settlements upon such groups of suitable trees as are at some distance from the towns and villages. The nests are usually placed upon the higher branches, and do not exceed one foot in diameter; they are flat in shape, and formed of twigs very nicely woven together; the interior is so small as to be capable of containing but one nestling. The solitary egg is round, coarse-shelled, and usually of a greyish white, thickly sprinkled with yellow spots. Both parents assist in the work of incubation, the male bird relieving his mate during the mid-day hours. The young grow very slowly, and after leaving the nest, subsist, according to Heuglin, upon such food as they can pick up on the sea-shore or river banks.

THE URUBU, OR TURKEY BUZZARD.

The URUBU(Cathartes aura) is the first of the two species of American Vultures that we have selected from amongst the many varieties inhabiting the western continent, all of which, though differing somewhat in appearance, bear so close a resemblance to each other in their habits and mode of life that we shall content ourselves with speaking of them collectively. The Urubu or "Turkey Buzzard," as it is called in North America, is distinguished by its short thick beak, graduated tail, and low tarsi. The head and bare parts of the neck are of a flesh colour, deepest at the base of the beak, and become gradually paler towards the nape; the top of the head is violet. The skin upon the brow and nape hangs in thick folds, and that of the throat is overspread with orange-coloured warts; a few bristle-like feathers are scattered over the crown of the head and around the ears; the entire body, wings, and tail are brownish black, and gleam with a metallic lustre. The beak is pale red, and partially covered by the cere, in the upper part of which the large oval nostrils are situated; the eyes are bright red, and have a blueish grey circle around the pupil. The length of this species is about twenty-two and its breadth sixty-three inches; the wing measures nineteen inches and the tail ten and a half.

THE GALLINAZO.

The GALLINAZO(Coragyps atratus), as the second species is called, possesses a rather longer and thinner beak, comparatively high tarsi, and a shorter tail, which is straight at its extremity. The bare head and fore part of the throat are dark grey, deepening in some parts into black; the body, wings, and tail are pale black, shaded with reddish brown. The wing-feathers are white at their origin, the eyes dark brown, the beak blackish brown, whitish at the tip. The top of the head, from the base of the upper mandible to the nape, is covered with a regular succession of folds of skin, placed one behind the other. The length of this bird is twenty-three, its breadth fifty-two inches; the wing measures fifteen, and the tail about seven inches.

THE URUBU (Cathartes aura).

Both the Urubu and Gallinazo are found in large numbers throughout the whole of the American continent, and both appear to avoid the summits of mountain ranges. The Urubu lives for the most part in the vicinity of the coast; whilst the Gallinazo, on the contrary, frequents the towns and villages, occasionally, but rarely, appearing in mountainous districts. So highly do the Americans value the services rendered by these Vultures, that in some districts it is considered a punishable offence to kill them. Wilson tells us that "the Turkey Buzzards aregregarious, peaceable, and harmless, never offering any violence to any living animal, or, like the plunderers of the Falco tribe, depriving the husbandman of his stock. Hence, though in consequence of their filthy habits they are not beloved, yet they are respected for their usefulness; and in the Southern States, where they are most needed, they, as well as the Black Vultures, are protected by a law which imposes a fine on those who wilfully deprive them of life. They generally roost in flocks, on the limbs of large trees; and they may be seen on a summer morning spreading out their wings to the rising sun, and remaining in that posture for a considerable time. Pennant conjectures that this is 'to purify their bodies, which are most offensively fetid.' But is it reasonable to suppose thatthateffluvia can be offensive to them which arises from food perfectly adapted to their nature, and which is constantly the object of their desires? Many birds, and particularly those of the granivorous kind, have a similar habit, which doubtless is attended with the same exhilarating effects as an exposure to the pure air of the morning has on the frame of one just risen from repose. These birds, unless when rising from the earth, seldom flap their wings, but sweep along in ogees, and dipping and rising lines, and move with great rapidity. They are often seen in companies, soaring at an immense height, particularly previous to a thunder-storm. Their wings are not spread horizontally, but form with the body a slight angle upwards, the tips having an upward curve. Their sense of smelling is astonishingly exquisite, and they never fail to discover carrion, even when at the distance of several miles from it. When once they have found a carcase, if not molested, they will not leave the place until the whole is devoured. At such times they eat so immoderately, that frequently they are incapable of rising, and may be caught without much difficulty; but few that are acquainted with them will have the temerity to undertake the task. A man in the State of Delaware, a few years since, observing some Turkey Buzzards regaling themselves upon the carcase of a horsewhich was in a highly putrid state, conceived the design of making a captive of one, to take home for the amusement of his children. He cautiously approached, and springing upon the unsuspicious group, grasped a fine plump fellow in his arms, and was bearing off his prize in triumph; when, lo! the indignant Vulture disgorged such a torrent of filth in the face of our hero, that it produced all the effects of the most powerful emetic, and for ever cured him of his inclination for Turkey Buzzards."

On the continent of America, this species inhabits a vast range of territory, being common, it is said, from Nova Scotia to Terra del Fuego. How far to the northward of North California they are found, we are not informed, but it is probable that they extend their migrations to the Columbia, allured thither by the quantity of dead salmon which, at certain seasons, cover the shores of that river.

Mr. Darwin, who observed this bird in New Jersey, states "that the Turkey Buzzard is a solitary bird, or at most goes in pairs. It may at once be recognised from a long distance by its lofty, soaring, and most elegant flight. It is well known to be a true carrion feeder. On the west coast of Patagonia, among the thickly wooded islets and broken land, it lives exclusively on what the sea throws up, and on the carcases of dead seals; and wherever these animals are congregated on the rocks, there the Vultures may be seen."

The Gallinazoes are extremely active; they fly lightly, and can rise with ease to a considerable height in the air; when perched they usually draw their head down between their shoulders, and allow their plumage to hang loosely about their bodies; but when upon the ground they hold themselves erect, and walk with very much the same air as a Turkey-cock. We learn from Audubon, who made a variety of experiments on this subject (see Introductory Chapter), that these Vultures discover their food by sight alone, and are almost or entirely without the sense of smell. Many writers have maintained that they subsist altogether upon garbage and carrion, but both Audubon and Humboldt concur in the statement that they will occasionally kill their own prey. The latter describes the manner in which they seize young crocodiles, about seven or eight inches in length, either upon the land or in shallow water; and tells us that the small reptile endeavours to confront its foe by rising on its fore-feet, stretching up its head, and literally grinning defiance through its long sharp teeth. It not unfrequently happens that, while thus engaged in keeping one of its feathered enemies at bay, the spirited little creature is snapped up by an Urubu, who has come up quietly and unobserved to watch the encounter. Large numbers of eggs are also devoured by the American Vultures, who frequently build their eyries in the immediate vicinity of the nests of Wading or Swimming Birds for the express purpose of thus obtaining a constant supply of food for their young. Most naturalists are now agreed that both the Gallinazo and Urubu lay their eggs in clefts of the rock, holes in the ground, or in hollow trees, as such spots afford the best protection against the inclemency of the weather. In Texas and Mexico they usually select a hillock near marshy ground, and merely scratch a hole beneath a bush wherein to lay the two eggs of which a brood consists. Both parents sit alternately for thirty-two days, and feed each other from the crop during that period. These birds are easily tamed, and when in a state of domesticity exhibit towards their master all the fidelity of a dog.

THEOWLS(Striginæ) constitute the last division of the extensive order RAPTORES to which we have to call the attention of our readers. These remarkable birds possess an apparently heavy, but, in reality, slender and by no means muscular body, and a large, broad, thickly-plumaged head. Their short, very decidedly arched beak terminates in a hook, and is partially covered by a cere, whichis so thickly clothed with stiff bristle-like feathers as to be entirely concealed. The large eyes, which look directly forward, are without the bony ridge projecting from the brow, usually so characteristic of the Falconidæ, and are encompassed by a circle of slender, radiating, hair-like feathers, forming afacial disc. The ear is highly developed, and often furnished with a kind of lid; the wings are long, broad, and wedge-shaped; the tail broad and of various lengths; the short tarsi and toes are covered with feathery plumes or hairs; the outer toe is reversible, as in the Parrot, and the claws are long and sharp. The plumage of the body is composed of long, broad feathers, and is so extremely soft and downy as to render the flight of an Owl almost noiseless; the coloration is in most species sombre, and scarcely distinguishable from the bark of the trees on which they perch; in some few, on the contrary, it is comparatively bright and varied. All the members of this division possess extraordinary power of seeing in the dark, and hear with such acuteness that they can readily detect and obtain their prey in situations where sight seems impossible. As regards intelligence they are certainly behind the rest of the order; and, though generally peaceful in their disposition, will, if excited, fall upon and devour such of their companions as are aged or sick, not sparing even their own offspring. Their flight is usually slow, and their movements upon the ground extremely clumsy, but when in the trees they hop about and spring from branch to branch with great agility, sometimes amusing themselves by ducking their heads and throwing their bodies into a great variety of ludicrous attitudes. Every quarter of the globe is inhabited by these predatory birds, some species being as much at home on the icebergs of the Polar regions as others are beneath a tropical sun; they are sometimes found upon mountains, at an altitude of 15,000 feet above the level of the sea, and, though woodland regions are their favourite resorts, frequent both populous districts and desert plains. Although generally classed collectively as "Night Birds," some few species obtain their food during the day, and confront the sunlight with the utmost ease; still, they are for the most part nocturnal, concealing themselves in holes and cavities until the hour of twilight has arrived, and, if forced into the full glare of day, sit blinking and staring in a state of helpless bewilderment most amusing to behold. All reject carrion, and only devour such food as they have themselves killed, subsisting principally upon small quadrupeds, birds, and insects; a few will even eat fish. Many species are capable of living without water for months at a time, though they drink it readily, and often bathe freely. Most of the members of this sub-order lay from two to seven round white eggs, which are deposited in holes of trees, rocks, or buildings. The young remain for a considerable time under the care of their parents, by whom they are protected with great affection and courage.

The DAY OWLS (Surniæ) are recognisable by their small head, slender body, long tail and wings, and compact plumage. All their senses are well developed, and in intelligence they far exceed any of their nocturnal relatives.

THE SPARROW-HAWK OWL.

The SPARROW-HAWKOWL(Surnia Ulula,Surnia funerea, orSurnia nisoria), often called the Falcon Owl, on account of some slight resemblance to that family, is one of the best known members of this group, and is distinguished from its congeners by its broad flat head, and small face, which is without the circle of feathers around the region of the eye, possessed by most of the species; its wings are slender and pointed, its tail long and conical. The beak is short, powerful, higher than it is broad, and curves downwards from its base; the hook in which the upper mandible terminates, overlaps the lower one; the margins of both are slightly incised, and the latter has a deep notch at its tip. The tarsi are completely covered with feathers, and the toes armed withshort and very sharp claws; the eyes and apertures of the ears are large. The plumage, which is rich, soft, and glossy, is much thicker than that of the majority of Night Owls; the feathers on the sides of the head are held erect, and thus make the face appear fully to equal the body in breadth. The outer web of the anterior quills is denticulated like a saw, while the inner one is of velvety softness. The cry of this species resembles that of the Kestrel; when angry it snaps with the beak, after the manner of other Owls, but, unlike most of the members of the family, its eyes are kept open in the day-time, and it rather seeks than avoids a strong light. The face of the adult male is whitish grey, and marked with two black streaks, one before and one behind the ear, forming a sort of crescent. The top of the head is brownish black, each of the feathers in that region being tipped with a round white spot, which increases in size towards the back of the neck; the nape and a spot behind the ear are pure white; the feathers upon the back are white, edged and striped with brown. The breast, sides, and belly are white, marked with blackish brown; the throat is white, traversed by a dark stripe; the quills and tail-feathers are mouse grey, and for the most part streaked with white. The beak is dingy yellow, tipped with black, and the eyes of a beautiful brimstone yellow. Considerable deviations from this coloration are of frequent occurrence, but the young closely resemble their parents. The length of this species is from fifteen to sixteen, and its breadth from twenty-nine to thirty-one inches; the wing measures nine and the tail seven inches.

The Sparrow-hawk Owls are met with extensively throughout all the countries of the extreme north, and frequently visit the central portions of the American and European continents. Birch, fir, and pine forests afford them the retreats they prefer, and where these are found they will often ascend to a considerable height in mountain ranges. Wallengen tells us that their eyries are built upon fir and pine trees, and are formed of leaves and twigs, intermixed with dry moss; and that the six or seven round white eggs that constitute a brood are laid early in the spring. Some naturalists are of opinion that they lay but two eggs. We learn from Richardson that large numbers of these birds are killed by the fur hunters, and that they subsist principally upon insects and mice; they also devour Ptarmigans, and when in pursuit of the latter are so bold that, at the sound of the sportsman's gun, they congregate around him in the hope of securing his birds as they fall; they catch mice by waiting quietly seated near their holes until they come out, and never seize them whilst on the wing. They appear to have no fear of man, and are constantly seen around the watch-fires made by the hunters in their encampments. Such Sparrow-hawk Owls as visit Central Europe arrive about March, and depart early in the autumn; here as elsewhere they subsist principally upon mice, and frequent forests and woodland districts. The flight of this bird, unlike that of most Owls, is rapid and easy, but upon the ground it hops somewhat clumsily.

THE SNOW OWL.

The SNOWOWL(Nyctea nivea), as the largest of the diurnal species is called, frequents the same countries as the bird above described, and, like it, wanders to Southern Europe; but the Polar regions are its actual home, and there it may be seen living, not only inland, but on the coast, sitting in large numbers upon the icebergs, or scrambling with hasty steps over the surface of the ice-covered sea. The distinguishing features of the Snow Owl are its small head, well-developed ear, and thickly-plumed feet; the wing, in which the third quill is the longest, is of moderate size; the tail long and rounded; the beak powerful, and its hook short; the plumage thick, but not so soft as that of some of its congeners. The length of this species is from twenty-six to twenty-seven, and its breadth from fifty-six to sixty inches; the wing measures twenty-one, and the tail ten inches. The coloration of the plumage varies considerably, according to the age of thebirds; such as are very old are either entirely white, or have a few small brown spots upon the forehead and quills; the younger the bird, the more distinct are these brown markings. The eye is a rich yellow, and the beak greyish black.

During the entire summer the Snow Owl remains in its native land, but when heavy snow begins to fall, and renders search for food impossible, it departs to warmer latitudes. According to Radde, the females are the first to leave, but are very shortly followed by their mates. When perched these birds look much like other members of their family, but when in flight exhibit a rapidity of motion and dexterity in steering their course, far exceeding that possessed by any other species of Owl, and so remarkably bold are they that, if wounded by a shot, they at once bear down upon the sportsman who has molested them, for the purpose of revenging the injury, and will also attack dogs, darting upon them, and seizing them after the manner of a Falcon. Whilst tarrying in Central Europe, they subsist principally upon lemmings, and should these prove scarce, attack squirrels, marmots, and other small quadrupeds: they pursue Wild Pigeons, Ducks, and Ptarmigans with great ardour, and are so daring in contesting the latter delicacies with the hunters that, according to Blakeston, they have been known to snatch the coveted prize out of the sportsman's bag, whilst it hung suspended at his back. Audubon had the good fortune to see some of these interesting birds busied in what we should have imagined an uncongenial occupation for an Owl, namely, "angling for fish." He tells us that whilst engaged one morning in shooting Wild Ducks on the banks of the Ohio, he observed a Snow Owl lying upon the rocky bank, apparently asleep, with its head turned towards the water: whilst noticing it, a fish rose to the surface, and, with the rapidity of lightning, was caught in the claws of the wily bird, who at once made off with its prize to a few yards' distance, and having devoured it, immediately returned to play the same clever trick upon other victims. In the winter season this species often seeks its food during the night, and so much vigilance does it display in these nocturnal excursions, that no object seen in the air is allowed to pass without proper investigation as to its edible properties. Holboell mentions having amused himself one moonlight night by constantly throwing up his hat to attract the attention of a Snow Owl, and was rewarded by inducing it to follow the unfamiliar object for nearly a quarter of a mile. The cry of this bird is harsh, and much resembles that of the Crow. The breeding season commences in June; the eggs, from seven to ten in number, are of a dirty white, and are deposited in a hole in the ground lined with a little dry grass. The young are fledged by the month of August, and are tended till this period with great affection by both parents. The female, who is also carefully fed by her mate during the period of her seclusion, exhibits great affection for her little family, and should a man approach so near the nest as to excite her suspicion, will fall to the earth, and lie as though dead or lamed, in the hope of diverting the stranger's attention from the brood to herself. Attempts to rear this remarkable Owl have hitherto usually proved unsuccessful.

The STONE OWLS (Athene) are small birds, with moderate sized heads, short round wings, which do not extend beyond two-thirds of the long straight tail, long legs, powerfully armed toes, and short beaks; the latter are compressed, and the upper mandible terminates in a hook. The aperture of the ear is smaller, and the feathers which surround it longer than in other diurnal species; the plumage is compact, and only partially covers the legs, the toes being overspread with a hair-like growth.

THE STONE OWL PROPER.

The STONEOWLPROPER(Athene noctua) is about eight inches long, and twenty broad; its wing measures five inches and a half, and the tail three and three-quarters. The female is slightlylarger than her mate. In the adult of both sexes the upper part of the body is dark mouse grey, irregularly spotted with white; the face is greyish white, the belly whitish, spotted with brown, except at the vent; the wing and tail-feathers are reddish yellow, spotted with white; the beak is greyish yellow, the foot yellowish grey, and the eye of a brimstone yellow. The plumage of the young is darker than that of their parents.

Back to Index Next