Ex. 31
(The bow not to touch the strings until the E♭ is firmly stopped with the third finger, the grace notes merely show from which position the leap is made.)
The student should carry out this principle for all difficult leaps, and not seek for the position by gliding up, or down to it. However "to return to our sheep," this system of relative pitch affects the performance of flat and sharp keys in the following way, as an illustration the different manner in which B♭ and A♯ is treated, although both being in the back-shift, or half position, will be demonstrated.
Ex. 32
In the first bar of Goltermann's Cantilena (Example 32), the first finger is on A♯ in the back position, the character of the accidental following the B♮ is such, that the musician seems almost compelled to sound this note as near the B as possible. It would irritate a musician with a well trained ear, to have anything but the smallest interval between the two notes, he will therefore quite unconsciously make the A♯ as "sharp" as possible, which conclusively proves that there is notany necessity for forming two positions for these enharmonic differences.
Ex. 33
Here we have a different idea of the B♭—the equivalent to A♯. The progression from C to B♭ (Example 33), instead of giving one the idea that the B♭ should be drawn to the C, has the opposite effect; a sense of satisfaction is only felt, when the largest possible interval between two tones is made between the super-tonic and tonic. With the second B♭, the feeling is to glide quietly off the leading note on to the tonic, making the least possible interval. Thus the B♭ is pushed down by the C, and again drawn down by the A, making it impossible with any sense of satisfaction to play it in anything but its "flattest" form.
All this will be evident to the cultured musician, to whom these remarks may appear somewhat superfluous; but to the learner, who has not arrived at that stage of ear perfection, when the half-flat, half-natural style of playing flattened notes is a positive annoyance, the hints may be of service in teaching him that anything short of absolute correctness with respect to playing in tune is not to be tolerated.
With respect to the choice of positions, so many things are to be taken into consideration that only general hints may be given. The golden rule is—"Never move into a more remote position than is absolutely necessary." In slow expressive passages, everything must give way to allow of correct phrasing; thus to preserve a uniform quality of tone throughout a particular phrase, it will sometimes be necessary to work along one of the lower strings up to the sixth or seventh positions, in preference to using the next higher string. In orchestral work, and generally in quick movements, the chief matter to consider, as previously stated, is "economy of motion," but even in quick movements "effect," whichmay be considered the counterpart of the generally accepted term of "expression," has also to be taken into account. Occasionally a kind of verve or vigour, or sometimes a certain daintiness in effect is produced, if instead of playing a passage in the quietest way, it is taken along the string. A striking example of this may be seen in the first movement of the Goltermann concerto in D, op. 100.
Ex. 34
It would be possible to play this passage across the strings without having to move out of position, however the effect is much heightened when played as fingered above (Ex. 34) the whole effect being augmented by the octave passage which follows, gradually working upwards until the climax is reached on the high E harmonic. There is yet another matter which I am well aware in really high art should not find a place: that is the manner in which a complete mastery overseendifficulties affects an audience. We are told that musicians should reach their audiences through the ear and not the eye, but when one considers the numerous class of compositions which have been written solely to display the brilliant technique of the soloist, or to show the possibilities of the violoncello as a solo instrument, and that many of these works are written by really great composers, the fact is forced to be acknowledged that this phase of our subject must be considered.
It will be found that many passages in such compositions are, when analyzed, found to be quite worthlessin a musical sense, the only excuse for their introduction being that they offer a good chance for the player to display some brilliant feats in bowing or fingering. Therefore in playing pieces of this description, it would not be wise to sacrifice brilliance, for the sake of an easier and consequently a quieter method of fingering. From the foregoing remarks it will be gathered that various matters must be taken into consideration, especially by the soloist, when finally deciding in which positions to play any composition. The mechanical difficulties which are patent to the violoncello, must not be allowed to interfere with the phrasing of a melody, or with the musical significance of an idea. Nor in the other direction, the violoncellist must not overload any passage with effects, simply because the 'cello happens to be especially adapted for such, without any real warrant that such graces or additions are intended. This applies particularly to the introduction of the glide, which will be next treated.
Portamento—The Various Uses of Gliding—Some Exaggerations Exposed—How to Leap Great Intervals Without "Howling"—Combination of Glissando and Sforzando.
The subject of gliding, although referring more directly to phrasing, is so nearly connected with shifting and the choice of positions that one is insensibly led into its treatment. A melody should never depend on the characteristics of an instrument for its effectiveness, although much individual charm is given to a composition by such characteristics being allowed to assert themselves without spoiling the intentions of the composer. Thus the phrasing should never be marred just because it is convenient or inconvenient to introduce that connecting link, the glide. I shall in this chapter endeavour to explain a few of the many methods of gliding, and the reasons why one method is used in preference to another; their practical application will be learned, partly from a knowledge of phraseology and musical form, and also from experience. The human voice is supposed to be the most perfect musical instrument—if one may so term it; all instruments which are made by man having in comparison some imperfection. Thus, it is impossible on the pianoforte to commence a sustained notepianoand gradually swell out to forte, nor is it possible to glide one note into another, although much may be done in this direction by causing the note tosingin such a manner, that one note seems to be sustained until the next has beentenderly approached. Each note has to remain fixed as far as pitch is concerned, the idea of gliding only applying to the "thickness" of the tone being varied when quitting one note and approaching the next. The latter remarks apply also to wind instruments. No matter how small is the break between two notes, or in what manner art is introduced to conceal or in any other way attempt to make up for this deficiency, it is yet there, and to a great extent must influence the interpretation of a composition. The violoncello resembles the human voice perhaps more than any other instrument. The character of the tone in certain portions of its register is very similar to that of the human voice, and without going too far, it may be said that it is possible to produce nearly all the varied effects of articulation of which the voice is capable, except actually speaking. Thus the variation in tone which singers produce by a clever management of the breath, the glide when two notes are sung to a vowel sound, the hard sound of an initial consonant, the vibrato, and numerous other effects are all possible on this most human instrument. However, as far as gliding is concerned, the 'cello has a big range, and far more is expected from the instrumentalist, in the way of leaping to and from notes at extreme distances, than is ever expected from a single voice. The vocalist performs similar skips by an unconscious, and to a certain extent, involuntary contraction of the various small and delicate muscles in the larynx. The 'cellist has sometimes to make a sweep of the whole length of the fingerboard, or to break the flow of the melody by leaping over one or more strings. This then will show the imperfections of even the most perfect instrument made by man when compared with the voice; the 'cellist must endeavour by the aid of art to overcome, or conceal, the bad effects which may be caused by the mechanical difficulties of his instrument, and taking the voice as an example endeavour to interpret a composition in the same manner as would a good vocalist, imitating as closely and truthfully aspossible the phrasing and the various effects which one observes in singing.
Some professors of the strictly classical school condemn all gliding as faulty; the finest of these players are noted for their perfect intonation, but are also noted for their lack of sentiment. Any exaggeration in the opposite direction, however, tends to undue sentimentality, and to an unprepared audience will have most disastrous results. It is well known that the player may so accustom himself to glide on to the notes, that any amount of exaggeration in this respect seems quite right. The player should regulate his performance according to the manner in which the absence, or too great a prominence, of the glide in the playing of others affects him; this is the only safe way to judge, as the effect on the listener is always more pronounced than on the player.
In almost every melody there are places where every musician feels compelled to dwell on the interval between two notes, sustaining the one note, and retaining the advent of the other; this "expressive" kind of glissando, besides being the most pronounced in its effect, is consequently the most objectionable if incorrectly used. On the violoncello it is produced by playing two notes with the same finger, gliding slowly from one position to the other. This glide must never be used to connect two notes which are separated by a large interval, as a most unpleasant howling will be occasioned; the only places where it may be introduced are at a cadence, or at the full close of a musical composition, where the terminal note of the phrase is reached by a descending passage, and then it must only be taken on an interval composed of not more than one or two whole tones at the most.
Vocalists generally make the most of this glide to sustain a passionate delivery at the close of a vocal piece, and indeed it has a very disturbing effect on the listener. This effect may be described as being occasioned in the following manner; in accordance with the musical structure of the composition, the listener expects a certain note to be sounded, thus when the close of a composition is being approached, the listener naturally expects the tonic (key-note). Naturally therefore, anything which delays the tonic—whether it be a slight ritard, a sustained trill, or the seeming unwillingness of the player to quit the note preceding the tonic, although having an exciting influence over the listener, makes the appearance of the final note more acceptable and the consequent rest and satisfaction more complete. I must here caution the reader against gliding to the tonic from the leading-note, that is unless the identity of the tone is afterwards firmly established by being played again on an accented part of the bar. If the examples here given (Ex. 35) are studied, it will be seen that in each case the terminal note of the phrase thoroughly establishes itself on the ear by being twice sounded, first on an unaccented beat, then on the strongly marked portion of the bar. The ear requires this to give it the necessary assurance of the identity of the tonic. In ascending passages the approach to the tonic from the leading-note is by so small an interval (half-tone), that the arrival at the close must always be distinct, the introduction of the glide on so small an interval, would give the appearance of the tonic being played out of tune.
Ex. 35
The glide in each case (Ex. 35) is made on the two notes connected with a slur.
The glide of next importance is generally introduced in imitation of that produced by vocalists when twonotes are taken on a vowel sound; the only difference to be observed by the 'cellist is that the interval, and consequently the glide, must not be so strongly marked. The same method of fingering as that given for the gliding previously explained may be used, but as this glide is sometimes taken on notes at extreme distances, the bow must be nicely managed, and the shifting done firmly and rapidly so that any unpleasant howling is not too much in evidence.
The introduction of this gliding is really a matter of taste, the only uses with which it can be credited in instrumental music, are to lend a certain amount of tenderness to a melody, and also to connect any wide intervals or isolated notes, which otherwise would spoil the phrasing. The two foregoing methods of glissando may be termed the only styles of gliding which are introduced solely for effect in an "active" sense, the remaining styles of gliding are merely passive in their nature, and are introduced to cover the defects of the instrument, in the way of bridging over any awkward leaps caused by the necessary length of string to be covered. Before proceeding, I would here caution the student against blindly following all the exaggerations in which even our best vocalists occasionally indulge. A short time ago I heard a well known tenor sing the song "Annie Laurie," the last line of which was given after this fashion.
Ex. 36
The glide to and from the top F was quite correct, and indeed very expressive, the objectionable part being the manner of dividing each word, and even introducing another syllable so that the following note may be anticipated. However by these exaggerations the singer succeeded in "bringing down the house," so I suppose he was satisfied.
This is almost akin to the method adopted by some instrumentalists to heighten the effect in a passage made up of detached notes. Instead of changing the bow-stroke at the moment the leap is made, during a slight break between the notes, the method is to change the bow-stroke before the first note is quitted, then glide rapidly to the next note, at the same time producing a sforzando; the effect is seen in Ex. 37.
Ex. 37
I mention this solely to caution young players against unconsciously forming a habit which is at once incorrect and vulgar, and although players of the first rank in the height of their passion may sometimes employ this artifice to more fully express their feelings, it would be unwise for one of lesser musical standing to attempt that which great artists only employ on sufferance. The most ingenious method adopted by stringed instrument players to cover a great expanse of string, without either chopping up the phrase or giving too much prominence to the glide, was, I believe, first given by Spohr; it may be explained as follows.
In an ascending passage, the player must always have at liberty one of the fingers to stop a higher note than that produced by the gliding finger, so that the gliding has not to cover the whole distance of the interval (see Ex. 38). In descending passages the reverse takes place, the glide being executed with the third or fourth finger, the first or second fingers being retained to stop the lower note on the arrival of the hand in position.
Ex. 38
The grace notes in the above examples must not on any account be heard. To prevent any possibility of this, the finger stopping the second note must be firmly placed almost before the gliding has ceased, the introduction of the grace notes in the above examples being merely to illustrate the method of carrying the glide up to the necessary position, then firmly stopping the required note.
Other methods of gliding have to be invented for special passages, or for the production of extraordinary effects. One of the most surprising effects is to combine the sforzando with a strongly marked glide, the sforzando being given on the second note of the slur, and the glide being of the most pronounced type. I have heard our great violinist, John Dunn, occasionally give vent to his feelings in a slightly exaggerated glide and sforzando combination of this description, and for waking up a sleepy or apathetic audience, I can strongly recommend it.
Beyond all these hints, and far removed from any explanation, there remains that delicacy of feeling which the artist alone can introduce into his playing—that subtle management of bow and fingers, so necessary to really fine playing. Even in the matter of gliding this is easily recognised; the varying speed at which the glide is taken, the pressure put on the strings or otherwise, accenting the commencement of the glide and lightly approaching the second note, or lightly gliding off the first note and strongly accenting the arrival at the second; the varying pressure brought to bear on the bow, etc., etc. All this must come from natural feeling, and cannot be taught, no matter how clever the teacher or how willing the pupil.
Double-Stopping—Useful in Developing the Hand—How to Determine the Fingering of Various Intervals—Gliding in Double-Stops—Chords—A Correct Manner of Playing Chords.
In consequence of the great distances which separate the notes in the neck positions on the violoncello, nothing very extraordinary is written, or is expected in the matter of double-stopping. However as a training for the left-hand, there is nothing to equal a series of well planned studies in double-stopping; by practising such, the student obtains a command of the various "stretches" necessary for a correct use of the fingers of the left hand. Dotzauer, in his famous studies, seems to have recognized this, and by the regular, systematical introduction of double-stopping exercises of varying and increasing difficulty, almost compels the absolute development of the left hand. In practising double-stops, the student must always be careful to cause equal pressure to be applied by the bow to both strings, so that each note of the chord is distinctly heard. Some young players on the other hand, instead of requiring to be urged to do this, are unable to give two strings a continued even vibration, without expending an undue amount of force, but this is really so elementary a matter that a little practice on the open strings (sounding them in twos) should easily set right. Beyond this the player should have all the varieties of light and shadejust as much at command in the bowing of double-stops, as in playing single notes.
With respect to the left hand, the chief difficulty which first assails the student is that of judging the character of the intervals, and for their production—in knowing exactly in what "form" the hand should be; thus in certain chords the hand has to assume its most "stretched" form, for others the normal, or closed positions of the fingers are necessary. This knowledge is really of great importance; both notes of a chord must be sounded simultaneously, therefore even before the chord is approached, the player must be conscious of the "form," as well as the position in which the hand has to be, in order to play any combination of notes. A few of the easier chords in double-stops may readily be learned in the following fashion:
Taking the fifth as the basis, it will be evident that if any finger be placed horizontally across two strings, in any part of the instrument, a perfect fifth will be produced. To accomplish this the student will have to depart from the rule respecting the stopping of notes with the tips of the fingers, as it is impossible to produce a fifth except with "flat" fingering, or of course the open strings.
From this it will be an easy matter to settle the fingering of a major sixth; in the first position, a major sixth may be produced by using a lower open string, and the first finger on a higher string, thus in any position the fingering of major sixths is obtained on the same principle, viz., the higher note is fingered a whole tone in advance of the lower.
The same method may be taken to obtain the fingering of a perfect fourth. In the first position, using the open string, a fourth in double-stops is produced with the open string for the higher note, and the first finger on the next lower string for the lower note; here the lower note is fingered as far as position is concerned a whole tone in advance of the higher note. Major thirds in the neck positions, have to be played with the "set" fingering offourth and first; using the fourth finger for the lower note and the first on the next higher string for the higher note.
A little time expended in the study of Ex. 39 will clearly illustrate the preceding remarks, and at the same time will prove conclusively, that if double-stops are only treated according to their harmonic worth, that is as perfect fifths, fourths, major and minor sixths, thirds, etc., the difficulties of extreme keys, and positions, will in a great measure be cleared away.
Ex. 39
Thus in any position the relation of two notes (providing the harmonic value is the same) remains undisturbed, the only difference in the fingering being in the lower positions where the open strings are utilized, and the only modification being in the very high positions, where the gradually decreasing distances of the intervals render the use of the fourth finger unnecessary.
Before attempting anything great in the matter of double-stopping, the student should practice various scales in sixths, thirds, etc. (both notes being sounded together) and also any possible arpeggi in double-stopping, after the manner of Ex. 40.
Ex. 40
The student will not find any published arrangement of arpeggi in this form, but he may easily construct them for himself, using only the tonic, mediant, anddominant of the key. It will be found that a little practice in this direction will amply repay, as to accomplish the playing of arpeggi in double-stopping without scrambling and with the intervals correctly in tune, means a command of the positions truly remarkable.
In reading works composed chiefly of double-stops, it is at first rather difficult to decide in which position any passage should be played. The progression of both "melodies" has to be watched, as well as the intervals which separate any given two part chord, the fingering is also affected by the preceding and the following chord, as well as by the introduction of passing notes, or such ornamentation as trills, turns, etc., in either of the parts.
With respect to shifting, leaping, etc., in double stops, owing to the choice of fingering being curtailed, the player must be careful that no unpleasant howling is thus caused.
In passages composed of thirds (slurred), the player must leap firmly and rapidly from one chord to another, and where necessary withdraw the pressure from the bow, so that although the passage is yet slurred, the connecting glide is not too much in evidence.
Ex. 41
A striking example of the need of this advice is found in the Military Sonata by Boccherini in G (Ex. 41). This passage is played throughout with the first and fourth fingers—that is the first finger plays the upper melody, the fourth finger playing the lower.
It will be evident that the beauty of the above melody will be destroyed if no division whatever is made between the notes. This must be accomplished without spoiling the legato effect of the three slurred quavers. A skilful management of the bow may also serve to hidea difficult and awkward move; thus in cases where the fingering is reversed for two succeeding chords (Ex. 42), it is liable to let the open strings be heard during the changing of the fingers, especially if a big leap has to be made to reach the second chord. This will be very slovenly, and on no account must be allowed.
Ex. 42
The portamento may be introduced in double-stopping progressions for effect, but more knowledge and judgment is necessary for its successful use than in single melodic progression. It is generally safe to introduce it on two chords taken with the same fingering in different positions, with the exception, of course, of whole passages in thirds, etc., like the "Menuetto" in the Boccherini sonata previously mentioned.
Occasionally, when moving from one position to another, it will be found advisable, or necessary, to let one of the parts cease, until the required position is gained, the glide being executed between the upper notes only; the player must study any such special passages, trying them over in various ways, until he is perfectly satisfied that the correct, and yet most effective method, is arrived at.
Owing to the arching of the bridge, it is impossible to sustain more than two notes during the whole stroke of the bow. Therefore, three or four part chords are only possible as "broken" chords (Ex. 43). A bold attack is necessary to play chords at all effectively, the fingers of the left hand should be placed simultaneously on the strings, the necessary changes in fingering for a succession of chords, being accomplished rapidly and neatly during the moment of reversing the bow-stroke.
Ex. 43
It is general to explain that although chords are written as in Ex. 43, yet it is only possible to play them as in Ex. 43a. However, if the chords have to be played in strict time, it will also be evident that even this method cannot be followed—each minim would receive three beats, one for the two lower notes and two for the two upper. A correct way of portioning out the time to be allowed for each couple of strings is shown in Ex. 43b. The student should here count four quavers to each chord.
Ex. 44
In some cases the chords are intended to be firmly and smartly struck, such as repeated chords at the end of a brilliant allegro, the chords should be divided, allowing half the time for the lower strings and half for the upper, and instead of sustaining the upper portion, the bow should be immediately taken off the strings, thus allowing them to vibrate freely and vigorously (Ex. 44). Chords of this description are usually taken with down bow-strokes. The player should take care, however, not to make the chords sound too harsh, or crabbed.
Arpeggios—Their Evolution from Various Chords—The Bowing of Arpeggios.
Arpeggios are chords, the notes of which are sounded separately. A modified way of expressing that chords are to be played in arpeggio, is by placing a curved line immediately preceding the chord, thus:
Ex. 45
Key arpeggi are formed from the common chord, that is the tonic, mediant and dominant; they may be practised as running arpeggi in three octaves. These arpeggi are published for 'cello in a very useful form, together with the major and minor scales, etc., by the St. Cecilia Music Publishing Co.; the arrangement is by Coward Klee.
The notes of a chord which are to be played as arpeggios, are sometimes interspersed with notes foreign to the chord in the form of passing notes, and nearlyalways one or more notes of the chord are reiterated (Ex. 46).
Ex. 46
Ex. 46 will illustrate how arpeggios are usually evolved from a chord. First is shown the G major triad; 46agives the three part chord played in arpeggi form; 46bhas the mediant and the dominant repeated, and 46cintroduces the C and the A♯, both notes being foreign to the harmony, but used as passing notes. Many otherwise difficult passages, are rendered quite simple to the student, who only considers of what chord the scattered notes form the harmony.
In playing arpeggios the hints previously given in the remarks on the "Left hand," "Positions," "Double-stops and Chords," concerning a correct management of the left hand fingers are applicable. The remainder of the present chapter will be chiefly devoted to the management of the bow, in several of the standard forms of arpeggio.
The manner of bowing the various forms of arpeggio, offers difficulties of a peculiar nature to the student; this is chiefly occasioned by the crossing and recrossing of the strings, which although greatly adding to the possibilities and brilliance of many of the various modes of phrasing, also in most cases adds to the difficulty of a quiet performance. A thorough knowledge of the arm and wrist movements which are brought into use in approaching any of the four strings with various parts ofthe bow, and with either up or down bow-stroke is essential; this knowledge is not to be gained by hard practice, but rather by a careful analysis of the "mechanics" (if the word may be used in this sense) of simple bowing.
The end to be kept in view should be to accomplish the crossing of the strings in as quiet a manner as possible, that is with a minimum of effort; as an aid to this, wherever possible the elbow and upper arm should be held in a quiet position near the side, the changing of the bow from one string to another being chiefly accomplished by a wrist movement, or by a slight upward movement of the fore-arm.
Ex. 47
Arpeggios on three or four strings phrased as Example 47ashould be played with alternate down and up bow strokes, always attacking the arpeggio commencing with the lower string with the down bow. For a moderate allegro, about half the bow's length may be used, the two middle fourths (upper and lower) being the most serviceable; the bowing should be as smooth as possible, each note being of equal length; in the triplet arpeggio the customary accent on the first of each groupmust be observed, and in every case the groups should be quite distinctly separated.
In mixed bowings as Example 47b, the same quantity of bow stroke must be used for the detached note as for the slurs; the detached quaver or semiquaver in each case being taken with a light up-bow.
Exercise 47cis a very brilliant style of bowing, yet generally very easy to acquire. The bow is thrown with force for the first note of each group, then with a nicely regulated wrist movement, assisted by the fore-arm to allow sufficient stroke, the three or four springing strokes fall, one for each note. Any slovenliness in the management of the wrist will result in some of the notes being missed, and others obtaining more than one of the springing strokes. Although this style of bowing is expressed exactly as solid staccato, it is very seldom that arpeggios would be played other than with slurred spiccato, the unhelpable roughness which accompanies a short staccato stroke on an open string, renders the solid staccato impracticable for passages regularly crossing the strings. This bowing is often used with alternate groups of smooth slurred bowings.
Example 48ais a style of phrasing which should always commence with the up-bow; the reasons for this are as follows. Foremost and most important is that the wrist action which one observes in reversing the bow from an up-stroke to a down-stroke, may be utilized to serve the double purpose of changing the bow-stroke and leaping to the A string; this could not be accomplished in so quiet a manner with the reverse stroke. If the above phrasing was commenced with the down stroke, it would be necessary to make two distinctly separate movements to reach the A string; one, a wrist movement from side to side to reverse the stroke, the other an upward movement of forearm and wrist, to obtain the necessary elevation which will allow the bow to leave the D string and touch the A. Another reason is that the nearer the heel of the bow is approached, less leverage and consequently less armmovement is required to cross the strings; this is counterbalanced by the lack of control over the bow at the heel in rapidly changing from one string to another. The bowing should be commenced slightly nearer the point than the middle, especially for Example 48b, so that the spiccato semiquavers may be played at the middle of the bow, with a wrist movement only.
Ex. 48
In Example 48athe upper arm should move backwards and forwards (the elbow must not project) the bow being thrown on the upper string by the wrist as previously explained. The student should play an arpeggio phrased as above, at the same time carefully analyzing each arm and wrist movement; he will thus realise the importance of utilising every movement to assist in giving a quiet and finished performance.
Ex. 49
Example 49ashould be played with alternate down and up-strokes, commencing with the down bow near the heel; the bow should be drawn say one fourth part for the two lower notes, then the hand—from the wrist, should be rapidly raised, so that the bow leaves the G string and touches the A, using another fourth part of the bow for the two upper notes. The second chord commences with the up-bow, at the middle.
A good, broad effect is generally intended with this kind of bowing. To produce this, only the slightest possible gap must be allowed in changing the bow fromone string to another, thus giving the impression that two notes are constantly being sounded; sufficient pressure must be applied to the bow to cause the whole width of the hair to touch the strings, and an equal division allowed for each part of the arpeggio.
It is possible to produce a very brilliant, heavy effect with the bowing at Example 49b; it should be commenced with the up-bow near the heel, using a very heavy spiccato stroke, the two upper notes receive a down stroke. It is also possible to execute it commencing with the down-stroke, but if played in this manner it is difficult to get sufficient power on the two upper strings, as well as more time being wasted in changing the bow from the down-stroke to the up-stroke (see explanation of Example 48a).
The bowing at Example 49cis a style of phrasing which one often comes across, especially in brilliant solo pieces; it is sometimes wrongly written as Example 49d, that is, with three spiccato notes to each bow; if executed in this manner it is safe to say that the effect will be exceedingly tame. In solos, concertos, etc., and for heavy passages in chamber music, it will be necessary to give the first note of each group a heavy down-stroke (spiccato), the remaining two notes being played with the up springing-bow; in this manner the strokes are all given near the heel of the bow, the metrical accent on the first note of each group being effectively produced with the heavy down-stroke.
Other styles of arpeggios bear more or less similarity to those which have here received treatment, with a little thought the student should now be able to determine which will be the most effective way of bowing.
Graces and Embellishments—The Use of the Thumb—Extensions—Octaves.
There are various embellishments in use, some of which are expressed in notation, such as the cadenza, the group of grace notes, the appogiatura. Others are expressed by signs. The most important of these are the trill, or shake (tr), the pralltriller, or short shake (), and the mordent, or turn (oraccording to the variety). Besides the above, and not included in these two divisions, are numerous graces, or ornaments, which perhaps come under the head of effects, and both in their introduction and their manner of execution, are left entirely to the player. Under this head may be mentioned the close shake, or vibrato, and the vocal effect produced by changing the fingers on a stopped note, or playing two notes of the same pitch in different registers of the instrument.
Considering the largely increasing quantity of literature which deals with the elements of music, wherein most of the above graces are treated, it will be useless to again go through an explanation of them. It will be necessary, however, to deal with one or two matters relative to their execution on the violoncello.
It used to be customary for singers and instrumentalists to take more liberty in the introduction of graces and embellishments than is allowed in modern times, or is possible with modern compositions. The early Italian vocal school must be held responsible for many early extravagances in this direction. The representatives of this school, fitted as they were by nature, climate, language and training, for brilliant vocalisation, never lost an opportunity of displaying their wonderful feats of execution; in the opera even the simplest melody being overloaded with trills, turns, grace notes and especially by the introduction of long bravura passages, in the shape of variations on the melody, or as cadenzas. An amusing instance of this was the competition between Farinelli, the celebrated singer and a trumpeter (Rome, 1723), which took place before a large and enthusiastic crowd. I suppose each of these artists tried to outshine the other in the brilliance of their improvised cadenzas and coloratura passages. With the exception of added cadenzas in some concertos, it is not now considered good taste to embellish a composition—even the simplest melody, by the addition of anything to the written notes. The modern artist, especially the instrumentalist, must content himself with his individual treatment of what is before him, depending solely on this, and the beauty of the composition for his effect.
To acquire a good trill on the violoncello, the student should practice trilling with each finger, commencing very slowly at first, then gradually increasing the speed. Each finger should be perfected separately, the fourth being generally the weakest, will require more attention. The following exercise (Ex. 50) if properly practised, should be the means of perfecting the student in this essential and pleasing ornament.
Ex. 50
To study this exercise properly a week should be devoted to each figure, that is to say, one figure must be fairly well perfected before the next is attempted; the student should devote several minutes at various times of the day to its practice. This system of dividing the time devoted to the practice of a mechanical study like the perfection of the trill, will prevent the muscles being over exerted. In slow movements, especially on a long sustained note, a good effect may be produced by commencing the trill slowly, then gradually increasing the rapidity of the beats. In quick movements the trill should be generally commenced and continued quickly.
The chief beauty in the introduction of the pralltriller and the various turns, consists in throwing them into the melody without disturbing the time or phrasing; to acquire this ability, the student may first play the passage without introducing the turns, etc., then when the structure of the phrase is clearly grasped, the embellishments should be added. As a good concert composition which may be of use both in acquiring a neat method of introducing the turn, or of displaying such accomplishment, may be mentioned the "Arlequin" by Popper. It is very pleasing and fits the instrument.
The vibrato or close shake is produced by shaking the left hand from side to side, the finger tip—which stops the note on which the vibrato is produced,—forming the pivot. The soft fleshy cushion which forms the tip of the finger, seems to grip the string, and should not on any account be allowed to slide out of tune; thus the effect must never be so exaggerated as to allow the beats to be varied in pitch, the result should merely be a kind of throbbing.
A good effect is produced in a sostenuto theme by commencing the vibrato slowly on a crescendo note. As the crescendo gathers in force, the throbbing of the vibrato is increased in rapidity; much practice is necessary to accomplish the gradual increasing ordiminishing of the speed, without any break being observable in either the increasing of the tone, or the vibrato beats. The natural law with respect to the variety in vibrato effects may be given as follows. A note low in pitch, or a note playedpiano, requires a slow vibrato, a higher note, or a note played forte and passionately, requires a rapid vibrato. The student must be cautioned not to introduce the slow vibrato too freely, although he may see many players constantly wag the hand in sustained or passionate passages, this is not always done to produce a vibrato effect, but is often intended to give a thrilling tone by a clearly defined stopping of the note.
The cadenza may be said to range from the group of notes takenad lib., to the brilliant virtuosic cadenza introduced, or added to concerto compositions.
The first form is generally used as a connecting link between one section of a composition and another, and although the time is markedad lib., the student should always strive to correctly phrase these little solo passages in accordance with the character of the movement or composition, so that the desired effect may be given.
The latter and "big" form of cadenza, is generally given to allow the performer an opportunity to show his skill, although Schumann did not favour this idea; the cadenza to his 'cello concerto being merely a few bars of recitative leading into the brilliant coda (finale), in other compositions he adhered to the same idea, the cadenza being thoroughly and wholly "Schumann," without any attempt to serve as a means of display. In compositions where the cadenza is not written out, the player is expected to supply one; this should be constructed from motives taken from the work, the skill of the player being shown in the manner in which these motives are treated. As the composition of a cadenza will necessarily be of a free character, the introductionof brilliant arpeggios, double-stops and rapid scale passages all skilfully woven around and connecting the motives introduced, may be taken as the basis on which to work.
Grace notes expressed in groups of small notes are not essential in any great degree to the musical structure of a composition, they are supposed to add to its effectiveness; the success of their introduction and their chief charm, consists in throwing them into the melody with ease. Sometimes a ritard is made, especially in song-like compositions, so that the grace notes may be played quite deliberately; in other pieces where strict time is essential, the time must be stolen from the note which precedes or follows. It may be accepted as a general rule that the grace notes should not delay the enunciation of a heavily accented note, so that the rhythm may remain undisturbed.
Notes are played pizzicato by pulling the strings with the fingers, instead of causing their vibration with the bow; the player should grasp the bow firmly at the nut with the little finger, and perhaps the third finger, according to the requirements of the pizzicato passage.
In scale passages it is wise to use the first and second fingers alternately for the purpose of plucking the strings, the thumb resting on the edge of the fingerboard as a support for the hand. For arpeggios and chords, the thumb may be used for the lower string, and the fingers for the upper strings. Chords in rapid succession are best played by striking across all the four strings with the thumb and first finger alternately; when the thumb is used, the lower strings receive the first vibration, the higher strings being struck first when using the first finger; the chords should be struck so smartly that the four strings seem to vibrate simultaneously. The advantages of this method is that with each motionof the hand a chord is sounded, thus, when using the thumb, the hand moves from right to left, returning from left to right when using the first finger.
In all pizzicato passages the strings should be plucked in such a manner that they oscillate from side to side during their vibration; if they are allowed to snap against the fingerboard, the sound will be instantly checked. The student should remember that taste may be brought into play in the method of executing pizzicato passages. It is not necessary to play all the notes with one volume of sound; a crescendo on a series of notes can be produced quite as effectively as with the bow. In chamber music there is often a better opportunity for the display of taste in the execution of pizzicato passages than in solo compositions; pizzicato passages in the latter being generally introduced for display rather than accompaniment.
A knowledge of the correct use of the thumb for the purpose of stopping notes on the violoncello, is of the utmost importance to any who wish to have anything like command of the instrument. It is quite certain that the 'cello would not be anything like the perfect instrument it is, if the player was confined to the neck positions. As already explained, the neck positions only extend to a couple of notes beyond the half-string. When it is necessary to go beyond this, the thumb is taken from its position behind the neck of the instrument, and firmly placed in a horizontal position across two strings, thus stopping a perfect fifth.
The student should attend very carefully to the hints here given respecting the part of the thumb which actually stops the strings. The first joint of the thumb should be slightly bent outwards, the higher string should pass across the side of the thumb just under the root of the nail, the strings being about half-an-inch apart, the lower string will be that distance nearer the tip of the thumb. On no account must the thumb be soplaced that the higher string interferes in the slightest with the joint of the thumb: this would make it impossible to quickly slide along the strings without disturbing the relative positions of the two strings. Continued practice with the thumb will form two grooves on the under side of the thumb, exactly the width of the strings apart; when this comes about, no inconvenience will be experienced either in rapidly sliding along the strings, or in putting on sufficient pressure. A common experience with students first learning thumb positions, is the feeling that the fingers are too long. To remedy this and also to gain sufficient weight on the fingers, some young players will allow the knuckles to protrude and the finger joints to bend inwards. I have noticed this time after time in pupils, even when they have overcome the same difficulty in the neck positions. In a short time the hand will get accustomed to the change of posture, in the meantime the knuckles must be kept quite flat, and the finger joints bent outwards. When the muscles, which have hitherto remained idle, are fully developed, the player will be able to put sufficient pressure on the strings without any assistance from the weight of the hand.
With respect to the introduction of the thumb; it is not always necessary in the high positions to use the thumb to actually stop certain notes, occasionally certain scale passages occur which may be fingered as the ordinary scales—that is, with the thumb following behind at the distance of a tone. However, the most important reason for rejecting the thumb for speaking notes and "fingering" the passage, is that of phrasing. In expressive movements, exactly as one finds it necessary in the lower range of the instrument to leave out the use of the open strings, or play in a higher position than necessary, so in the high thumb positions the same unity of feeling must be observed by a nicely arranged system of fingering. The reason for an objection against the indiscriminate use of the thumb in slow cantabile passages, is that the tone producedwhen the note is stopped by the pressure of the thumb, is not of the same character as that produced when the tips of the fingers are used. Perhaps it takes a very fine ear to distinguish this difference. In quick movements it is not discernible, but on a sustained note the tone produced by the thumb is to a great extent colourless. That there should be a difference in tone is hardly to be wondered at, when one considers the acute sensibility of touch at the finger tips. It is possible that the necessary varieties of pressure, or more accurately, "touch," which are requisite to a soulful performance, may be more readily accomplished with the tips of the fingers, owing to a greater concentration of nerve matter there than at the side of the thumb, but this we must leave to physiologists; those whose ear is so delicately formed that they notice these slight varieties in tone colour, will perhaps be thankful for the hint whereby a soulful manner of fingering and phrasing in the high positions may be acquired. The fear of being thought dogmatical in this work, prevents me giving examples of this method of fingering in the thumb positions, as, of course, each player will naturally adopt the system which suits his style the best, but to the student I would advise that the passages are phrased exactly as one would sing them, entirely irrespective of strings or positions; using the finger tips in preference to the thumb for the speaking notes wherever possible.
In quick movements the use of the thumb is indispensable. In many cases one is compelled to use it even in the lower neck positions so that certain passages may be possible.
The use of extensions, that is, the fingering of certain notes which are foreign to the position in which the hand is placed, is of more frequent occurrence in the thumb positions than in the lower range of the instrument. To a great extent these have to be studied as special passages. However, each passage of this description thoroughly mastered, will make similar passages easier and assist in giving a greater command over the fingerboard. To acquire a general knowledge of these extensions, the student may practise a series of "running arpeggios" in the various keys, similar to those given by Coward Klee in his arrangement of scales for 'cello. The student may play them in three or four octaves according to the possibilities of the instrument.
Octave passages are usually played across two strings, with the thumb and third finger, the thumb stopping the lower note on the lower string, and the third finger stopping its octave on the higher string.
The most difficult progressions in octaves are those which are played in unison, that is, the higher and lower notes being sounded simultaneously—the slightest faults in intonation are here most painfully evident. Where the octaves are sounded separately, one part moving independently to the other, the difficulty of intonation is nothing near so great.
Occasionally one comes across octave passages which are either impossible to be played in the usual manner of thumb and third finger—or else sound better to be played with different fingering. An example of the former is met with in Popper's well-known "Elfentanz." This is an extremely brilliant descending passage in octaves, with the ninth used as a passing note. Here the octaves are played with thumb andsecondfinger, thus leaving the third finger free for the added ninth. An example of the latter exception is the final octave passage in the Rondo of the favourite Beethoven Sonata for 'cello (No. 2). This passage, which remains in the lower range of the instrument, sounds much more brilliant if taken as an ordinary passage across the strings, than if attempted with the usual octave fingering.
The Scientific Basis of Harmonics—Some Peculiar Laws which Govern a Vibrating String—"Natural" and "Artificial" Harmonics—The Manner of Bowing Harmonics.
In considering harmonics, the names of two of the greatest violin players the world has ever seen force themselves to one's mind:—Paganini and Spohr; the exponents of two schools of violin playing as diametrically opposed to each other as darkness is to light. Paganini the weird, fiery Italian, astonishing the world with hitherto undreamt of effects, not the least marvellous in the eyes of critics and multitude alike, being his wonderful command over every possible form of harmonic playing. Spohr with his solid, classical, German temperament, attempting nothing out of the established limits of real, solid playing, countenancing nothing which the "great in music" before him had not accepted and stamped with their hall-mark. Considering this, and also that Spohr may have been annoyed at the allegiance which nearly the whole music-loving public were only too eager to pay to the Italian violinist, it is not to be wondered at that he should find it necessary to denounce the whole art of harmonic playing as trick playing and unworthy of a great artist. One can hardly forgive Spohr's description of harmonic tones as "foreign and childish"; they certainly are entirely different to the tone produced by stopped notes, but this very difference, instead of condemning them,should rather recommend them to the instrumentalist as another means of adding variety, that essence of life, to his playing. It is really surprising what an electrical effect on an audience has a well executed passage in harmonics; "harmonics excite wonder"! true, but if well played they also excite enthusiasm.
Spohr is to be praised for his recommendations to young violinists not to neglect that which is useful, in the prosecution of the study of harmonics; young violoncellists please attend to the advice! yet every player should be thoroughly conversant with the science of harmonics even if he has to defer perfection in the art of their production until a later period. "Harmonics" are described as "the accessory sounds generated with the predominant and apparently simple tones of any vibrating string or column of air." Science teaches us that a single note is impossible; immediately a note is sounded, certain tones more or less related to the fundamental note, are generated. These overtones may be distinctly heard if one of the open strings of a good old violoncello is vigorously sounded; as the fundamental note decreases in power, the harmonic over-tones will be easily heard in their order of production—first the octave, then the fifth to the octave, then the major third to the octave above. Another method of hearing these harmonics is by causing a note in unison with one of the open strings of the violoncello to be sung, or played upon some other instrument, the string in unison with the note sounded, through sympathetic vibration will give out the overtones only, as previously described. However it is not these fleeting overtones which demand our attention, although they form the natural basis to the whole matter, it is the production of harmonic tones in the form of independent or primary notes. To accomplish this on the violoncello the string must be touched lightly with the finger at certain places, not as for the production of a stopped note, by pressing the string firmly against the fingerboard, but by allowing one finger to lightly rest upon it with sufficient "touch"to divert the vibrations. It will be found that only at certain places are harmonic notes possible. These places are called nodes or nodal points; they are to be found at the mathematical divisions of the strings into halves, thirds, quarters, etc. The class of harmonics produced in this manner are termed "Natural Harmonics." As each string gives out the same notes relative to the pitch of the open string, one description will suffice.
If a string is lightly touched at its half length during vibration, the octave to the open string will be produced; at one-third or two-thirds its length, measuring either from the bridge to the nut orvice versâ, the fifth above the octave; at one-fourth or three-fourths the double octave; at one-fifth, two-fifths, three-fifths and four-fifths the major third above the second octave; at one-sixth and five-sixths the fifth above the second octave, and at one-eighth, three-eighths, five-eighths and seven-eighths a harmonic note three octaves above the open string will be produced. The difference between the vibration of a musical string during the production of a stopped note, and a harmonic note is of sufficient interest, and of enough importance to merit description. Most of my readers will be aware that when the string is pressed firmly against the fingerboard for a stopped note, the portion between the finger and the nut does not vibrate, the string is practically shortened to the dimensions of that portion which lies between the finger and the bridge; when a harmonic note is played however, the finger being lightly placed on the string merely diverts the vibration; the whole length of the string vibrates, the part between the finger and the nut assisting as actively in producing the note as the part between the finger and bridge. The following rough sketch will illustrate this more clearly than is possible in words alone; Fig. 5 represents a vibrating string; (a) is the nut, (c) the bridge, the string being stopped at its half length (b), the only portion which vibrates is that between (b) and (c). Fig. 6 representsa harmonic note produced at the half string (b) in this case the whole string vibrates yet the string is divided into two equal parts, the part between (a) and (b) vibrating in unison with that between (b) and (c). The student will here see the importance of keeping all the fingers quite clear of the string except of course the one producing the note, so that the vibrations may not be impeded. So far this seems quite logical, it is in proceeding further that one realizes the wonderful laws which govern the production of harmonics. Fig. 7 represents the string touched lightly at its fourth part (d) or (e) giving the harmonic note two octaves above the open string; the student will observe that it is quite immaterial whether the fourth be calculated from the bridge or from the nut; the vibrations in each case will be thus:—If the string is touched at (d) the portion between (d) and (c), that is between the finger and the bridge, will naturally divide itself into three equal parts, each part vibrating in unison with the part between (a) and (d); again, if the finger is placed at (e) the part behind the finger, that is, the portion of the string between (e) and (a) will divide itself into equal parts inlike manner. One of the fourth parts is to be found at (b); how is it then that if the string is touched there a harmonic note of lower pitch than those given out at the first and third fourths is produced? The reason is that the portion of string at each side of (b) being of equal length, the string naturally divides itself into halves; we have found that this gives the octave to the open string. The student may work out for himself the reason why the fifth above the second octave is only playable at the one-sixth and five-sixth parts and not at the two-sixth, three-sixth and four-sixth, and why the third octave is not possible at the two-eighth, four-eighth, and six-eighth parts.