ELY FROM THE FENSELYFROM THE FENS
Ely's choir was originally Early Norman, and terminated in an apse. Unfortunately this Normanapse was destroyed. In restoration the church was extended eastward by six more arches under the guidance of Bishop Northwold, about the middle of the thirteenth century. His addition is Early English. The carving is very rich and elaborate.
While Bishop Hotham was engaged upon the building of the Lady Chapel, the Norman tower erected by Abbot Simeon tumbled down in 1321. Hotham immediately replaced it by an enlarged octagonal substitution. On it he placed a lofty lantern of wood, a rich ornament and in good keeping with the rest of the holy edifice. Though this prelate deserves every recognition, yet we are much more indebted to Alan of Walsingham, who designed the Lady Chapel and the octagonal tower and lantern so ably carried out by Hotham. Alan had also made his influence felt in the choir-bays of this same cathedral, where he has so cleverly preserved and combined the old Early English elegance of proportion with richness of detail. Under the superintendence of Sir G. B. Scott the fabric has been extensively restored.
Attached to the Cathedral is the church of Holy Trinity; it was formerly the Lady Chapel of the Cathedral. It was commenced in the reign of Edward II., and is one of the most perfect buildings of that age. Another handsome church is thatdedicated to St. Mary, and is partly Norman and partly Early English in character.
At the Grammar School, founded by Henry VIII., Jeremiah Bentham, the celebrated political writer, received the rudiments of his education. The Sessions House, the new Corn Exchange, and Mechanics' Institute are other notable features of Ely.
An historic relic, now preserved at Trinity College, Cambridge, is the "Ely Book." It cannot be passed over without a word. On a page are portrayed Ethelwold and King Edgar, but its chief importance is the record of instructions received by the commissioners to supply details and valuation of property for the "Doomsday Book." The inquiries and answers indicate that England had already been divided up into manors, and furnish besides a variety of most interesting information.
Another incident in the history of Ely, if not of great importance to the city, is nevertheless an interesting insight of the respective position of the Church and State soon after the dissolution.
In the good days of Queen Bess, the Bishop of Ely received a royal rebuke.
In the great struggle between the Protestants, or anti-papal world, and the Catholic reaction, there was little leisure for the clergy to air their grievances.They were compelled to submit to the will of the Queen and her counsellor Cecil, from whom Archbishop Parker of Canterbury received his cue for the government of the Church. Though he enjoyed the personal confidence of Elizabeth beyond any other ecclesiastic of the time, his complaints were unavailing. The supremacy of the lay power over the ecclesiastical was too thoroughly accomplished to allow of the Church to exist apart in the early years of Elizabeth's reign. The Bishop of Ely, for expressing unwillingness to hand over the gardens of Ely house to Sir Christopher Hatton, received a characteristic warning, couched in elegant language, for his temerity. "By God, I will unfrock you!" was the Queen's gracious answer to the daring prelate, if he did not mend his ways.
Through the cultivation of its fertile soil by market-gardeners, Ely offers its produce to the London market.
A considerable factory for earthenware and tobacco-pipes, and numerous mills for the preparation of oil from flax, hemp, and cole-seed, help to furnish the trade resources of this historical town, which is situated on the river Ouse, in Cambridgeshire, and just sixteen miles from the celebrated University of Cambridge.
Gloucester
Glowecestre."Doomsday Book."
TO the long list of "cesters," the Anglicised form of the Latin "Castra" (camp), must be added Gloucester, famous in more respects than one; the city where Henry I. died from a surfeit of lampreys, where Henry II. held a great council in 1175, where the coronation of Henry III. in its abbey took place; the city which the same monarch "loved better than London," the city extolled by Bede as one of the noblest in the land. Prior to the Roman invasion it is held to have been of considerable importance, and to have originated from the settlement of a tribe of Britons, called the Dobuni. This tribe, with that of the Cornavii, also controlled about the same time the destinies of Worcester, now renowned for its beautiful china. By the Dobuni the city was called Cœr Glou, either out of compliment to its founder Glowi, a native, with the meaning, "the city of Glowi," or because the same Britishwords, according to another interpretation and its reputation, can be rendered "the fair city." In the year 47 this stronghold passed into the Roman possession, under Aulus Plautius, and according to Richard of Cirencester, a colony was established. This he styles Glebon, whilst the "Itinerary" of Antonine and other ancient records enter it as Glevum Colonia.
An interesting account upon the Roman classification of towns in England discloses a very important particular. It adds considerable weight to the description of the city by the authors just quoted. Their statements that Gloucester was classified as a colony called Glevum seemed to be borne out by a tombstone found at Rome. It purports to be in memory of a citizen of Glevum. This has given rise to the supposition that "Glevum" was the honourable title bestowed upon an English town of importance made a "colony" by Nerva. This period would be between 96 and 98 A.D. This date in no way combats the original one of 47 A.D. It is only intended to show that Gloucester at the later period had become a colony with a certain amount of self-government, forming a unit of the Great Roman Empire.
The district to the north-east of the presentcity, called King's Holme, is supposed to have been the actual site of the Roman camp. Close to it was also the palace belonging to the Anglo-Saxon kings of Mercia, which was called Regia Domus. Round about this spot quite a valuable collection of Roman remains has been made, which, besides establishing the fact of their occupation, have helped archæologists to form a correct estimation of the habits and customs of the Latin invaders. When the pressing needs of Rome required the return of all her legions, Gloucester came to be governed by Eldol, who was a British chief. He survived the terrible massacre of the Britons by the Saxons at Stonehenge, and in 489 revenged their memory by killing Hengist, the Saxon chief, at the battle of Mæshill in Yorkshire.
GLOUCESTER INTERIOR OF THE NAVEGLOUCESTERINTERIOR OF THE NAVE
From the Britons the city in 577 was captured by the Saxons. They called it Gleauanceaster, which exists to this day under the contracted form of Gloucester. At that time it was included in the kingdom of Wessex, and was afterwards annexed to that of Mercia. In the meanwhile tradition says that a bishop's see was founded at Gloucester in the second century. Lucius, the first Christian king of Britain, is held to be the founder, and is also supposed to have been buried in the Church of St. Mary de Lode of this city. With all respectto tradition, this can only be accepted with reservation. If true, the present church of St. Mary de Lode deserves far greater recognition than it receives. Though evidently an old foundation much restored, it can hardly lay claim to such antiquity. In all probability a temple to some Roman deity existed, which, by conflicting accounts of historians, gave rise to the supposition of an early established see. Though there is proof that Christianity existed during the Roman occupation of England, it seems more likely that, after their general exodus from the island in 418, a diocese, if any, was soon after established at Gloucester, over which Eldad presided in 490.
This first bishopric, on the subversion of the country by the Anglo-Saxons, must have become extinct; for the next we hear of it is when, as part of the kingdom of Mercia, the entire county of Gloucester is included in the diocese of Lichfield at the time of the introduction of Christianity. However, the first authentic evidence of monasticism appears in the year 679, when the holy brethren founded their establishment. Under the auspices of Wulfhere, then King of Mercia, this priory was dedicated to St. Oswald, and in the same year was annexed to the newly established see of Worcester. It afterwards became theabbey. The city's importance in the same year was considerably increased by the royal patron. The King's brother and successor, Ethelred, nevertheless, completed the ecclesiastical building, which some contend was a nunnery. This the Danes destroyed. It was then refounded for the reception of secular priests in 821, by Bernulf, King of Mercia.
As early as 964, in a charter to the monks of Worcester dated at Gloucester, Edgar styles this a "royal city." Several times it suffered from the incursions of the Danes in the eighth century, and more especially so in the tenth, when it was taken and nearly destroyed by fire in the reign of Ethelred II. This monarch's reign seems to have been a disastrous one for the kingdom. In the first place, through the ambitious schemes of his mother Elfrida, who caused his stepbrother Edward to be murdered, he wrongfully occupied the throne in 979. On account of his tragic death Edward came to be styled "the Martyr." A reign thus inauspiciously commenced proved to be a constant struggle against the Danes. The King acquired the name of Ethelred the Unready; for when the Danes attacked the kingdom, instead of being prepared to repel them, he endeavoured to counteract the evil with large sums ofmoney. As this only served as a further incentive to fresh invasions, Ethelred eventually compounded with them in 994. On condition that these plundering expeditions should cease, he offered them tribute. This is the first mention we get of the "danegelt," as it was called. With the exception of the reign of Edward the Confessor, it continued to be levied almost without interruption till the time of Henry II. The only benefit that Ethelred's reign conferred upon his subjects was the act of atonement made by Elfrida.
To ease her conscience and remorse for the murder of Edward, she caused the foundation of several monasteries, and performed penances. Edmund Ironsides, who succeeded in 1016, was the exact opposite in character to his father Ethelred.
He continued a serious obstacle to Canute and his Danes. After the last of five pitched battles Canute and he agreed to divide the kingdom between them: Canute to have Mercia and Northumberland, and Edmund the remainder. However, through the murder of Edmund a few days after, at Oxford, Canute usurped the throne of England in 1017. During his reign of eighteen years, except for a dispute with Scotland over Cumberland, the country enjoyed peace at home.
This peaceful term, in conjunction with the passing over of the dreaded millennium, when the end of the world had been expected, caused the great building activity which, under the Norman Conquest, attained such wonderful results.
In the meanwhile the trade resources of Gloucester, even before the Conquest, had greatly advanced, and had probably outdistanced in ratio those of more important commercial centres of England. No doubt the natives had learned many hitherto unknown industrial arts from the Romans.
GLOUCESTER THE CATHEDRAL AND OLD PARLIAMENT HOUSEGLOUCESTERTHE CATHEDRAL AND OLD PARLIAMENT HOUSE
A native art and civilisation existed in the Island, we know, before the Roman Conquest. Great skill in enamelling, claimed by the ancients to be of Celtic origin, and the primitive abundance of gold and tin, worked, as history relates, by the Phœnicians, encouraged a certain degree of native excellence in metal work. Besides this, the gold coinage and other signs of their ingenuity, by remains discovered in Yorkshire and elsewhere, illustrate that various branches of art existed a matter of a century and a half before the Roman Conquest. Yet it is only reasonable to suspect that the inhabitants of Gloucester and of the other camps profited greatly from the far better knowledge and technique brought by the invader from Rome, the acknowledged centre of civilisation atthat time. Certain it is that the Roman influence must have left some result. The subsequent history of Gloucester has it that a mint existed at the time of Alfred. It evidently fell into disuse, for a mint was again established in the reign of King John. He also granted the burgesses exemption from toll, and showered other marks of royal favour. As far back as the twelfth century, Long Smith Street derived its name from the numerous artisans who dwelled there.
They were employed in forges for the smelting of ore. Iron-founding and cloth-making were also in full swing. Felt-making, sugar-refining, and glass-manufacture all flourished at one time or another. Pin-making was introduced by a Mr. John Tilsby in 1625, and until quite recently formed the staple trade of the place. Bell-founding, once a feature, no longer is practised. In its career of nearly two centuries close upon 5,000 bells of different sizes had been cast. With the exception of foundries, many modern industries have supplanted the old, and include match works, marble and slate works, saw mills and flour mills, chemical works, rope works, railway wagon and engine factories, agricultural implements, and ship-building yards; for it must be remembered that Gloucester is reckoned as a port. It exports suchvaluable commodities as iron, coals, malt, salt, bricks, and pottery. The town is also celebrated for its Severn salmon and lampreys.
In discussing the resources of Gloucester, no regard has been paid to the proper distribution of dates. A leap from the eleventh to the nineteenth century has been unavoidably made, and to chronicle the chief events it is necessary to go back to the year 1022, when a change was made in Bernulf's foundation.
This year saw the ejection of the secular priests and the introduction of the Benedictine monks by Canute. In spite of opposition, the new order managed to keep possession of the monastery till the dissolution. The abbey founded by Aldred, Bishop of Worcester, a few years before the Norman Conquest served as the basis of the present cathedral. This transition took place from 1072 till 1104, under Abbot Serle. In 1381 Walter Frocester, its historian, became its first mitred abbot. Here again we have an instance of a Norman building forming the backbone to subsequent periods of Gothic and English architecture. Though each style is distinct, thetout ensembleis in such perfect harmony that it calls for the greatest admiration for the wonderful skill of the several architects. The plan of the Cathedral is the usualsymbol of the cross. In the centre there is the beautiful fifteenth-century tower. Its mass of detail and pierced work give it an air of elegance and lightness. The oldest portions are the nave, the chantry chapels, which are apsidal and are on either side of the choir, and the crypt. These are supposed to have belonged to Aldred's abbey, which may thus be taken to have become incorporated in the present building. They are of Norman origin, or rather date a few years before the Conquest. No doubt these parts came, more or less, to be touched up and restored by the Normans. In 1248, the roof of the nave, an Early English addition to the massive Norman nave, was finished by Abbot Henry Foliot. The Chapter House also is Norman. Compared with those at Wells and Lincoln, its simplicity is striking. It differs also in another respect. Belonging, as it did, to a Benedictine church, it follows the shape usually found in churches of that order; namely, the square.
The south aisle was commenced by Abbot Thokey in 1310, and the south transept in 1330. About the same time building operations were commenced for the north transept and the choir. The latter was finished in 1457.
To the north of the nave lie the cloisters.These form a most wonderful Early example of fan-tracery, constructed some time between 1351 and 1390. Here in the south end of the cloisters were set apart a series of stalls, better known as the carrels, in which the monks studied and wrote. They may have undergone great hardships and austerities, but they evidently had a great sense of beauty. They have left us the finest works of architecture possible, which have not been surpassed by any modern erection.
The west front, and the south porch with fan-traceried roof, were added in 1421.
The triforium, carried round in a curve under the great east window, forms a narrow passageway from one side of the choir to the other. This formation, curiously enough, has constituted quite a feature at Gloucester. It is called the "whispering gallery." There is no evidence that the architect intended it. St. Paul's, in London, affords another similar example.
GLOUCESTER FROM THE PADDOCKGLOUCESTERFROM THE PADDOCK
The sculptor's art is represented by many tombs of certain merit. There is the tomb erected by Abbot Parker to the memory of Osric, King of Northumberland, who was one of the founders of the monastery, and who died about the eighth century. In the north aisle leading to the Lady Chapel—which by the way, with its square endingappears like an after-thought, extended eastwards, as it were, from the apsidal termination of the choir—is a monument covering the remains of Robert Duke of Normandy, the eldest son of the Conqueror. He was a benefactor to the old abbey. His effigy in coloured bog oak is disposed in a recumbent attitude on an altar-tomb. There are many others, amongst which that of Dr. Jenner, famous for the introduction of vaccination into general practice, commands great attention. Robert Raikes is also represented. He and the Rev. Thomas Stock, a rector of St. John the Baptist in this city, share the honour of having established the first Sunday school in England, which was held in Gloucester. Some authorities, however, contend that the reverend gentleman was the originator of the Sunday school, though they do not deny that Raikes, through his unwearied exertions, promoted the increase of these institutions throughout the kingdom.
But of all the monuments, that erected by the monks of Gloucester to the memory of Edward of Carnarvon deserves the most attention, not only for its beauty, but because it served as the type for the Gothic sculptors to copy during two centuries. The recumbent effigy is hedged in by a series of elaborately decorated shafts, forming a kind ofopen-work grille, with pinnacles and niches. Overhead it is covered in with richly ornamented Gothic work.
This shrine, constructed to receive the body of the murdered Edward II., conveyed thither from Berkeley Castle by Abbot Thokey, throughout the greater part of Edward III.'s reign continued to attract vast numbers of pilgrims. Their offerings soon brought in a great revenue, which was spent not on rebuilding the church, but in restoring the surface, in putting new windows in the old walls, and, generally, in adapting the twelfth-century building to the Perpendicular style of the fourteenth century. In this way the original Norman work forms the skeleton to the Perpendicular casing.
In 1541 the Cathedral was separated from the diocese of Worcester by Henry VIII. and made a distinct bishopric.
Besides this magnificent pile, Gloucester possesses four other churches, which deserve some slight notice. There is the Church of St. Mary de Lode, said to contain the remains of Lucius, the first British king. It has an interesting old chancel, and a monument to Bishop Hooper.
St. Mary de Crypt is a cruciform building of the twelfth century, with a beautiful lofty tower.The curfew bell is still rung from the tower of St. Michael, which is said to have been connected with the ancient abbey of St. Peter. St. Nicholas, originally Norman, is now an ancient structure of the Early style of English architecture.
Of schools, one was refounded by Henry VIII. for the education of the cathedral choir. Another was established in the same reign by Dame Joan Cooke, and was called the Crypt School, from the fact of its schoolroom adjoining the church of the same name. Sir Thomas Rich, a native of Gloucester, in 1666 founded the Blue-Coat Hospital, much on the same lines as that of Christ's Hospital, recently removed from London to the country.
During the many years that were taken in beautifying the Cathedral, we must not forget that the city was struggling with varying fortune. It might almost be called a royal city, so often was it visited by princes, were it not that Winchester claims that distinction. In the war between Stephen and the Empress Matilda, Gloucester always accorded a welcome to the Empress. Thither she is said to have escaped after the siege of Winchester, carried in a coffin. If not true, the story is well founded. The city was captured from Henry III. by the barons in 1263. In one of the many Parliamentsheld at Gloucester, were passed, in 1279, the laws connected with the Statute of Quo Warranto, better known as the Statutes of Gloucester.
In 1327 Edward II. was assassinated in Berkeley Castle by his keeper, Sir Thomas Gournay, and John de Maltravers, Lord Berkeley. From this time Gloucester seems to have enjoyed comparative peace, though its county was the theatre of several important historical events enacted in its cities of Chichester and Tewkesbury. The latter is especially memorable for the great and decisive battle, in which the Lancastrians were totally defeated, in 1471. On that occasion Margaret of Anjou, her son Prince Edward, and her general, the Duke of Somerset, were taken prisoners by Edward IV. After the battle Prince Edward was murdered and the Duke of Somerset beheaded. In the great contest between Charles I. and the Parliament, the city of Gloucester, it is true, became an object of importance to the success of the royal cause. The city was, however, successfully defended for the Parliament by Colonel Massie, till relieved in 1643 by the Earl of Essex. In the meantime Chichester was taken by Prince Rupert.
The subject-matter of this city has unconsciously led us to introduce Tewkesbury and Chichester.Having gone so far we cannot close without first drawing attention to the existence of three other cities that prominently stand out in this same county of Gloucestershire. They are Cheltenham, the home of the famous public school; Tewkesbury, where the decisive battle of the Roses was fought; and Bristol, the great port situated near the mouth of the Severn, the river on the banks of which lies this ancient cathedral city of Gloucester.
Hereford
Hereford.("Doomsday Book.")
ON the borders of Wales is Herefordshire, and almost in the centre of the county is its ancient capital, Hereford. A Roman station is supposed to have been in the neighbourhood, under the name of Ariconium, which is considered to be identical with the present Kenchester. The present name of Hereford is derived from the pure Saxon. Like Oxford, it had no bridges at first. As the river had to be crossed, the shallowest part was chosen.
This consideration probably determined the site of Hereford to be upon the left bank of the river Wye, and the pass over it was called by the Saxons, Here-ford, or "Military ford." We glean little information of this place till the seventh century. An episcopal see is stated to have existed in this place before the invasion of Britain by the Saxons. From this uncertainty we arrive at something more definite, which took place in 655.Oswy, then King of Mercia, in that year made Hereford part of the diocese of Lichfield, which already wielded jurisdiction over the whole of the kingdom of Mercia.
A few years later it was decided by a synod held here under the presidency of Theodore, then Archbishop of Canterbury, in 673, to make a division of the diocese of Lichfield. Very naturally Wilford, then bishop of that see, refused to recognise the decree, and for this piece of contumacy was subsequently deprived of part of his diocese. His successor, Sexulph, however, was more amenable, and with his consent Hereford was detached from Lichfield and restored to its original independence as a separate diocese. Putta was straightway translated from Rochester See to become the first bishop of Hereford in 680. This instance is one of many such in the history of the Church. The shuffling of dioceses, the enlargement of one at the expense of another, whether from motives of malice or a sense of right distribution, occurs usually in the early years of Christianity in England, and also at the general winding up of the monasteries in the reign of Henry VIII.
Hereford was by no means the only see that suffered these changes. It was simply a unit in the great policy of welding together the churchesof the several kingdoms into one whole, which had never been carried into effect till Theodore of Tarsus came to England. He was a Greek monk little known till the Pope elected to fill the vacant archbishopric of Canterbury. Only three bishops were left in the whole of England; of these two were rivals for the See of York, and the third had bought the See of London. The first thing that Theodore did after his arrival was to travel throughout the country. By consecrating new bishops and creating a thorough organisation, he acquired a complete understanding with the Church. He also instituted a system of synods, which he intended should meet annually to discuss the general welfare of the Church. This, however, seems to have fallen into disuse.
In all, Theodore managed to divide England into a matter of fifteen dioceses, through the subdivision of the old dioceses. Truly a great achievement when we remember that the conversion of the English kingdoms mostly depended upon the good-will of their respective kings. Thus it came about that one king in each kingdom had one bishop, generally his chaplain at first, who took his title, not from a see, but from the people. He was either bishop of Mercia, or Northumbria, or some other large kingdom. As we have seen in thecollision with Wilford, Theodore's policy did not suit every prelate's views. His influence, however, effected the installation of three bishops in Northumbria, four in Mercia, two in East Anglia, and two in Wessex. Kent already had two since 604.
Thus the result was the complete conversion of England, effected by Theodore from about 673 to 688 A.D.
Prior to the eighth century Hereford is known to have been the capital of the kingdom of Mercia, as it is now of Herefordshire, which is much reduced in size. From the years 765 to 791 Mercia was governed by King Offa. Apart from his connection with the Cathedral of Hereford, his reign must possess some interest to the collectors of coins. For though the die-sinker's art was practised in England as far back as the Roman occupation, and an indigenous coinage came into existence in the seventh century, it is not till this monarch's reign that genuine English coinage was properly in currency. It appears that Offa had to pay an annual tribute of 365 mancuses in coin to the Pope. As a mancus was equal to 30 pennies, the sum was a considerable one.
In the year 782 an event occurred which laid the foundation of the Cathedral. From Marden, the original place of sepulture, the body of Ethelbert,King of the East Angles (who, by the way, is not to be confounded with Ethelbert of Kent, who welcomed St. Augustine), was removed to Hereford. He had been treacherously slain by his intended mother-in-law, the Queen of Mercia. In expiation of the murder King Offa, with munificent donations, enabled a nobleman called Milfride, a viceroy under Egbert, to found the Cathedral about 825. The building was dedicated to St. Mary and St. Ethelbert. It fell into decay in less than two centuries and necessitated a rebuilding during the prelacy of Bishop Athelstan, between 1012 and 1015. It was burnt by the Welsh in 1055, and remained in ruins till 1079, when the first Norman bishop, Robert of Lorraine, was appointed to the See.
He commenced a new edifice on the lines of Aken, now Aix-la-Chapelle. It was carried on, with the exception of the tower left to be erected by Bishop Giles de Braos in the following century, by Bishop Raynelm, in 1107, and eventually completed in 1148 by Bishop R. de Betum.
HEREFORD THE NORTH TRANSEPTHEREFORDTHE NORTH TRANSEPT
The plan is the usual cross. A lofty tower rises from the intersection, and was formerly surmounted by a spire, taken down for safety's sake. The screen and reredos, the pillars, the arches of naves, and the north and south arches of the choir belongto the Norman period. The Early English claims the triforium, the Lady Chapel, clerestory, and the stone vaulting. The north transept is by Bishop Aquablanca, 1245-1268, whilst the south-east transept dates from the Late Decorated style.
For over 450 years a number of additions and restorations have afforded every facility for the skill of the architect, not always happily taken advantage of. The great western tower unfortunately fell down in 1786, and caused considerable damage to the west front and adjacent work. Mr. Wyatt, during modern restorations, in 1842 and 1863, rebuilt the tower. The west front, soon after its misfortune, was restored in a style different from the original. The whole exterior of this edifice presents a curious variety of architectural style. This capitulation of bishops and dates is possibly dry reading, but it is absolutely necessary to determine the date of the different erections and restorations, and their successive styles of architecture.
Near the choir was the shrine of St. Ethelbert, which was destroyed during the Commonwealth of Cromwell. Another attraction to the pilgrims was the tomb erected to the memory of Bishop Cantelupe, who died in 1282. His heart was brought to Hereford and buried in the northtransept of the Cathedral, and he was canonised in 1310. The pilgrims resorted to this place, as it was reputed that no less than four hundred miracles had been performed there. In consequence of this the succeeding bishops altered the quarterings of their ancient arms, which were those of St. Ethelbert, and assumed the paternal coat of Cantelupe. This change constitutes the present arms of the bishopric.
Amongst many other memorials is one to Bishop Aquablanca. A plain marble tablet was also erected to the memory of John Philips, a well-known author of poems entitled "The Splendid Shilling," and "Cyder."
Perhaps the most interesting item, as well as the most curious of all the old maps, is the "Mappa Mundi," preserved in the south choir aisle. It was compiled somewhere about 1275 to 1300, by a monk of Lincoln. How it ever came to Hereford appears to be an enigma. The most likely solution is that the monk may have been transferred from Lincoln to this see.
The "Hereford Map," as it is called, is a great picture, more to be classed as a grotesque work of art than a valuable aid to geography. It is, at least, a gigantic attempt to represent the whole world, with the introduction of the main features,the people, industries, and products of each country. It is one mass of legendary figures, and the farther we get from England, which is hardly recognisable, the more grotesque and improbable become the monsters. The Minotaurs and Gog-Magog of Tartary, the dog-faced, the horse-footed, and flap-eared freaks of nature of the far east, together with the one-legged, one-eyed, four-eyed, headless, and hermaphrodite tribes who fringe the Torrid Zone, give us an interesting idea of the imposition by travellers upon the minds of the people of that period, the thirteenth century. Even the fishes, supposed to be peculiar to each sea, are carefully depicted. Truly it is a wonderful work of imagination, not the less to be respected for that, and quite alone deserves a journey to Hereford.
An epitome of the chief historical events of the city will be a sufficient guide to its status. Except cider making, it has no industries of special note.
To the fortifications erected in the time of Athelstan, and nearly perfected in Leland's time, was added a castle by Edward the Elder. In 1055, two miles from this place, Griffith the Prince of Wales defeated Ralph Earl of Hereford; and the Welsh, having thus taken the city, spent their time in reducing it to a heap of ruins. Harold, afterwards king, attacked and defeated the Welsh, andrepaired and enlarged the fortifications in view of further invasions. In the conflicts between Stephen and the Empress Maud, Hereford was successfully defended for the latter by Milo, to be reduced by the King in 1141. At the commencement of the parliamentary war, Hereford was garrisoned for the King, but surrendered, without a blow being struck, to the army of Sir William Waller in 1643. On the retreat of this knight the Royalists occupied it, and under the governorship of Barnabas Scudamore, Esquire, made a stubborn resistance against the Scots, under the Earl of Leven, and obliged them to raise the siege.
The inhabitants, at the Restoration, for their loyalty to the royal cause, received from Charles II. a new charter with extended privileges, and new heraldic arms testifying to their fidelity to the House of Stuart. Previous to this Charles I. had been generous enough to reward the many sacrifices and sufferings of the loyal citizens by granting the city its motto of
Invictæ fidelitatis præmium.
Lincoln
Lincolia.("Doomsday Book.")
THE commercial importance of Lincoln, whatever it may be now, was at one time considerable. At the time of the Norman survey it commanded sufficient attention to cause the entry of the city in the "Doomsday Book" as one of the leading centres of commerce. This happy state was continued, or rather increased, by the famous Ordinance of the Staple in the reign of Edward III. He was an ambitious monarch, and desired to become master of France. If we recall the battles of Cressy and Poitiers, we can readily understand what an enormous expenditure would be required for the proper conduct of the war. By some means or other the English revenues had to be found. This was met to a great extent by the Ordinance of the Wool Staple, enacted by Edward III., who, besides waging war in France, was keen on the extension of foreign trade. By charters granted to merchants of Gascony, whoimported wine and other commodities, and by giving special protection to the Flemish weavers in England, the King enhanced the prospects of trade. But the most important of all his commercial projects was, as we have said, his scheme, finally declared in 1353, by which a staple for English exports was established under the direct control of the Crown. Thus the monopoly of wool, which accrued so advantageously to Bruges and other cities on the Continent, and had become unbearable, was in 1353 transferred to England. For the exclusive sale of wool ten English towns were chosen. They were situated within easy distance of the coast, or the town was in connection with a convenient port. Of these ten towns with corresponding ports, Lincoln with Boston was chosen as a staple town for wool. This with other sources of trade, such as the staple of lead and leather, flourished in Lincoln from Edward III.'s time till the commencement of the eighteenth century, when the trade of the town declined. Through the several plagues prevalent in the fourteenth century, such as the black death and other epidemics similar in death-dealing if not in character at that time, especially about the year 1390, many towns in England were much decayed. Except London, York, Bristol, Coventry, and Plymouth,the afflicted towns did not regain the population they enjoyed in the fourteenth century till the Tudor period, and some, notably Sarum and Leicester, not until late in the reign of Elizabeth. The decline of Lincoln, though progressive, in a way appears to have been truly a gradual decay, and more terrible in its imperceptible undermining than any knock-down blow, for it never recovered its old trade prosperity; whilst Norwich, which before the plagues was next to London, bore relatively and even greater and sharper evidence of the terrible visitation, yet managed somehow to hark back in a measure to days of its former glory. The old saying which ran "Lincoln was, London is, York shall be" indicates, far more than anything else, the change of Lincoln's fortunes. Whatever its shortcomings may be, Lincoln possesses a most interesting record of antiquity. Its minster is truly a gem, for it is not only the earliest example of a pure Gothic building in Europe, but presents a delightful study of every kind of style, from the early Norman down to the Late Decorated.
Of the many characteristics of this interesting edifice—the foundation of Remigius—we will note the chief. The building material consists of the oolite and calcareous stone of LincolnHeath and Haydor, the surface of which, when worked upon with tools, appears to become quite hardened.
Remigius adopted the plan of the church at Rouen as the model of his foundation, which he laid in 1086. It was completed by his successor, Bishop Bloet. The accidental fire that broke out gave his successor, Bishop Alexander, the opportunity of repairing it. To prevent a like occurrence, this prelate conceived and carried out his idea of covering the aisles with a vaulted roof of stone. It had a disastrous effect in that its pressure weighed too heavily upon the walls. It necessitated a thorough overhauling by St. Hugh, a subsequent bishop, in the reign of Henry II. He rebuilt the church upon a plan then newly introduced, and greatly enlarged it by taking down the east end and re-erecting it upon a far bigger scale. Since his time the Cathedral has undergone several alterations and embellishments at the fostering care of several succeeding prelates. On the magnificent central tower there used to be a lofty spire, which was blown down in 1547. The two western towers were also deprived of their spires in 1808 to avert a similar calamity. The approximate dates of the different portions of the Cathedral are:
LINCOLN BY MOONLIGHTLINCOLNBY MOONLIGHT
The central west front and the font belong to Remigius' period.
The three west portals and Norman portion of the west tower above the screen to the third story are 1148.
The nave, its aisles, and north and south chapels of the west end were finished in 1220.
The Early English work of the west front and the upper portions of the north and south wings with the pinnacle turrets date from 1225.
The west porch of the main transept is 1220.
The lower courses of the central tower date from 1235, while the upper ones originated in 1307.
The gables, the upper parts of the main transept, the parapets of the south side of the nave, the south wing, the west front, and the screen in the south aisle take us back again to the year 1225. The subsequent additions are:
The west door of the choir aisles in 1240; the south porch of the presbytery in 1256; the choir screens in 1280, and ten years later the Easter Sepulchre. The fine circular window at the end of the north transept, and especially the ones in the south transept, attract considerable attention. They are called respectively "The Dean's Eye" and "The Bishop's Eye," and are supposed to belong to the year 1350. Perhaps they are betterknown as the rose windows, which were more popular in France than in England. They exhibit a network of interlacing stems in imitation of the freedom of the briar-rose, and show the advanced skill of the workmen upon the plate-tracery they formerly put up as a masterpiece in the close vicinity of the rose windows.
For purposes of fortification, if necessary, Remigius chose the summit of the hill close to the Castle as the site. The Cathedral, dedicated to the Virgin Mary, thus, from its commanding station, forms a magnificent object seen from many miles around, and in the days of pilgrimage must have held out a welcome beacon of hope to the weary pilgrims.
Of the many famous prelates of this see must be mentioned Remigius, Bloet, St. Hugh, and Fleming, who died in 1431. The latter was the founder of Lincoln College at Oxford. Just at the back of this college is situated the well-known college of Brazennose, the foundation of another Lincoln Bishop, namely Smith, who died in 1521.
Again, Polydore Vergil, W. Paley, Cartwright the inventor of the power loom, and O. Manning the celebrated topographer are some of the many capitular members of whom Lincoln may well be proud.
Another attraction that Lincoln possesses in its vicinity is the race-course just beyond Newland.
For the early history of Lincoln we must go as far back as the Saxon days. After the departure of the Romans, Lincoln was the chief city of the district. It was the capital of the kingdom of Mercia, as it now is of the county of Lincolnshire.
Besides being described like other cities as being locally in the county of Lincoln, it is said to be in the wapentake. This is a departure from the "hundred" only in name, not in purpose. In the northern counties of England the wapentakes denoted the usual divisions answering to the hundreds of other counties. The origin of the wapentake is woepenge-toc, woepentac, from the Icelandic vapnatak. It literally means a weapon-taking or weapon-touching, and became an expression of assent. It was anciently invariably the custom to touch lances or spears when the hundreder, or chief, entered in his office. Tacitus, in the "Germania," gives a full description of this interesting rite.
In the Low Countries words very similar appear as the names of streets. At Bruges, in Belgium, there is the "Wapen-makers Straat," which means nothing more or less than that in that street wasoriginally carried on an industry of warlike implements made by "weapon-makers."
In this wise Lincolnshire, Yorkshire, and Nottinghamshire were divided into wapentakes instead of "hundreds."
Another peculiar distinction of this city was its former government by a portreve. The term is now obsolete, but in the old English law it denoted the chief magistrate of a port or maritime town. In its old form it was written "portgerefa," a combined word meaning port, a harbour, and "gerefa," a reeve or sheriff. In the third year of the reign of George I. the city, with a district of twenty miles round it, was erected into a county, under the designation of "The City and County of the City of Lincoln." It was also entered as a maritime county. The extreme flatness of the Lincolnshire coast, with the slow sluggishness of the lower part of the course of the rivers, caused, in remote ages, the inundation of a great tract of land. The feasibility of reclaiming some portion of these fens received the attention of the Romans. They constructed the large drain called the car-dyke, signifying the fen-dyke, carrying it from the river Witham, near Lincoln, to the river Welland on the southern side of the county, with the object of draining the waters from the highgrounds and of preventing the inundation of the low grounds. This policy was adopted in subsequent reigns with great success, and is even to this day continued. It has been the means of bringing rich tracts of land into cultivation, and of dispelling the unhealthy miasma which once caused the great prevalency of the ague fever. From fragments of vessels found near its channel it is affirmed that large ships of bygone days could formerly sail up the river Witham from Boston to Lincoln, but now it is only navigable for barges.
LINCOLN THE STEEP HILLLINCOLNTHE STEEP HILL
In 1121 Henry I. materially altered the great Foss-Dyke, extending a matter of eight miles from a great marsh near Lincoln to the river Trent, to serve the double purpose of draining the adjacent level and of constructing a high waterway for vessels from the Trent to Lincoln.
For defraying the expenses of draining, it appears that in general a rate was levied upon all lands in the contiguous wapentakes.
With this preface of the general character of the district, we propose to give a history of the city from its commencement.
On the summit of a hill close to the river Lindis, which is now called the Witham, the ancient Britons established a city of considerableimportance from the most remote period of the British history. They christened the city after the original name of the river. This, on the invasion of Britain, passed into the hands of the Romans. They made it one of their chief stations in this part of England and established a colony. Instead of calling the city something "cester," they appear to have Latinised the Celtic name, signifying "the hill port by the pool," and called it Lindum Colonia. Through process of time and differences of pronunciation, consequent on the various dialects spoken successively by the Saxons, Danes, and Normans, the title became abbreviated to Lin-coln. The date of the Roman occupation is given as being in the year 100 A.D.
Their plan of the city consisted of the form of a parallelogram about 400 yards in length by the same number of yards in breadth, defended by massive, strong walls and intersected by two streets running at right angles.
Presumably the extremities of these streets pointed to the four cardinal points. They terminated in gates, the sole one of which—an excellent example of Roman architecture in England—is the North Gate, or, as it is generally called, Newport. It is composed of a central arch, with two lesser ones, one on either side, and is on a lower level than thatof the street. Through this gate passes the great Roman Road called Ermine Street, out into the country for a distance of about ten miles or so. To the south-west of this entrance is supposed to have been a mint. This seems to be borne out by the discovery of many Roman coins found in the vicinity. The Exchequer Gate is a very fine specimen of the thirteenth century. It bears a carved representation of the Crucifixion, which lends it considerable interest.
At the top of High Street is Pottergate and Stonebow, over which is the Guildhall. The latter is an ancient embattled structure, rebuilt in the reign of Richard II.
Besides the Northgate, the Romans appear, according to remains found, to have contributed the inevitable bath and sudatorium. On their departure from Britain, Lincoln was made the capital of the kingdom of Mercia by the Saxons in 518. Vortimer, who endeavoured to oppose them, was slain and interred here. From 786 Lincoln suffered repeatedly from visitations of the Danes, control being recovered by Edmund II., according to agreement with Canute in 1016. Throughout the whole of this period the only peace the city had enjoyed was when Alfred the Great subdued the Danes. However, Edmund II., better known asEdmund Ironsides, did not live many days longer, being murdered at Oxford. Whereupon, in 1017, Canute took possession of the murdered monarch's territory, in which Lincoln was included. William I. then came along in 1086, swept away close upon two hundred houses to make room for the erection of a castle—on a site which meant the occupation of nearly one-fourth of the old Roman city.
The Castle still has traces of Norman work, the foundations of which were formed of enormous beams of wood and a mixture of thin, coarse mortar, used for pouring into the joints of masonry and brickwork, usually called "grouting."
In that wonderful survey of his—the "Doomsday Book"—fifty-two parishes are stated to have composed this city.
The Castle in 1140 figured in the disputes between the Empress Matilda and Stephen, the latter of whom was crowned here in 1141. Stephen was, however, made prisoner, but was afterwards exchanged, and lived three years later to celebrate Christmas here. But prior to this period Lincoln was for the first time erected into a see in the reign of William Rufus.