LOADING NITRATE.
LOADING NITRATE.
English capital has developed this great industry in Chile, and no less than one hundred million dollars in British sovereigns have been invested in these dreary wastes. Almost one hundred million dollars’ worth of thissalitrehas been exported in a single year. The ports are at all times filled with vessels which have brought coal and merchandise, and are awaitinga load of nitrate. It is seldom that the Stars and Stripes are seen floating from a masthead, but it is a welcome sight to an American. The profits for a few years were so great that an overdevelopment followed, and the price greatly dropped. Then a trust agreement was, arrived at limiting the output, but even that was not a success and the production is again unlimited. The population of the nitrate district is a cosmopolitan one, and represents almost every nation on the face of the earth. It gives employment to many thousands of persons. A homesick and stranded American is not an uncommon sight.
It is estimated that at the present rate of mining the known fields of nitrate of soda in Chile will be exhausted in fifty years, or less. The official board of engineers has recently reported to the Chilean government that there are in sight four and a half million quintals (220.4 lbs.) of nitrate in the deposits of the country. A previous estimate had fixed the visible quantity at less than half that amount. It is doubtful whether either of those estimates is very reliable. At any rate the government and owners of theoficinasare pushing the sales in every way, and exploiting the use andvalue of nitrate as though it was inexhaustible. It is possible that similar deposits may be found on the Sahara Desert, or some of our own desert lands where similar climatic and atmospheric conditions exist. The value of nitrate lands in Chile has risen rapidly in recent years, and nearly all the undeveloped fields are now owned by the Chilean government, which auctions them off as the need for money arises.
The nitrate industry has very naturally overshadowed all other mining enterprises in Chile, and especially in the northern section. And yet there are many more mining industries even in that part of the republic. The Spaniards cared for nothing but gold and silver and set thousands of Indians at work in the mines at Tucapel, Valdivia, and Quillota. The Malga Malga mines, near the latter town, and the Madre de Dios (mother of God) mines, near Mariguina, were the best producers of the yellow metal. The district around Taltal also produced gold and silver. By the primitive processes of the Spaniards only a portion of the ore was extracted. The refuse has since been refined, and even houses have been torn down that had been constructed of the by-productsof the old amalgamation process. Some of this refuse contained as much as sixty ounces of pure silver to the ton. The total production of silver and gold to-day is not great when compared with the other gold-producing nations. Among the best mines now being worked are the Caracoles silver mines, which are inland from Antofagasta a little over one hundred miles, and the Inca Caracoles mines, which are fifty miles further inland. The total output of these mines during the years they have been worked reaches big figures, but the balmiest days have passed. Some of the workings have reached a depth of twenty-five hundred feet. The ores are generally chlorides or iodides, with mixtures of sulphides, but pockets of almost pure silver are occasionally found.
Copper production is next in value after nitrate. There are smelting plants at Caldera, Cerro Blanco, Jarilla, Antofagasta, and other places. Central Chile is the copper country, although Lota is one of the greatest producers. The surface oftentimes shows the green outcroppings of the copper deposits. The superior attraction of the nitrate fields has at times caused a scarcity of labour there so that the development has been greatly hampered. Neverthelessthe copper industry has been a fairly profitable and steady one. The annual output ranges from thirty-five thousand to forty thousand tons, but it is doubtless capable of considerable further development, with the aid of more modern methods and the installation of the latest machinery.
Iron ore has been found in only small quantities. Chile has the best coal mines in South America, which, in 1909, produced a little less than a million tons, not quite half of the consumption. Coal was first discovered at Lota more than a century ago, but the deposits were not worked until a half-century later. The only mines now being worked are in the provinces of Concepción and Arauco. As small veins have been found at Punta Arenas, it may be that the seams of coal run all the way between those points. It is rather an inferior quality of bituminous coal. More than a million tons are imported yearly, of which a little more than one-half comes from England and the balance from Australia. The shipping rate is very low as the boats come after cargoes of nitrate and will carry coal at a very cheap rate rather than be obliged to make the long outward journey in ballast.
The people of Chile are descendants of Spaniards and native races. About one-third of the entire population are pure white. The Spaniards who came here were Basques and Aragonese—a hardy and industrious people who made thrifty farmers and merchants. They are among the best class of Spaniards, for they are much more energetic and have less of the Moorish admixture than those from Southern Spain. These people were not a mere army of occupation, but they set about developing the real resources of the country. The native element too were probably the hardiest of any of the native races of South America. Notwithstanding the difference in numbers, the Creoles, the name given to the descendants of Spanish immigrants, rule the country absolutely and own the most of the property. In few countries have the landed aristocracy exercised such absolute power asin this narrow and elongated republic. The half-breeds form the labouring class of Chile, and one will find those two classes all over the republic, with the lines between the two strongly marked. There is no clearly defined, well-developed middle class.
The Chileans delight to call themselves the “English of the Pacific,” or the “Yankees of South America.” In neither case is the comparison a perfect one, although they are probably the hardest working race on that continent. The Chileno is very proud of the progress that his country has made, and this pride sometimes carries him to peculiar extremes. It at least causes the average Chileno to become more or less of a braggart. He is inclined to take all the credit for this advancement to himself, when, in fact, much of it has been due to the English and German elements in the country. His ideals of life, however, are not German or English, but rather French, with its love of polished surface and general dislike for disagreeable truths. Peru has retained more of the old culture and grace of the Spanish cavalier than Chile, but the latter is far more robust. The climate of Chile is remarkably healthful, and it has produced a vigorousrace. This is a general truth, whether applied to the race amalgamated with the virile Araucanian of the south, or to the mixture with the more delicate and refined descendant of the Inca at the north. The ordinaryrotois tough and wiry, and capable of prolonged fatigue on the poorest and simplest of food.
The creoles have inherited all the traditions of the originalconquistadores—love, sentiment and passion, and the habit of intrigue. It is not uncommon to see in a family the natural children of one or the other parent, generally of the father, living side by side with the legitimate children. The percentage of illegitimacy is very large, as shown by the government statistics, for they do not attempt to cover up this flagrant fault. The café and club life of the cities appeals to the Chileans, and they have acquired a love of alcoholic stimulants. The light wines, with which most of the people of Spanish blood are content, do not satisfy, but they must have the stronger alcoholic beverages. As a result there is much drunkenness in Chile, more than in the neighbouring republics. It is an unfortunate fact, but true, as all who have made a study of the subject agree. The first establishment in a new communityis generally a factory for the production ofaguardiente, brandy made from sugar cane, wheat or some vegetable. Some of it is as bad and ruinous to the health as it is cheap.
Chile has perhaps suffered in recent years from too great prosperity. Like the child born with a silver spoon in its mouth, this country found itself with seemingly inexhaustible treasure within its borders. Its training under the autocracy of Spain was not a good education in representative and democratic government. Then came the wealth of the nitrate fields, after a successful war with Peru. The government coffers were filled to overflowing with practically no effort on the part of the government, and little tax contributed by the average citizens. As a result, the habit of office holding and the desire for sinecures have been a bad thing for the country. The enormous revenue has been used up, and there is little to show for much of it. In public offices the officials are oftentimes almost tumbling over each other, and everything is checked and counter checked over and over again. Positions are created and no equipment for carrying out the work provided. So long as the government does not complain the appointee does not, and many salariesof that kind are paid year after year for services unrendered. I verily believe that the official work of the government could be carried on with less than one-half the force employed. But the members of Congress have friends, or sons of friends, who must be provided for, and the government revenues are thus subject to a constant drain.
Politics is the most genteel occupation in Chile to-day, for the army, navy and church, formerly so popular with the Spaniards, no longer appeal to the Chileno of good and influential family. A government appointment means easy or no work, fair pay, and less danger than martial occupations, where the call to arms might come at any time. It is not because of lack of courage, for no braver or more courageous people can be found in South America than these same Chileans, who sit in the cafés and drink their spirits or puff tobacco wrapped in thin paper. With the Chilean a valiant spirit covers a multitude of sins. His greatest boast is the courage of his race. He is willing to make almost any kind of a personal sacrifice for his country, if the occasion demands, but to pay taxes is a hardship.
The Chileans resemble very much the Irishin some of their characteristics. One of these is their love of fighting, and the Chileans have made about the best soldiers of any of the South American people. They have an intense spirit and patriotism, which has shown itself in their wars and revolutions. In addition to the Spanish blood a large percentage have more or less of the blood of the Araucanian Indians, who were the most stubborn race to conquer of any that the Spaniards encountered in South America. As soldiers the Chileans have no sense of mercy, and this characteristic has shown itself in all of their wars. They are impetuous, impulsive, passionate and generous, but have very little self-control. Many of them fight simply for the love of fighting, just as do many of the Irish, who seem to scrap simply for the sake of scrapping.
The Chileno as a rule has a fiery temper. He loves a fight. It is not a fist fight that he will indulge in, but it must be a fight with revolvers, or, better yet, with knives. The knife is an indispensable equipment with theroto. It used to be said that as many lives were lost in a Chilean fair as in a decent battle. It is a sad fact that murders are extremely frequent, and scarcely a day passes in Santiago orValparaiso without some fatal affray.Aguardientemay be placed at the bottom of most of these, just as rum is the primary cause of most of the murders in the United States. It inflames the naturally hot temper of the race and brings out all the passions of envy, hatred and jealousy. The death penalty is seldom inflicted, although sentence is frequently imposed. The prisoners are kept in confinement, and their sentence commuted from time to time. If the convicted one belongs to a family of prominence, he will eventually be released; if of poorer origin, he may be sent to some remote section of the country and set to work. Among therotosthere is a general contempt for death, which also adds to the prevalence of murders, and sometimes of brigandage in the mountains. A little judicious weeding out of some of these criminals would not be a bad thing for the country.
Therotosconstitute the masses in Chile. In the country therotois a peon or inquilino,—an agriculturalist; in the city he is a longshoreman—a roustabout. In all of them there is a race admixture with the white race. Of the native races this mixture is not all Araucanian, for there are at least ten distinct aboriginaltribes. Thisrotois not always an agreeable companion, for he is not generally so cleanly as he might be. But he is not a hopeless element in society. His vices are generally the result of a lack of restraining power of the passions. His virtues are independence and industry. He is a prejudiced individual, and persists in his prejudices. He is intensely patriotic, and has fought the battles of his country—and always in the ranks. Neither in the army nor in the navy has he been permitted to rise above this position.
Peonage is the common form of labour on the large landed estates, although it is somewhat more favourable to the labourer than in Mexico or Peru. The labourer, or peon, is rented a small tract of land, including a little hut, and is allowed to grow his own vegetables. He may also be allowed to pasture a few animals. In return, he must work, or provide labour, for thehacendadoas required. For this he is paid a certain small wage. The landlord allows him credit for supplies at the store, which is invariably a part of the establishment, at prices which mean a good profit. As long as he is indebted to the owner, the peon must stay on the place. If he is even in his account, heis at liberty to depart wherever the notion takes him.
The proprietor is a magistrate, and has power to put a man in irons if he deems it necessary. As a rule the peons do not change employers often, and it is seldom that one is compelled to leave. They are not ambitious, and a living, permission to celebrate holidays, and, perhaps, get drunk occasionally, constitutes their idea of happiness. So long as these conditions exist the peon does not seek anything better, for, to his mind, such a condition is ideal in itself. He has,
“The sun, and moon and air,And never a bit of the burthen of care;And with all our caring, what more have we?”
“The sun, and moon and air,And never a bit of the burthen of care;And with all our caring, what more have we?”
“The sun, and moon and air,
And never a bit of the burthen of care;
And with all our caring, what more have we?”
The landlord, on his part, is satisfied, for he has labour at hand at a small cost, just as his fathers had before him. It is true that it takes more labourers of this kind to accomplish a given amount of work, but the total cost is still comparatively small.
Therotosin the city are not attractive individuals. Their appearance is often hard and repellent, and the stranger is almost inclined to fear them. They are restless, too, and seriouslabour disturbances have occurred in the cities, for trade unionism has entered the social fabric there. A few years ago a wild mob resulted from a strike against the steamship companies, and it took to destroying property after the most approved fashion. The offices of the Chilean companies were burned, but foreign property was not disturbed, although the grievance was the same. Santiago has also had a grievous experience with strikes. This was due to a tax upon cattle imported from Argentina, which resulted in an advance in meat prices. Rioting and the destruction of property were again the forms it took.
These instances show that a social question has been developed in Chile as well as other countries. How much is due to socialistic propaganda, it is difficult to estimate. It is probably only a protest against the condition in which this class finds itself. Therotoholds a grievance against the Church, also, because that organization possesses immense wealth and pays no taxes. He feels that he does the real work, but is always kept in an inferior station, a ball to be kicked and rolled around at the will of the governing and military classes. It is no doubt true that therotohas many legitimate grievances, and the government will eventually be compelled to recognize them. Thousands ofrotoshave emigrated across the Andes to Argentina, being drawn there by the higher wages that can be secured. Whether the movement will become greater or not, the future alone will reveal.
Therotosof Chile work hard when they work, but they are generally improvident and do not think of saving money. The only occasion which leads the averagerototo save any money is the prospect of a holiday ahead, for which he will sometimes save a little surplus, in order that he may have sufficient funds to celebrate the occasion in the way he thinks it should be celebrated,—and that is by carousing. His idea is that he must imbibe plenty of liquor in order to get the proper effect. This is not universally true, for the savings banks of the country show that thousands of those in the unskilled occupations have at least small bank accounts. As wages are comparatively small, this indicates considerable thrift.
Drinking in Chile has become a curse. Monday is said by employers of labour to be a very unsatisfactory day, because so many of their employees have not yet recovered from the dissipationof the previous day. This is likewise true after some national holiday, such as the 18th of September, for which occasion five days are set aside, as this is the Chilean 4th of July. The better element of the Chileans have long realized that the drunkenness incident to these celebrations is a serious menace to the country, for, on the day following, the hospitals are oftentimes filled with wounded. There are always several deaths by violence, because every Chilean peon does not consider himself properly dressed until he has a knife placed in his belt where it can be easily reached.
To correct the errors resulting from this excessive drinking, a society has been formed in Chile, which has become quite prominent, and is called La Liga Contra el Alcoholismo, which, literally translated, means an organization against excessive alcoholism. It is not, as one might think, a prohibition or total abstinence society, for such an organization would be very unpopular among all classes of Chileans. Its object is to restrain as much as possible, both by legislation and persuasion, the appetite for liquor, and cultivate habits of moderation in its indulgence. The courts have been asked to impose certain restriction upon the sale ofliquors, and employers of labour have been asked to change the method of paying their help.
“The women of Chile are as pious as the men are proud,” says a writer. Nowhere will one find women more conscientious in the performance of their religious duties. The morning mass is always crowded with women and children in attendance upon these ceremonies. One is impressed by the piety of the Chilenas when he sees thepenitentas—as women who are doing penance for some sin are called. Skirts of white flannel are worn with themantaby these women. They will be seen hovering around the churches, where they will sometimes rest on their knees for hours before the altar of some saint. They may be clustered around the confessional awaiting absolution from the confessor. Some of these women have committed sin, while others are simply carrying out a vow, in order to perfect themselves and thus get nearer to heaven. They will go about the street with downcast eyes and recognize no one—not even a friend. Among thesepenitentasone will find women of high social rank, as well as young girls of wonderful beauty. Those who feel that this more simplemethod will not atone for their sin, or raise them to a state of absolute perfection, retire to a convent in the suburbs of the city, called the Convent of the Penitentes. There they dress in sackcloth, feed on mouldy bread, and scourge themselves with whips. These scenes are more common during Lent, or at the end of the social season. It is said, however, that the number of women doing penance is becoming less each year. It is also a fact that one never sees a man humiliating himself and proclaiming his wrong-doing in this public way.
The women of Chile, the Chilenas, are of medium height and well formed. The real slender type is the exception, and the average maiden is well-rounded and plump. As the women grow older they run to adipose tissue, and many of the matrons are decidedly fat. They look healthy, and a vigorous body carries with it a corresponding appetite, and this, together with little exercise, is responsible for the later development. The type is quite uniform. Black hair, and dark, lustrous eyes are almost universal. Dress is as much sought after by the Chileans as in any part of the world. Paris creations are in demand by those who canafford them, and the others purchase the best gowns that their means will permit.
Etiquette is very carefully observed by the Chileans. There is an etiquette for a man toward a woman, and one for a person of a lower rank toward one better born. And all are scrupulously observed. A man must always speak to a woman first. A girl of the better families could not appear on the street alone without her mother, aunt or servant with her. A little nurse girl, though of no earthly use, is a sufficient compliance with the requirement of etiquette. Her best young man, instead of being a protection, would be an occasion for the severest tongue-wagging. These things are the inherited restraints upon the liberty of women which have come down from a thousand years of custom.
A young man and young woman have little opportunity to become acquainted before marriage. In many instances the young people have very little to say about the matter, supposed to be one of hearts, and are scarcely consulted. About the only way he can learn anything about the disposition of his intended is for a young man to bribe the servants and thus get first-hand information. He can never seeher except in the parlour, surrounded by all the family, or at dances, where she is always under the eye of her chaperon. In fact, during the whole of her maidenhood a girl is closely watched, and is seldom permitted to be out of sight of her mother’s vigilant eye. The girl naturally thinks that these restrictions are unnecessary, but mamma thinks that they are essential, father approves, and so the custom remains. The lover bears the name ofnovio, and his sweetheart isnovia. Neither dare pay any attention to another, and for anovioto dance with any other girl than hisnoviawould be a direct offence, and probably cause a breaking of the engagement.
Every girl looks forward to marriage as her sole career. The independence of the American girl has not influenced her, and the suffragette agitation has not reached Chile. Marriage is the beginning of freedom for a woman, for up to that time she is practically kept in a cage, or is tied by a string to some guardian. When the priest performs the wedding ceremony, however, the shackles are broken. Nevertheless they make good wives, for their tastes are domestic; and they make good mothers, to whom children are welcome, and the moreof them the better they are satisfied. Musical clubs, literary clubs and missionary societies do not exist to interfere with domestic duties. A houseful of servants are usually kept to do the work, for each servant will only do the particular duties for which he or she was hired. The groom often takes his bride to his father’s house, and one will frequently find several families living under the same roof in seeming peace and harmony.
A GROUP OF CHILEAN GIRLS.
A GROUP OF CHILEAN GIRLS.
The colonies of Chile, such as Valdivia, Osorno and others around Lake Llanquihue, are principally made up of Germans and Dutch. Most of these were poor and ignorant when they came to their new homes, and some have remained so. They have built up several prosperous communities, however, and there they will be found, a quiet, peaceable and an intelligent population. This frontier had quite a boom at one time, and thousands were attracted here by the seductive literature sent out by the wily agents stationed in Europe. Town after town sprang up. Men who had never done a day’s work on a farm and ne’er-do-wells came over. Few of them had any money. For several years there was much hardship. The government was not alwaysprompt in carrying out its pledges, for the officials could not see why “to-morrow” would not do just as well. Some finally returned, and others drifted into the larger cities. But many were very successful and now have good farms to show as a reward for their industry. After the war with Peru many of the disbanded soldiers were granted tracts of land here. Considerable lawlessness followed, as they robbed the unresisting Germans of their cattle and other animals. The outlaws being in league with the officials, no redress could be secured, and the colonists complained with good reason. These conditions have ended. The Teutons have generally remained apart from the Chileans, and the percentage of intermarriage has been small. Some have not even mastered the Spanish tongue, and few take any part in the government. These two races may become amalgamated eventually, and it would be a good thing for Chile to receive into its fold this sturdy Teutonic blood.
Of all the nationalities, other than Spanish, that have entered Chile, the British is the most prominent and has been the most prosperous. It is likewise the most numerous. Britons, such as the O’Higgins, Lord Cochrane and CaptainPrat, have helped to fight Chile’s battles, and their financiers have advanced the money that has developed her resources. Hence it is not surprising that one will find the characteristics of that tight little island impressed upon the country, and, in many instances, upon the people. English names are quite common among prominent Chilean families, for they have become nationalized. Men who came there a generation or two ago married the daughters of Chile, and the families are essentially Chilean, although bearing English names. Many of these English-Chilenos are very prominent. One man, who had been a member of the Chilean Congress, told me that one-fourth of the members of that body, at the time of his membership, had had English fathers or grandfathers. The progress of Chile in many lines can be traced to this influence.
Valparaiso bears many British characteristics. A walk along the principal business streets will show almost as many English signs as those in Spanish. The English language will be heard on every corner. The Anglo-Saxon face is a familiar sight. In the banking and shipping quarters nearly everything is British, with a sprinkling of the Teuton. AtIquique and Antofagasta it is still more marked, for the nitrate and copper interests are almost entirely in the hands of English capital. Each year scores of young men come out from the home land and accept positions with the banks, railroads and manufacturing interests. Some of them remain permanently, and others claim only a temporary domicile. Most of them do not assimilate very readily with the Spaniard. There is both a racial and religious antagonism. This wears away after a while with many, for they are shut off from home ties and the restraints of society.
Homes in the proper sense are not open to these aliens, and their quarters are devoid of home comforts. Hence the young Englishmen seek companionship where they are sure to be welcome. Always criticising the loose morals of the Chileans, they generally do nothing to better conditions, and oftentimes end by taking a part in the dissipation. They frequent the bars and clubs and indulge in great quantities of strong liquors. Shut off by social customs from the better homes, they oftentimes unite themselves with the freer and easier strata of society. As an English writer expresses himself of his own countrymen: “We have donemuch to aid in developing the country along certain defined lines; but we have done little or nothing to ingratiate ourselves with the people, or to aid in raising the moral tone of those we affect to despise. The English in Chile commonly remain like a bed of cabbages in a Chilean flower-garden—self-satisfied and self-aggrandizing, usurping all the nourishment they can obtain, and neither specially ornamental nor specially interesting.” Chile has provided homes and, in many instances, fortunes for the English, and they should return more to such a hospitable mother than has been done heretofore.
The most indomitable of the native races in the New World, with the exception of the red men of North America, have been the Araucanians of Chile. They are the proudest, richest and bravest of the Indians of South America. At the time of the conquest this race occupied the greater part of Chile, and had spread across the Andes into a part of Patagonia, which country they shared with the Tehuelches, the so-called giants. For three hundred years they waged a successful warfare against the Spanish invaders, and the republic of Chile which later succeeded the Spanish province. It was not until 1884 that they were finally conquered, and submitted to the Chilean government after certain rights and privileges were guaranteed to them. So long as the Chileans attempted to conquer the Indians by brute force they failed, just as had the Spaniards before them. It was not until some tact andjudgment were used that any real progress was made in the subjugation of these people.
According to the early account the Araucanians were given to agriculture, and the valleys south of the present city of Santiago teemed with an industrious and energetic race. The Incas had spread their sovereignty south of Santiago as far as the Maule River, and this probably accounted in part for the agricultural development there. Some writers claim that the Incas had enslaved the Araucanians and compelled them to do their work. At any rate the Spaniards encountered little opposition in their conquest before that river was reached. The fact is that these people were really divided into three different tribes. The tribes that lived along the coast were fishermen, those that lived on the higher lands were hunters, while those who occupied the more fertile valleys were agriculturists. It was estimated by some of the early writers that there were at that time no less than a half million of these Indians. This estimate is no doubt excessive, and half that number would be nearer the truth. They knew not the use of any metals, excepting silver, which they worked into various forms. Silver breastplates were worn bythe wives of thecaciques, or chiefs, which told of the number of their children, as large families were their boast. They also wore large crescent earrings and great silver suns as breastpins, with hieroglyphics upon them which told of a nature worship. Bracelets formed of a multiplicity of minute silver beads were also fashioned very attractively, and in later years silver stirrups were manufactured for the head men. Even to-day this race is noted for its silver work.
Down upon this stronghold of the Araucanians came Pedro de Valdivia, in 1550, with two hundred horsemen and some other troops. This force no doubt made an imposing appearance, as it marched along with their coats of mail, helmets, swords and spears flashing in the sunlight. The only firearms were clumsy arquebuses borne by the infantry, and fired from a wooden support by the aid of a fuse only kept alight with great difficulty. And yet the Spanish soldiers at that time were considered to be the best in the world. They continually marched in order of battle, preceded by an advanced guard and carrying their baggage in the centre. From the time he reached the river Itata his march was a continuous conflict,although he managed to get as far as the River Bio-Bio.
How two hundred men were able to make this trip through a thickly populated country can be explained by reason of the superior weapons and armour of the Spaniards, as well as the fact that they used horses. These animals at that time were unknown among the native races, and inspired them with terror just as they did the Aztecs in Mexico. The Indians had only wooden lances, arrows of the simplest manufacture, and clubs; and yet they managed to stand against the Spaniards at times until hundreds of them were slain. On one occasion the Spanish records say that Valdivia was beset with twenty thousand Indians. As fast as one body of the Indians was routed another took their place. Compact masses of the Indians at times surrounded the Spaniards. The horses were clubbed, and this together with the war-cries of the attacking force created a terrible confusion. When the Indians were finally beaten off the ground was literally covered with the dead bodies of their comrades. Every Spaniard was wounded. This battle is known as that of Andalien.
The cruelty of the Spaniards in this invasionwas something terrible at times. After the battle of Penco, where, according to the chroniclers, forty thousand Indians attacked the invaders, Valdivia cut off the nose and right hand of two hundred prisoners, and sent them back to terrorize their comrades in this mutilated condition. They treated the natives with absolute contempt, and endeavoured to reduce them to abject slavery. Valdivia practically had no choice in the matter. Each soldier had to be paid a grant of land, with a certain number of slaves. The soldiers were of a fierce and intractable character, and it was almost impossible to maintain any sort of discipline among them. Valdivia founded the city of Imperial, fortified it and employed the natives in washing the gold found in this district. He also established the city of Villa Rica, which means the rich village, and was so named because of the wealth and fertility of that valley, and another town that was named after himself. In fact he endeavoured to establish a string of fortified outposts throughout that entire section of the country. The Indians were parcelled out among the conquerors, Valdivia retaining for himself about forty thousand. Although at this time the Spanish population ofthe valley did not exceed one thousand, yet they were able after a while to force the Indians to do their work. The men were attended by a numerous retinue of servants wherever they went, and even the women wanted to be followed by a large concourse of slaves when they attended church. Rank and importance seemed to be indicated by the number of menials.
The end, however, was not long in coming. It was due to an Indian boy, named Lautaro, who had been raised in the household of Valdivia himself, that their freedom was finally obtained. He had learned to manage horses, and to use the Spaniards’ weapons. Taking some of these animals, he joined his people and stirred up a general insurrection. A public assembly of the tribes was called, and Lautaro presented a definite plan for a campaign against the enemy. When Valdivia arrived on the scene to put this revolt down he found some of the towns already in ashes. Lautaro, although only twenty-one years of age, had shown a genius for war and was in command, and had already established some discipline among his troops. Not a single Spaniard escaped in a battle, or series of skirmishes, thatwas fought, although thousands of the Indians fell. Contrary to the example set by the Spaniards Lautaro simply killed his prisoners by beheading them without any preliminary torture.[1]Valdivia himself was captured by the Indians. That general at once offered him two hundred sheep for his release, and promised to withdraw all of his troops from their territory. The Indian caciques, however, would not consent to this, and, at a prearranged signal, one of the Indian soldiers struck him on the head with a club and killed him. It is said that his body was afterwards eaten by the assembled caciques, in order to give them heart in the struggle against the Spaniards. This seems to have been a custom among many primitive races.
Thus was a struggle begun which lasted for three centuries. During this time the Spaniards frequently penetrated the country of the Indians, and were as many times driven back again. The number of horses owned by the Indians soon increased, and they also secured many arms from the slain Spaniards, so that by the latter part of the sixteenth century they were in a better position to fight. In 1599 theywere able to muster no less than two thousand mounted troops. They had also developed herds of cattle and sheep from original stock secured from the Spaniards. Plagues broke out at different times, and these, together with the numbers lost in battle, greatly decimated the natives.
The death of Valdivia was the beginning of a heroic age for the Indians. The whole country was soon in arms, and the Spaniards were ousted from most of their settlements. Villagran, successor of Valdivia, was driven out of the valley, but soon afterwards returned with reinforcements and commenced a war of extermination. He employed bloodhounds as auxiliaries, and these animals destroyed many Indians, especially women and children. He destroyed the crops wherever possible, and this brought on starvation and plague. He rebuilt some of the forts and established others, for he was at the head of a splendidly appointed army of several thousand men who had come there from Peru.
At one time Villagran hung thirty caciques. One of the chiefs requested that he be hanged on the highest tree, in order that his countrymen might see him dying for his country. Anotherchief, who died a natural death, asked that his body be burned, in order that he might arise to the clouds and continue fighting the dead Spaniards who dwelt there. At the same time he asked that a successor be chosen, in order that the war might be continued against those below. In a later battle the Indians dug pitfalls for the cavalry, and, when the horses stumbled into these, they fell upon the riders and almost annihilated them. The Spanish leader cut off the feet of many prisoners in order to terrify their compatriots. Nevertheless, in spite of these cruelties and some successes on the part of the invaders, the Indians were victorious, so that the Spaniards were again obliged to withdraw. A severe earthquake, which occurred at this time, also destroyed some of the town, as the shocks continued for several months.
In 1599 seven Spanish cities were destroyed by the Indians. The city of Imperial was besieged for sixteen months, during which time the greatest heroism was shown by both besieged and besiegers. The Indians ingeniously diverted the river that supplied the town with water. It finally succumbed and was destroyed. Another Spanish city held out against the Indiansfor three years, until practically all those within the fortifications were slain, starved to death or captured when seeking food. In one year there were no less than twenty-four murderous Indian raids. Thus after a conquest of half a century no permanent results could be seen. The Indians had learned much from their oppressors and were better fighters. They, as well as the Spaniards, had captured many prisoners, and the Spanish women had been taken over as wives by the caciques. As a result of this prolonged conflict the Spanish government established the river Bio-Bio as the frontier line, which in itself was quite a victory for the Indians.
In 1641 the independence of Araucania was acknowledged. A few years later, however, the treaty was broken by the Spaniards in their slave-hunting expeditions. Another war of conquest was also begun. The events of the preceding century were repeated in a number of instances, until 1703, when the King of Spain ordered the raids into the Indian country to cease. For a half century or more there was comparative peace, although the Spaniards conducted some desultory raids against the natives.
During the war of independence some of these natives fought on the side of Spain, and others were found on the side of the revolutionists. As soon as independence was secured, however, the authorities began to use the same methods towards these people that the Spaniards had, and thus alienated whatever good will might have been felt by them. Several more or less severe combats followed which really made it a local civil war. It was not until Colonel Saavedra adapted a more conciliatory policy that bloodshed ceased. The heroic age of the Araucanians had probably passed away, and the later wars were not so fierce as those of former years, for the vices of the Spaniards, especially a liking for brandy, had fastened themselves upon many of them. Since 1884, the date of the final agreement with the Araucanians, they have become more widely scattered, but those who live in the southern provinces still follow the old habits and customs of the early centuries. The people north of the Bio-Bio River also had much Indian blood in their veins by this time, and it is unquestionably true that the Chilean soldiers of to-day, who are considered brave, owe very much of this valour to the Araucanianswith whom they have become intermixed.
OX CARTS.
OX CARTS.
Many Araucanians may be seen in Temuco, Osorno, Puerto Montt and other southern towns. They come there to trade. Some are on horseback, both men and women riding astride, others come in clumsy ox-carts with their wheat, corn or other produce. The women wear bright-coloured blankets, which are so fastened at the shoulders that the arms are left bare. The skirts are belted at the waist and fall about half way between the knee and ankle, and they are generally barefooted as well as bareheaded. Those who can afford it wear immense silver earrings and breast plates, and fasten their garments with silver buckles. The men also wear blankets and aponcho, which is a blanket with a hole in the centre through which the head is thrust. Few wear hats, but a red handkerchief or a band around the head answers for a head covering. Both sexes are fond of bright colours.
This race bears a very strong resemblance to the North American Indians. They are somewhat lighter in colour, but they have the same high cheek-bones and straight black hair, with little or no beard. Polygamy is commonamong them, and it is no rare thing to find two or even three women in the home of an Araucanian. They seem to get along fairly well together, and each woman looks after her own brood of children. Between them they look after the master of the house and assist him with his crops. The houses are generally very simple structures, with low thatched roofs, and one big door which can be closed up with skins. The floor is usually the earth beaten down hard and covered with sheep skins. The cooking and other household utensils are of the very crudest and simplest design. Some of the Araucanians are very good farmers, and have even progressed to the point where they have adopted American ploughs and reapers. Many work on thehaciendasof the rich Chileans, and they are said to make very good hands. The government allotted lands to these people with a condition that it can not be sold, which was a very wise provision. When an Araucanian acquires a liking for alcohol he would trade his land, silver jewelry, his wife or anything else of value in order to indulge his appetite for drink. When sober they are very clever traders, and usually manage to secure full value for their goods.
The Araucanians have never adopted the religion of the Spaniards as did the Aztecs and Incas. It is true that there are some churches among them, but the impress has not been very great. They still believe in their old superstitions. The men purchase their wives and then go through the farce of stealing them. The “medicine man,” who is oftentimes a woman, is supposed to be able to ward off evil spirits and troubles of all kinds. With these people the evil spirits are believed to be at the bottom of sickness, bad crops and all other woes. They believe in a great father who watches over them, and in a happy hunting ground somewhere in the beyond to which all those departed go.
One of the interesting characters met with along the Pacific coast of South America is the calaguayas, or the Indian doctor. One will find him everywhere, from Panama to the Araucanian country, carrying with him a pack filled with dried herbs, cheap jewelry, handkerchiefs, ribbons, mirrors and other notions, which he sells to the people. He may be met with on the trains, the coast steamers or any other place, and generally carries with him nothing but the suit he wears and a bright-colouredponcho, which is thrown over his shoulders for additional warmth. He may be seen sunning himself in the plaza of a town or tramping over mountain trails. This man is both a trader and tinker, and his sources of livelihood are many indeed. He can mend a clock, a tin pan, or a broken piece of crockery. He can tell fortunes, interpret signs and omens, or prepare love philters. He is a magician, and can do all sorts of sleight-of-hand tricks. He is a conjurer; he helps people who have been bewitched, and altogether has a reputation for superior wisdom, which he applies on all possible occasions.
The chief business, however, of this unique character is that of healing the sick, whether man or beast, for he is equally successful as a veterinary surgeon, or as a physician for the human race; and it is really remarkable, as many white people testify, the knowledge he has of certain climatic ills to which the people there are subject, and of herbs which will relieve them. They claim to have herbs that will cure everything to which humanity is subject. It is a fact that there is no section of the globe to-day where so many modern drugs come from as the northern half of South America,and it is quite probable that these primitive doctors first discovered the medicinal value of many plants that are now common pharmaceutical terms. Many stories are told among miners and others, who have been obliged to live in the interior, where regular physicians were not obtainable, of climatic fevers and other illnesses which have been cured by these doctors.
“I have herbs that will cure everything,” said the calaguayas to a doctor who doubted his skill. As a proof he handed a leaf to the doubter and asked him to smell it. As the man did so his nose began to bleed, and he was unable to stop it. After a time the calaguayas handed him another leaf, and told him to smell that. The hemorrhage immediately stopped.
The botanical knowledge which they possess, for their medicines are all herbs, has been handed down from generation to generation, from the time of the ancient Incas. In fact their origin is supposed to date from that ancient race, when the medical men had an official position at court and in the cities. As it was a fixed law of the Incas that the son should follow his father’s occupation, the knowledge of the father in the use of herbs was passed byhim to his son. The natives have much faith in the skill of these doctors, so much so that if one of them pronounces a man incurable, further effort to relieve the afflicted person is generally abandoned. In fact with some of the tribes the sick are then exposed, in order to hasten their death, so it is said.
There is also said to be a sort of free-masonry among these doctors for mutual protection, and they have built huts on some of the lonesome trails, where the wandering medical man can seek shelter and make himself as comfortable as possible. In these rude shelters the calaguayas is able to take shelter for himself, if overtaken by storm, for he always carries in his pack a little jerked beef, parched corn, beans, and some cocoa leaves, the chewing of which relieves hunger to some extent and gives strength for prolonged exertion. In these wild haunts they also collect in secret their healing herbs, for they will never allow any one to accompany them on such expeditions. It is impossible to get one of them to tell of what his herbs consist, as they preserve the greatest secrecy concerning all of them.
The coming of the calaguayas is usually very welcome to the communities that he visits, becausehe knows everybody; and travelling from one village to another he carries news and personal messages, frequently, between friends. He thus makes himself a travelling post-office as well as a peripatetic newsmonger.
Modern Chile owes little to the mother country for its educational system. With the exception of the establishment of a university at Santiago, and one or two minor institutions, Spain almost entirely neglected education in this province. The wealthy classes sent their children to Europe for their education, and the poorer classes were given a little instruction by the church. The Indians and peons were taught the catechism and church doctrines in a desultory way. With that all attempt at general intellectual development was ended. It is little wonder that only a small proportion of the population were able to either read or write, when the Spanish yoke was thrown off, or that even to-day, when Chile has celebrated the centennial of her declaration of independence, her educational system will not compare favourably with those found in the Anglo-Saxon and Teutonic nations of the world.
Education in Chile is absolutely free, though not compulsory. Within the last few years the Chilean government has given considerable attention to public instruction, and has been greatly extending the school system all over the country. According to government reports there were, in 1907, twenty-two hundred and fifteen elementary schools, with forty-seven hundred and twenty-nine teachers, and an attendance of one hundred and seventy thousand eight hundred and twenty-seven pupils. This is only a small percentage of those of school age, according to standards in the United States. Besides these public schools there were more than one hundred private schools for elementary instruction, which were subsidized by the government.
The school system is divided into primary, elementary, secondary and the higher education. The secondary education, which corresponds to our high school, is provided in the National Institute at Santiago, and at lyceums located in various parts of the republic. One of these lyceums is maintained in every province in the republic, no matter how small, and in every city or town of any importance. In the same year, above cited, thirty-nine ofthese institutions were for men and thirty for women, having a total attendance of almost twelve thousand. For the higher education there is a national university at Santiago, which is an old and well-equipped institution, and fifteen normal schools located in various parts of the republic. For technical instruction there are a number of institutions located in different parts of the republic, which are conducted by various societies.