DESCRIPTION OF CROSS-BOW.Description.The ancient cross-bow, which differed in many particulars from those of late times, is thus described by Father Daniel, who formed his description from one or more then before him.The cross-bow was an offensive weapon, which consisted of a bow fixed to the top of a sort of staff, or stock of wood, which the string of the bow, when unbent, crossed at right angles.Stock.The handle or bed, which was called the stock of the cross-bow, had towards the middle a small opening or slit, of the length of two fingers, in which was a little moveable wheel of solid steel; through the centre of it passed a screw that served for an axis; this wheel projected a little beyond the surface of the stock, and had a notch, or catch, which stopped and held the string of the bow when bent.Trigger.In the opposite side of the circumference was a much smaller notch, by the means of which the spring of the trigger kept the wheel firmer, and in its place; this wheel is called the nut of the cross-bow. Under the stock, near the handle, was the key of the trigger, like that of the serpentine of a musket; by pressing this key with the hand, to the handle of the cross-bow, the spring released the wheel that held the string, and the string by its motion drove forward the dart.Back-sight.Upon the stock below the little wheel was a small plate of copper, which lifted up and shut down, and was fixed by its two legs, with two screws to the two sides of the stock; this was a back-sight; it was pierced above by two little holes, one over the other, and when the plate was raised, these two holes answered to aFore-sight.globule, which was a small bead, no bigger than that of a chaplet, that was suspended at the end of the cross-bow by a fine wire, and fastened to two perpendicular columns of iron, one on the right, the other on the left, and this little globule, answering to the holes in the plate, served to direct the aim, whether for shooting horizontally, upwards, or downwards.Cord.The cord or string of the bow was double, each string separated by two little cylinders of iron, equi-distant from the extremities of the bow and the centre; to these two strings in the middle was fixed a ring of cord, which served to confine it in the notch previously mentioned when the bow was bent. Between the two cords in the centre of the string, and immediately before the ring, was a little square of cord, against which was placed the extremity of the arrow or dart, to be pushed forward by the cord.Bent by hand.The smaller cross-bows were bent with the hand;By footthe larger ones were at first bent by the soldier placing his foot in a stirrup, attached to the end of the bow; a cordwas then fixed by one end to the butt of the stock, the other end being fastened to a waistbelt.By pulley.A pulley, running upon the cord, was hooked to the bowstring, and the bow was then bent by raising the body and keeping the leg firm.By moulinet.The cross-bow was afterwards furnished with the moulinet and pulleys, (plate 13) which after the bow had been bent, could be removed for the discharge; these consisted of an iron cylinder in a frame of the same metal, made to turn by two moveable handles in opposite directions, and having a cap likewise of iron to fit on the butt end of the stock. On each side of this cap was a small pulley, the wheel of which was one inch and a half in diameter, having attached to one of its arms a strong cord that passed thence round an equal sized wheel, returned over the first, and then went round one double in diameter, situated beyond the second, and so passed to the cylinder of the moulinet, by winding which, the power required to bend the bow was lessened to one fourth. Attached to the arms of the greater wheels was a double claw, made to slide on the plane of the stock, which, catching hold of the bowstring, drew it up to the nut. An improvement of the moulinet was, that the handles of the cylinder were both made in the same line, instead of being one up and the other down.By windlass.At a later period the cross-bow was bent by a windlass, which consisted of a bar of iron, shaped at its end into a claw, and having teeth the whole length of one edge. This slipped through an iron box, containing a wheel, the cogs of which fitted the teeth of the bar, and as a handle was fixed to the axle, on turning it the string was wound up. This apparatus was attached by a loop, which slipped over the stock, and was kept in its place by two iron pins, that projected from the side, and then, when bent, it could be easily removed.By steel lever.Another mode of bending the cross-bow was by means of a steel lever, called the goat’s-foot lever, which was moveable. This was formed of two legs, a catch and a handle, all acting on one pivot. The legs were applied to the projecting pieces of iron on each side the stock, and then the purchase was very great.Latch.There were two principal varieties of cross-bows, viz., the “Latch,” with grooved stock, for “quarrels,”Prodd.and the “Prodd,” for bullets. (Plate 14, fig. 1 and 2.)Dimensions and form of latch.In the reign of Henry VI. the stocks of cross-bows were made of hard wood, ornamented with ivory. They were about three feet three inches long, the bow of steel, about two feet eight inches from end to end, weighing in all about fifteen pounds. The length of the groove for the quarrel about one foot four inches.Quarrels viretons.The arrows discharged were called both quarrels and viretons, (plate 14, fig. 2 and 4,) some with feathers, others without. The vireton is a French name; the feathers being set on a little curved, made it spin round as it passed through the air.It is stated by Captain Panôt, that the Arquebus was in use before the invention of powder, and was but an improvement on the arbalest, or cross-bow.Arquebus or barrelled cross-bow.The Arquebus, like the cross-bow, had a stock, upon which was fixed a tube, intended to receive the projectile.Slit in tube.This tube was split, for the passage of a cord, which was held back by a kind of sheave or pulley, which communicated motion to the projectile, on the trigger being pulled.Fired leaden balls.In general, leaden balls were fired from the arquebus. The barrelled cross-bow was suggested by the “balista grossa de arganellis,” which was furnished with tubes for ejecting Greek fire.Repeating cross-bow.In the United Service Museum, Whitehall, there is a cross-bow of Cingalese manufacture. It strings itself, and discharges two arrows each time in rapid succession, until the magazine is exhausted, which contains twelve arrows, and may be replenished in a moment.Range in Henry V.It is evident that the different sizes and various powers of cross-bows occasioned a great diversity in the distance of their range. Thus, in Henry 5th’s time the range of the cross-bow is stated to have been forty rods (220 yards), and it never appears to have been more powerful than at that period.Range in Elizabeth’s.M. de Bellay says that the cross-bowman will kill at 100 or 200 paces, which gives a great range to the arbalests of Elizabeth’s time.Sir John Smith, however, in his observations, not long after this, very much contracts the distance of their shot, for he says that “a cross-bow will kill point-blank between 40 and 60 yards, and, if elevated, 120, 140, or 160 yards, or further.”The former probably alluded to the prod, the latter to the latch.COMPARATIVE MERITS OF THE LONG AND CROSS BOW.How inefficient the cross-bow was found, when opposed by English archery, appears in every page of the histories of the fourteenth century.Why long-bow superior.The superiority of the long-bow mainly depended upon the strength and skill of the archer, while a greater amount of accuracy at shorter ranges could be had out of the cross-bow, with much less training; and the success of the English archers when opposed to cross-bowmen may be mainly ascribed to the more “rapid” fire of the former.Celerity the great advantage of the long-bow.It is generally conceded that the long-bow could deliver at least six shafts while the cross-bow discharged one; and, “with such odds against them, it became impossible for the bravest and most expert troops, whether at Cressy or elsewhere, to make a stand against their opponents”.Cross-bow best on horseback.On the other hand, the cross-bow was decidedly a more convenient weapon on horseback than the long-bow.COMPARATIVE MERITS BETWEEN BOWS AND EARLY FIRE-ARMS.The invention of gunpowder, and its application to artillery and small arms, did not produce that sudden change in the art of war, or in weapons, that might, on a first consideration, have been expected. Many of the old soldiers were much divided in their opinion of the superiority of fire-arms, nor does it appear that the government of those days were decided upon it, as the strongest statutes for enforcing the practice of archery were enacted after their introduction.Long-bow preferred in Edward III.Joshua Barnes, in his life of Edward III., observes, that “without all question, the guns which are used now-a-days, are neither so terrible in battle nor do such execution nor work such confusion as arrows can do; for bullets, being not seen, only hurtwhere they hit, but arrows enrage the horse, and break the array, and terrify all that behold them in the bodies of their neighbours. Not to say that every archer can shoot thrice to a gunner’s once, and that whole squadrons of bows may let fly at one time, when only one or two files of musqueteers can discharge at once. Also, that whereas guns are useless when your pikes join, because they only do execution point-blank, the arrows which will kill at random may do good service even behind your men of arms.”Long-bow the favourite in Henry VIII.Although fire-arms had attained no inconsiderable degree of perfection in the reign of Henry VIII., yet the long-bow was still the favourite weapon.Merits balanced in Queen Mary’s reign.So indifferent were the ministers of Queen Mary respecting them, that in her ordinance respecting armour and weapons, the alternative is left to the choice of the people, whether they should find a long-bow and sheaf of arrows, or a haquebutt, in every case where they were by law charged with the latter.The lighter ammunition of the harquebus an advantage.In the reign of Elizabeth, the musket was so slow to charge and discharge that the bow was considered superior by many; and Mons. de Bellay states that if archers and cross-bowmen could carry their arrows, &c., as easy as harquebusiers do their ammunition, he would prefer the former weapon over the latter.Arrows make more severe wounds than bullets.The effects of arrows sticking in horses, are said to have been frightful. This can be easily imagined. A fire-arm bullet can be shot quite through a horse without causing the animal to show one sign of anguish. He goes steadily on his previous course, and makes no sign. However fatal of necessity, a fire-arm bullet gives no immediate pain. Not so the arrow. Planted never so lightly in a horse’s neck or flank, the animal grew furious. Starting off into a wild gallop to escape the barbed sting, the animal had no respite for his agony. The wilder the pace, the greater the pain. Far from the serried squadrons where he fain would be, sore against his will, rushed the mail-clad knight. Plunging and rearing, the steed would throw him at last, amidst the dead and dying; himself to die.Though comparatively few men or horses were killed by arrow wounds at once, few, nevertheless, recovered. The barbed arrow-head was immeasurably more dangerous, imbedded in the flesh, than a mere lump of lead. Hundreds of men, hale and well to-day, have had fire-arm bullets imbedded in their flesh for years. Not so in the time of archery. The arrow-head must be extracted, or mortification came on, and soon a cruel death. Neither was the surgical process of extraction often happy in the results. It would not be easy to extract a barbed arrow-head even now, with all the appliances of modern surgery at hand.Arrow wounds more fatal.Another fatal consequence of arrow wounds on the field of battle was this: men wounded thus were rarely taken prisoners. Arrows were expensive ammunition. The battle over, detachments were sent out to collect them; and the collection was not done too tenderly. To regain an arrow seemed a far more meritorious act than to save the life of an enemy. The throat of many a wounded wretch was mercilessly cut, that he might be quiet whilst the arrow was being extracted.Bows useless in wind.The defects of archery were these:—the ammunition was expensive, and when lost, not easily replaced. The flight of arrows is never correct on a windy day, from whatever direction the wind may blow.In rain.Rain relaxes the bow and bowstring, so thatarchery then is of little use. All these are serious defects; but there was another of more importance still. When the archer’s ammunition was all expended, he was nearly powerless. A sword, indeed, he carried, for close fighting; and each archer stuck into the ground before him a sharp pointed stake as a protection against cavalry.Hand-gun most penetration.Silent discharge in favor of bows.The great advantage of the hand-gun was from its penetration, as no armour could keep out balls, but thesilentdischarge of the cross-bow rendered it superior in the pursuit of timid animals, and the prodd has continued in use to the present day, for the purpose of killing deer, rooks, and rabbits.Note.—The articles on ancient Engines of War, and upon the Bow, are principally taken from the following works, viz:—“Military Antiquities,” by F. Grose, Esq.; “A Critical Inquiry into Ancient Armour,” by Sir S. R. Meyrick; “Ancient Armour and Weapons in Europe,” by John Hewitt; “Projectile Weapons of War,” and “Report of the Rifle Match at Wimbledon Common,” by J. Scoffern, M. B.; “Engines of War,” by H. Wilkinson, and “The Long-Bow of the Past and the Rifle for the Future,” by H. Britannicus.HISTORY OF ARTILLERY.There is no subject more intimately connected with the history of the world, from the remotest antiquity than the history of Arms,Fate of nations depends on arms.the fate of nations having always depended either on the superiority of the Arms employed, or on the superior discipline or dexterity of those who used them, wholly independent of the numbers by which they were opposed.Artillery includes all war-engines.Before the introduction of gunpowder, all kinds of weapons, both offensive and defensive, were included in the term “Artillery,” which has since become restricted to the larger kinds of fire-arms, such as guns, mortars, howitzers, rockets, &c. Thus we find in the I. Saml. xx., 40, “And Jonathan gave his artillery to his lad,” when speaking of bows and arrows. Again, in the 20th, Henry VIII., a patent was granted to Anthony Knevt and Peter Mentas, “to be overseers of the science of Artillery;” and in an enumeration of the different species of Artillery, printed in 1594, are reckoned “long-bows, cross-bows, slur-bows, stone-bows, scorpions, and catapultas.”Definition of Artillery.The root of the word “artillery,” is the Latin word “ars,” an “art.” It has been fantastically derived from the Italianarte di tirare, the art of firing. In the fourteenth century the science of war-engines was calledartemonie, and its productionsartillerie, from the old French wordartiller, “to employ art.” Some writers state that the word “artillery,” is derived fromarcus“a bow,” the earlier species of artillery being termedarcualia.First invention unknown.It is difficult to determine with any degree of accuracy the epoch at which gunpowder and its resultants, fire-arms, were first employed for the purposes of war in any part of the world; and this difficulty is increased, at least, as far as regards Europe, from the fact,Names of gun—from old machines.that the first engines of war, depending on the use of gunpowder, were named after the old machines for throwing darts, stones, &c.First mention of guns.The earliest account which we have of gunpowder, where it is mentioned as applied to fire-arms, exists in a code of Gentoo Laws, and is thought by many to be coeval with the time of Moses. The notice occurs in the Sanscrit preface to the Code of Gentoo Laws, translated by Halhed, at page 53, viz:—“The Magistrate shall not make war with any deceitful machine, or with poisoned weapons, or withcannon or guns, &c.” Halhed observes: “It will no doubt strike the reader with wonder to find a prohibition of fire-arms in records of such unfathomable antiquity, and he will probably hence renew the suspicion, which has long been deemed absurd, that Alexander the Great did absolutely meet with some weapons of this kind in India, as a passage in Quintus Curtius seems to ascertain.”Greek fire, earliest European combustible.The Greek fire seems to have been one of the earliest attempts in Europe at the manufacture of a military combustible;Gunpowder known before in China.but there is some reason to believe that the Chinese had become acquainted with the nature of gunpowder long before the introduction or invention of the aforenamed substance; and they appear to have been the first who took any steps in its manufacture, or in that of weapons of war resulting from its use. Amongst the machines constructed by this extraordinary people, was one called “the thunder of the earth,” which is thus described by M. Reinaud; and M. Favé:Chinese explosive shell.“A hollow globe of iron was filled with a bucket of gunpowder, mixed with fragments of metal, and was so arranged, that it exploded on the approach of an enemy, so as to cause great destruction in his ranks.”Early Chinese cannon.The “impetuous” dart of the Chinese, was a round bamboo, about two and a half feet in length, lashed with hempen cords to prevent its splitting, and having a strong wooden handle fixed to one end, thus making its entire length about five feet. This was then charged with powder of different kinds, arranged in layers, over which were placed fire balls, which being thrown to a distance of thirty or forty yards by the discharge, consumed any combustible materials they might come in contact with.A late writer, M. Paravey, has in a great measure established the fact, that gunpowder and fire-arms were known to the Chinese long before the Christian era; and it is mentioned in Chinese writings,Guns in China, 618 B. C.that in the year 618B. C., a gun was in use, bearing this inscription, “I hurl death to the traitor, and extermination to the rebel.”A. D. 757.Guns are said to have been constructed in China, in 757A. D., for the purpose of throwing stones of the weight of from ten to fourteen pounds to a distance of 300 paces. Whatever doubts may exist as to the earlier history of artillery among the Chinese, it is almost beyond question, that cannon were extensively used by them in the beginning of the 13th century, as we have access to various reliable accounts, establishing this fact.Artillery at Saragossa, A. D., 1118.Condé, in his history of the Moors in Spain, states that artillery was used by them against Saragossa in 1118A. D.,At Niebla, A. D., 1157.and that in 1157,A. D.they defended themselves in Niebla, against the Spaniards, by means of machines, which threw darts and stones, through the agency of fire.Used against the Moguls, A. D. 1232.In 1232A. D.cannon throwing stone shot were used against the Moguls, and during this war, certain machines were also employed, which being filled with powder, and ignited at the proper time, burst with a noise like thunder, and whose effect extended for the space of half an acre round the spot where they exploded.Cannon bearing date 1258 found in France.A small brass cannon is said to have been found at the bottom of a deep well of the Castle de Clucy, in France, with the date 1258 upon it.Cannon used against Cordova, A. D. 1280.In 1280A. D., cannon were used against Cordova, after which period, they are frequently mentioned in the records of Spain.Iron shot, 14th century.Iron shot appear to have been first used in that country in the beginning of the 14th century.Cannon used by Arabians, 1312.Cannon are described by Arabian authors as early as 1312.The first mention we have of the use of fire arms, after this period, is in the life of Robert Bruce, by John Barbour, Archdeacon of Aberdeen, in which certain engines termed, “crakeys of war,” are spoken of, as having been used by Edward III., in his campaign against the Scots, in 1327.Cannon in France, 1338.It is generally believed that cannon were commonly employed in Europe since 1338, as they were used by the French in that year to demolish some castles.Siege of Algesiras, 1342 to 1344.Gunpowder is said to have been used at the siege of Algesiras by Alphonse of Castile against the Moors, 1342 to 1344.Cannon at Cressy, 1346.Edward III. had four guns at the battle of Cressy, 1346. Froissart mentions these guns in one of his manuscripts, now preserved in the library of Amiens. A free translation of the passage referred to would run as follows: “And the English caused to fire suddenly certain guns which they had in the battle, to astonish (or confound) the Genoese.” Vilani, a Florentine historian, also confirms this statement, as well as a passage in the chronicles of St. Denis, which speaks of the use of cannon by the English at Cressy. An ancient manuscript also mentions the existence of gunners and artillerymen, whom Edward III. employed when he landed before Calais in 1346, and the several stipends each soldier received. The sentence runs thus: “Masons, carpenters, engineers, gunners, and artillerymen, the sum of 12, 10, 6, and 3 pence per diem.”Cannon of two kinds.The first fire-arms appear to have consisted of two kinds; a larger one for discharging stones, called a bombard, (plate 18, fig. 3) and a smaller for propelling darts and leaden balls,Used by the Black Prince, 1356.both of which were used in 1356, by the Black Prince, to reduce the castle of Romozantin;At St. Valery, 1358.and two years later, the artillery of St. Valery did great execution among its besiegers.Cannon made in England, 1377Cannon were made in England in the fourteenth century, and Richard II. commissioned Sir Thomas Norwich to buy two great and two small cannon in London, or in any other place; and also 600 balls of stone for cannon and for other engines, to be sent to the Castle of Bristol.Cannon at St. Malo.When the English unsuccessfully besieged St. Malo, 400 cannon are said to have been used, but these are supposed to have been of the smaller kind, called hand cannon, or culverins, which were carried by two men, and fired from a kind of tripod or rest fixed in the ground.Cannon general.From this period, cannon were used in all the offensive and defensive operations of war; though a considerable time elapsed before it became a really serviceable arm for field operations. The earlier kinds of cannon were called bombards or bombardæ. Those first employed were clumsy, (plate 16) and ill contrived, wider at the mouth than at the chamber.Bombards made of iron.They merely consisted of bars of iron, arranged in such a manner that their internal aspects should form a tube. The bars were not welded together, but merely confined by hoops. They were also made of iron bars over a cylinder of copper, strengthened by iron hoops, driven on red hot, and others were entirely composed of copper.Bronze.Bronze was also employed in the manufacture of artillery, as well as thin sheets of iron rolled together;Leather, rope, &c.and guns made of leather, and coiled rope, over a cylinder of copper or gun metal, were also introduced, and continued in use for a considerable time.Wood.Guns also appear to have been made of wood.Rope mortar at Venice.In the arsenal at Venice there is an ancient mortar, constructed of leather and rope, used in the siege of the island of Chioggia, near Venice, against the Genoese, 1380. The shot is of stone, 14in. in diameter.Cannon of paper.It has been heard recently, that the Chinese constructed their cannon of prepared paper, lined with copper.Field cannon to keep up with army, 1380.As early as 1380 it is said the French were able to procure for the invasion of Italy, a great number of brass cannon, mounted on carriages, and drawn by horses, instead of oxen; these pieces threw balls of from 40lbs. to 60lbs. in weight and could always keep pace with the army. (Plate 18, fig. 1, 3, and 4.)Large cannon 1400.A cannon taken at the siege of Dien in 1546, by John de Castro, and now in Lisbon, is 20 feet 7in. in length, 6 feet 3in. in diameter in the middle, and threw a ball of 100lbs. A Hindostani inscription on it states that it was cast in 1400.Bolts and quarrels shot, 1413.Bolts and quarrels were shot from cannon in the reign of Henry V.; these were succeeded by stones, as he ordered in 1418, “labourers to make 7,000 stones for the guns of different sorts from the quarries of Maidstone.”Red-hot iron balls used at Cherbourg, 1418.We learn from Elam’s life of Henry V., that when an English army, commanded by the Duke of Gloucester, besieged Cherbourg in 1418, the besieged dischargedred-hotballs ofironfrom their cannon into the English camp, to burn the huts.Slow to discharge.So much time elapsed between the loading and discharging the great guns, that the besieged had sufficient time to repair at their leisure, the breaches made by the enormous stones, &c., thrown from them.Cannon at Meaux, 1422.Five wrought-iron bombards are preserved in the “Musée de l’Artillerie,” at Paris; which were, it is said, abandoned by the English, at the town of Meaux, in 1422.Cannon cast, 1450.About the middle of the fifteenth century, the ancient method of constructing cannon was exchanged for that of casting. A hard or mixed metal was invented called “font metal” or bronze, and cannon were then cast in one piece, and instead of fanciful names, they began to be indicated by the weight of their ball, as at present.Siege of Constantinople, 1453.At the siege of Constantinople, by Mahomet II., stones were thrown weighing 1,200lbs.! The cannon employed could not be discharged more than three or four times a day. This siege was distinguished by the re-union of ancient and modern artillery;Small guns with several barrels.the small arms of the Christians discharged five, or even ten balls at the same time, as large as walnuts; and one piece made for the Turks, by Urban, a Dane, cast a stone bullet weighing 600lbs., which could be discharged seven times a day, but it ultimately burst.Large brass gun, cast at Adrianople.This gun was cast of brass at Adrianople, of stupendous and almost incredible magnitude; twelve palms is assigned to the bore. A vacant space before the palace was chosen for the first experiment, but to prevent the sudden and mischievous effects of astonishment and fear, a proclamation was issued that the cannon would be discharged on the following day. The explosion was felt or heard in a circuit of 100 furlongs, the ball was driven above a mile and buried itself a fathom in the ground. A carriage of thirty waggons was linked together to carry the gun along, and drawn by a team of sixty oxen; 200 men on both sides were stationed to poise or sustain the rolling weight, 250 workmen marched before it to smooth the way, and repair the bridges, and near two months were employed in a laborious journey of 150 miles. This enormous gun was flanked by two of almost equal magnitude, and fourteen batteries, mounting 130 guns, were brought to bear upon the place. The cannon were intermingled with machines for throwing stones and darts.Artillery of Scots 1496.The Scots had a kind of artillery peculiar to themselves, called “Carts of War.” They are described in an Act of Parliament, thus “ilk Cart twa gunnis and ilk ane to have twa Chalmers and an Cumrand man to shute theme.”Breech-loaders.These were breech-loaders, and in 1471, the Barons were commanded to provide such “Carts of War” against their old enemies the English. (Plate 18, fig. 1.)Cannon named.It was not uncommon to give strange names to early cannon; thus Louis XII. had twelve brass ones cast in 1503, of enormous size, which he named after the twelve Peers of France; the Spaniards and Portugese christened theirs after their Saints, and the Emperor Charles V. had twelve when he went against Tunis, which he named after the Twelve Apostles.Cause of improvements.As a knowledge of the art of gunnery increased, great improvements took place with regard to projectiles;Iron balls in England, 15th century.and balls of iron were substituted in the place of those formed of stone, being introduced into England in the sixteenth century.Iron guns cast.Iron guns were not cast in this country until the year 1547, foreigners being generally employed to manufacture them. Both Henry VII. and Henry VIII. took great pains to introduce the art of gunnery into the kingdom; and to this end, had a number of Flemish gunners in their daily pay; in fact, it is said, that the latter monarch himself, invented small pieces of artillery to defend his waggons.Hand-culverines.The earlier species of field artillery, embraced among others, a small kind of ordnance called, “hand cannon,” or culverins, which were so light and portable, that they could be carried and served by two men; they were fired from a rest, placed on the ground;Organ-guns.also “ribandequins” or organ guns; these latter consisted of a number of tubes, placed in a row, like those of an organ, and appear to have been of French origin, as were many of the improvements which took place about that period, including the invention of wall pieces, throwing leaden balls of ten to the pound.Mortars, Henry VIII.For mortars we are indebted to workmen of Henry VIII. as “one Peter Bawd and one Peter Vancollen, both the king’s feed men, devised and caused to be made certain mortar pieces, being at the mouth from eleven to nineteen inches wide,Shells.and also certain hollow shot of cast iron, to be stuffed with fire-work or wild-fire, for to break in pieces the same hollow shot.”Varieties of cannon.And in the first year of Edward VI. the said Peter Bawd did make ordnance of iron of divers forms, as fawconet, fawkons, minions, sakers, &c. His servant, J. Johnson, did like make and cast iron ordnance cleaner and to better perfection, to the great use of this land. His son Thomas Johnson, in 1593, made forty two cast pieces of great ordnance for the Earl of Cumberland, demi cannon, weighing 5,000lbs. or three tons the piece.Queen Elizabeth’s Pocket-pistol.At Dover there is a culverine, presented to Queen Elizabeth, by the States General of Holland, and called Queen Elizabeth’s Pocket-pistol. It is 24 feet long, diameter of bore 41⁄2inches, weight of shot 12lbs.; it was manufactured in 1544, and is mounted on an ornamented iron carriage made in 1827, at the Royal Carriage Department, Woolwich Arsenal. (Plate 17, fig. 2.)Mons Meg.There is a large gun at Edinburgh Castle, called Mons Meg; it measures about 13 feet 4 inches in length, the diameter of the bore is about 1 foot 6 inches; it has a chamber about 4 feet long and 6 inches in diameter. (Plate 17, fig. 3.)Field-guns, 1554.The battle of Remi, in 1554, was the first action in which light field guns, having limbers, were used,—these guns accompanied the cavalry.Red-hot shot, 1580.Pere Daniel says that red-hot iron shot were used by Marshal Matignan, during the siege of la Fère, in 1580.Calibre, time of Queen Elizabeth.In a table of ordnance, given by Fosbrooke, as being a list of the guns used in the time of Elizabeth, and immediately preceding her, we find how little the calibres of iron guns have altered during the last two or three centuries, as these guns have all their antitypes among those of the present day.The beginning of the seventeenth century was an important epoch in the history of artillery; and much attention was given to this branch of the military profession, by Henry IV., of France, Maurice, of Nassau, and Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden.Origin of canister and grape.The former of these distinguished leaders, introduced new and improved forms and kinds of missiles; such as tin cases, filled with steel bolts or darts; canvas cartridges, containing small balls, and hollow shot or shells, filled with combustible materials.Improved mode of loading, by Gustavus Adolphus.Gustavus Adolphus, introduced really serviceable field guns, of a lighter construction than had hitherto been made use of, and he also adopted the use of cartridges, with shot attached, so that these pieces might be discharged eight times before the musket could be fired six. It is said that he chiefly owed his victory at Leipzig, in 1631, to guns made of leather and coiled rope, over a cylinder of copper or gun metal. On the whole, the artillery of Gustavus was admirably organized; and he was the first who appreciated the importance of causing artillery to act in concentrated masses, a principle, now so fully recognized by all artillerists.Bombs at sea.Bombs were first used at sea, by the French, in the bombardment of Algiers, Oct. 28th, 1681, in the reign of Louis XIV.The largest gun.One of the largest cannon now existing is a brass one at Bejapoor, called “Moolik-i-Meidan,” or “The Lord of the Plain.” It was cast in commemoration of the capture of that place by the Emperor Alum Geer, in 1685. Its length is 14ft. 1in., diameter about 5ft. 8in., diameter of bore, 2ft. 4in., interior length of bore, 10ft.; length of chamber unknown; shape of gun nearly “cylindrical;” description of shot,stone. An iron shot for this gun, of proper size, would weigh 1600lbs. It is now lying in a dilapidated circular bastion on the left of the principal gateway of the city. The trunnions are broken off, and there is a ring on each side of it, as well as two Persian inscriptions on the top. It is placed on three heavy beams of wood, packed round with large stones. A number ofstoneshot, of 2ft. 2in. in diameter, are scattered about. This gun is said to be the heaviest piece of ordnance in the world. It weighs about forty-two tons. An Italian of Otranto, who served in the Mogul armies under the title of Renni Khan, had it in his park of artillery, and used it at several battles, occasionally firing sacks of copper coins out of it. (Plate 18, fig. 2.)Gun at Moorshedabad.There is a remarkable gun near the palace of the Nawab of Moorshedabad, which measures 17ft. 8in. in length, 5ft. in circumference at the smallest part near the muzzle, while it is only 6in. in the diameter of the bore, and the foresight is at least four or five inches above the muzzle. After the battle of Khallissie, which was fought about 25 miles from here, it is supposed to have been buried under a tree. The tree, having grown since then, has forced the gun above the ground about three feet, where it now remains, partly encircled by the roots and trunk. It has no name;the natives call it “the gun in the tree.” It is made of cast iron, and is evidently of Indian manufacture, having Hindostanee inscriptions engraved on it, but no date.Size and expense of cannon, 1688.Bishop Wilkins says, “These Gunpowder instruments are extremely expensive, as a whole cannon commonly weighs 8000lbs., requiring 90 men, or 16 horses, with a charge of 40lbs. of powder, and a ball weighing 64lbs”.Length and weight gradually reduced.The length and diameter of cannon became gradually much reduced, experience having determined how much they might be diminished in weight without injury to their safety, or to the effects they were intended to produce.Horse artillery by Frederick the Great.Frederick the Great of Prussia made some improvements with regard to the calibre of field guns, and to him may be given the credit of the introduction of Horse Artillery.Guns bored.Guns, at this period, were cast hollow by means of a core, which was kept suspended in the centre of the mould, while the metal was being run in. Owing, however, to the great difficulty experienced in keeping this core in a perfectly true position, several artillerists deliberated whether guns, cast hollow or solid, had the preference, and investigations took place as to the possibility of boring the latter, the result of which was, that Maritz, who had a foundry at Geneva, informed the Court of France, in 1739, that he had discovered a method of boring guns and mortars which had been cast solid. He was at once invited to France, where, first at Lyons, and afterwards at Strasbourg, he secretly worked at boring pieces of ordnance, which, on trial, proved perfectly satisfactory.Guns of ice.In the year 1740, a curious experiment in artillery was made at St. Petersburgh, where guns were cut out of solid ice, from which balls of the same substance were fired repeatedly, without bursting.Improvements.From this period, the science of artillery progressed rapidly, and various improvements were made in this arm of the service,Axle-trees.such as the introduction of iron axle-trees,High limbers.and high limbers for the carriages of field guns.Reduction of windage.The reduction of windage, (mainly owing to the invention of carronades), and the use of cartridges and elevating screws, which latter served to render the fire of artillery much more rapid and regular.The invention of rifled ordnance is claimed by a Dr. Lind and a Capt. A. Blair, late 69th regt.Rifled ordnance 1774.Experiments were made at Landguard Fort, 26th August, 1774, by which it was intended to prove that shot weighing 42lbs., in the shape of a pear, would do as much execution, fired out of an 18 pounder, with a third of the quantity of powder, as could be effected by round balls of the same weight, fired from a 42 pounder.Perforated and fluted shot.Sundry trials were also made with shot perforated through the centre, and spirally fluted on the surface, suggested by Professor Anderson, of Glasgow, in order to prevent the common aberration in the flight of shot.Leaden projectiles.There were different modes of charging the rifled guns; one was, after the powder was put in, to take a leaden bullet something larger than the bore of the gun, and grease it well; in ramming it down with an iron rammer hollow at one end, the spiral threads of the rifle entered and cut into the bullet, and caused it to turn roundin going down, and on being shot out, it would rotate on an axis coincident with its flight.Breech-loading Rifled cannon.Another mode was to charge them at the breech, where an opening for the reception of the powder and ball was afterwards closed up by a screw; but some barrels were screwed off at the breech-end to be charged, where they were made stronger than common.Congreve’s rockets.The adaptation of the rocket to the purposes of war, by Sir William Congreve, in 1806, introduced a new feature into the artillery of this and other countries.Mr. Monk’s improvements.Recently, at the suggestion of a Mr. Monk, of Woolwich Arsenal, a quantity of useless metal has been removed from before the trunnions, and the thickness increased considerably at the breech end, where alone it was wanted.Mallet’s monster mortar.The monster mortars recently constructed by Mr. Mallet, of separate compound hoops, must be regarded as a triumph of constructive skill. The shell is 30 inches in diameter, holding a bursting charge of 480 lbs., and weighing when charged 11⁄2tons (3,360 lbs.). Value of shell charged, £25. Weight, without bed, 42 tons. Weight of bed, 8 tons. Total, 50 tons.Cavalli’s and Wahrendorff’sIn 1846, two rifled cannon were invented, one by Major Cavalli, of the Sardinian Artillery; and the other by Baron Wahrendorff, a Swedish nobleman. Both of these were iron breech-loading guns, having two grooves in order to give the requisite rifle motion to their projectiles.Experiments to test.Experiments were carried on at Shoeburyness, in 1850, with these guns. The deviations were always in the direction of the rotation of the projectiles; but they were so variable in amount that no allowance could be made for them in laying the gun with respect to the object. The Cavalli gun became unserviceable after having fired four rounds, by the copper ring or bouche imbedded in the metal of the gun at the bottom of the bore being damaged. The Wahrendorff gun stood well, the wedge resisting more effectually the force of the discharge than that of the Cavalli gun.Lancaster’s rifle gun.Mr. Lancaster’s novel invention of applying the rifle principle to cannon, may be described as “a two-grooved rifle in disguise,” having a “gaining twist,” the bore being an ellipse.Defects of.The chief defect in the Lancaster gun is the liability of the projectile to jam in the bore, both in loading and firing, the former rendering the loading difficult, while the latter endangers the safety of the gun. In consequence of several of these guns bursting, and also from the anticipated large range with great precision not being obtained from them, the Lancaster guns were removed from the service after the Crimean war.Sir W. Armstrong.Sir W. Armstrong submitted a proposal for his breech-loading gun to the Duke of Newcastle, then Minister at War, towards the end of 1854; his proposal being accepted, and a gun accordingly constructed, it was submitted to numerous trials, both at Shoeburyness, and near Sir W. Armstrong’s private factory at Newcastle. This gun is now made entirely of wrought iron, although the original one had a steel bore. It is a built-up gun, that is to say, it is composed of separate pieces, each piece being of such moderate size as to admit of being forged without risk of flaw or failure. By this mode of construction, great strength, and consequently, great lightness,are secured. The shell used combines the principle of the shrapnel and percussion shell, i.e., it may be made to explode either as it approaches the object, or as it strikes it. Moreover, it may be made to explode at the instant of leaving the gun, in which case, the pieces spread out like a fan, and produce the usual effect of grape or canister. Armstrong’s guns are now (1860) being employed in China.Whitworth.Mr. Whitworth’s rifled gun, with which experiments were lately made near Liverpool, is also a breech-loading piece, and of the following construction. The form of the bore is that of a hexagonal spiral, the corners of which are rounded off. The inclination of the spiral varies with the diameter of the bore, but is in all these guns very great, the projectiles being comparatively long.French rifled ordnance.Rifled ordnance were introduced into the French service just previous to the commencement of the late Italian war of 1859, and aiming at the greatest practical simplicity, the French government adopted only one nature of gun for field service, and one for siege purposes, both made of bronze. The French rifled cannon are muzzle loading, and those first introduced had two or three grooves, but the field pieces used in Italy had six grooves, their inclination being about one turn in 59 inches. A number of heavy cast-iron guns are rifled with two grooves, and have been placed on board French ships of war; and these, unless strengthened, could be used but with very small charges.Advantages of rifled guns.The advantages obtained by the successful employment of rifledguns—Great accuracy of fire,Long range,Penetration,Small charge,Simplicity of equipment and ammunition,Lightness of gun.Classification of artillery.Artillery may be classed under the several heads of field artillery (including artillery of position), siege artillery and artillery for the armament of garrisons, fortresses, and coast defences; its equipment is a combination of men, materiel, and horses necessary for these services.Three kinds of guns.All ordnance employed in the service, may be divided into three classes, viz., Guns, Mortars, and Howitzers.Carronades discontinued.Carronades may be considered obsolete, although a certain number are still supplied to the navy, and a few will be found mounted in some garrisons and coast batteries.Classification of guns and their uses.Guns are used for projecting shot and shell, horizontally or at very low angles, and as they are fired with large charges of powder, which are fixed for each nature of gun, very great strength and considerable weight are required in their construction. Guns are of two kinds, viz., (solid) shot guns, and shell guns. Some guns are also classed as heavy, medium, and light. Those generally employed for field service, are made of bronze or gun-metal; all guns of higher calibre, of cast-iron.Mortars.Mortars are short pieces of ordnance, used to throw shells at high angles (vertical fire), generally 45°, the charge varying with the range required; they are distinguishedby the diameters of their bores. Mortars are made of cast-iron or bronze; the former being principally intended for garrisons, battering trains, the navy, &c., and the latter, which are of small calibre, and very light, are chiefly employed in sieges.Howitzers.Howitzers resemble guns in form, but are much shorter and lighter in proportion to their calibre, and are, consequently, fired with less charges of powder; shells and case are fired from them, but not solid shot.Use of Howitzers.These pieces were originally introduced for the purpose of firing shells at low angles, and have constantly been found most useful both in the field and in siege operations during the wars of the last and present centuries.Superseded by shell guns.Since, however, the introduction of shell guns their utility has greatly decreased, for the shell gun possesses greater accuracy and range than the howitzer, those being in the present day of greater importance than small weight.Artillery from the East.The Germans claim the invention of cannon for their countryman, Bartholdus Schwartz, who is said to have discovered it in 1336, but seeing that fire-arms first became prevalent in Europe in those countries which mixed with the Saracens, we are constrained to lean to the opinion that fire-arms were not re-invented in Europe, but introduced from the East.This part of our subject might be much enlarged, but we have merely attempted to give heads of information, which can be pursued by those who desire to do so. We must now leave it, in order to treat upon that more immediately interesting to officers of infantry, viz., the history of portable fire-arms.
DESCRIPTION OF CROSS-BOW.Description.The ancient cross-bow, which differed in many particulars from those of late times, is thus described by Father Daniel, who formed his description from one or more then before him.The cross-bow was an offensive weapon, which consisted of a bow fixed to the top of a sort of staff, or stock of wood, which the string of the bow, when unbent, crossed at right angles.Stock.The handle or bed, which was called the stock of the cross-bow, had towards the middle a small opening or slit, of the length of two fingers, in which was a little moveable wheel of solid steel; through the centre of it passed a screw that served for an axis; this wheel projected a little beyond the surface of the stock, and had a notch, or catch, which stopped and held the string of the bow when bent.Trigger.In the opposite side of the circumference was a much smaller notch, by the means of which the spring of the trigger kept the wheel firmer, and in its place; this wheel is called the nut of the cross-bow. Under the stock, near the handle, was the key of the trigger, like that of the serpentine of a musket; by pressing this key with the hand, to the handle of the cross-bow, the spring released the wheel that held the string, and the string by its motion drove forward the dart.Back-sight.Upon the stock below the little wheel was a small plate of copper, which lifted up and shut down, and was fixed by its two legs, with two screws to the two sides of the stock; this was a back-sight; it was pierced above by two little holes, one over the other, and when the plate was raised, these two holes answered to aFore-sight.globule, which was a small bead, no bigger than that of a chaplet, that was suspended at the end of the cross-bow by a fine wire, and fastened to two perpendicular columns of iron, one on the right, the other on the left, and this little globule, answering to the holes in the plate, served to direct the aim, whether for shooting horizontally, upwards, or downwards.Cord.The cord or string of the bow was double, each string separated by two little cylinders of iron, equi-distant from the extremities of the bow and the centre; to these two strings in the middle was fixed a ring of cord, which served to confine it in the notch previously mentioned when the bow was bent. Between the two cords in the centre of the string, and immediately before the ring, was a little square of cord, against which was placed the extremity of the arrow or dart, to be pushed forward by the cord.Bent by hand.The smaller cross-bows were bent with the hand;By footthe larger ones were at first bent by the soldier placing his foot in a stirrup, attached to the end of the bow; a cordwas then fixed by one end to the butt of the stock, the other end being fastened to a waistbelt.By pulley.A pulley, running upon the cord, was hooked to the bowstring, and the bow was then bent by raising the body and keeping the leg firm.By moulinet.The cross-bow was afterwards furnished with the moulinet and pulleys, (plate 13) which after the bow had been bent, could be removed for the discharge; these consisted of an iron cylinder in a frame of the same metal, made to turn by two moveable handles in opposite directions, and having a cap likewise of iron to fit on the butt end of the stock. On each side of this cap was a small pulley, the wheel of which was one inch and a half in diameter, having attached to one of its arms a strong cord that passed thence round an equal sized wheel, returned over the first, and then went round one double in diameter, situated beyond the second, and so passed to the cylinder of the moulinet, by winding which, the power required to bend the bow was lessened to one fourth. Attached to the arms of the greater wheels was a double claw, made to slide on the plane of the stock, which, catching hold of the bowstring, drew it up to the nut. An improvement of the moulinet was, that the handles of the cylinder were both made in the same line, instead of being one up and the other down.By windlass.At a later period the cross-bow was bent by a windlass, which consisted of a bar of iron, shaped at its end into a claw, and having teeth the whole length of one edge. This slipped through an iron box, containing a wheel, the cogs of which fitted the teeth of the bar, and as a handle was fixed to the axle, on turning it the string was wound up. This apparatus was attached by a loop, which slipped over the stock, and was kept in its place by two iron pins, that projected from the side, and then, when bent, it could be easily removed.By steel lever.Another mode of bending the cross-bow was by means of a steel lever, called the goat’s-foot lever, which was moveable. This was formed of two legs, a catch and a handle, all acting on one pivot. The legs were applied to the projecting pieces of iron on each side the stock, and then the purchase was very great.Latch.There were two principal varieties of cross-bows, viz., the “Latch,” with grooved stock, for “quarrels,”Prodd.and the “Prodd,” for bullets. (Plate 14, fig. 1 and 2.)Dimensions and form of latch.In the reign of Henry VI. the stocks of cross-bows were made of hard wood, ornamented with ivory. They were about three feet three inches long, the bow of steel, about two feet eight inches from end to end, weighing in all about fifteen pounds. The length of the groove for the quarrel about one foot four inches.Quarrels viretons.The arrows discharged were called both quarrels and viretons, (plate 14, fig. 2 and 4,) some with feathers, others without. The vireton is a French name; the feathers being set on a little curved, made it spin round as it passed through the air.It is stated by Captain Panôt, that the Arquebus was in use before the invention of powder, and was but an improvement on the arbalest, or cross-bow.Arquebus or barrelled cross-bow.The Arquebus, like the cross-bow, had a stock, upon which was fixed a tube, intended to receive the projectile.Slit in tube.This tube was split, for the passage of a cord, which was held back by a kind of sheave or pulley, which communicated motion to the projectile, on the trigger being pulled.Fired leaden balls.In general, leaden balls were fired from the arquebus. The barrelled cross-bow was suggested by the “balista grossa de arganellis,” which was furnished with tubes for ejecting Greek fire.Repeating cross-bow.In the United Service Museum, Whitehall, there is a cross-bow of Cingalese manufacture. It strings itself, and discharges two arrows each time in rapid succession, until the magazine is exhausted, which contains twelve arrows, and may be replenished in a moment.Range in Henry V.It is evident that the different sizes and various powers of cross-bows occasioned a great diversity in the distance of their range. Thus, in Henry 5th’s time the range of the cross-bow is stated to have been forty rods (220 yards), and it never appears to have been more powerful than at that period.Range in Elizabeth’s.M. de Bellay says that the cross-bowman will kill at 100 or 200 paces, which gives a great range to the arbalests of Elizabeth’s time.Sir John Smith, however, in his observations, not long after this, very much contracts the distance of their shot, for he says that “a cross-bow will kill point-blank between 40 and 60 yards, and, if elevated, 120, 140, or 160 yards, or further.”The former probably alluded to the prod, the latter to the latch.COMPARATIVE MERITS OF THE LONG AND CROSS BOW.How inefficient the cross-bow was found, when opposed by English archery, appears in every page of the histories of the fourteenth century.Why long-bow superior.The superiority of the long-bow mainly depended upon the strength and skill of the archer, while a greater amount of accuracy at shorter ranges could be had out of the cross-bow, with much less training; and the success of the English archers when opposed to cross-bowmen may be mainly ascribed to the more “rapid” fire of the former.Celerity the great advantage of the long-bow.It is generally conceded that the long-bow could deliver at least six shafts while the cross-bow discharged one; and, “with such odds against them, it became impossible for the bravest and most expert troops, whether at Cressy or elsewhere, to make a stand against their opponents”.Cross-bow best on horseback.On the other hand, the cross-bow was decidedly a more convenient weapon on horseback than the long-bow.COMPARATIVE MERITS BETWEEN BOWS AND EARLY FIRE-ARMS.The invention of gunpowder, and its application to artillery and small arms, did not produce that sudden change in the art of war, or in weapons, that might, on a first consideration, have been expected. Many of the old soldiers were much divided in their opinion of the superiority of fire-arms, nor does it appear that the government of those days were decided upon it, as the strongest statutes for enforcing the practice of archery were enacted after their introduction.Long-bow preferred in Edward III.Joshua Barnes, in his life of Edward III., observes, that “without all question, the guns which are used now-a-days, are neither so terrible in battle nor do such execution nor work such confusion as arrows can do; for bullets, being not seen, only hurtwhere they hit, but arrows enrage the horse, and break the array, and terrify all that behold them in the bodies of their neighbours. Not to say that every archer can shoot thrice to a gunner’s once, and that whole squadrons of bows may let fly at one time, when only one or two files of musqueteers can discharge at once. Also, that whereas guns are useless when your pikes join, because they only do execution point-blank, the arrows which will kill at random may do good service even behind your men of arms.”Long-bow the favourite in Henry VIII.Although fire-arms had attained no inconsiderable degree of perfection in the reign of Henry VIII., yet the long-bow was still the favourite weapon.Merits balanced in Queen Mary’s reign.So indifferent were the ministers of Queen Mary respecting them, that in her ordinance respecting armour and weapons, the alternative is left to the choice of the people, whether they should find a long-bow and sheaf of arrows, or a haquebutt, in every case where they were by law charged with the latter.The lighter ammunition of the harquebus an advantage.In the reign of Elizabeth, the musket was so slow to charge and discharge that the bow was considered superior by many; and Mons. de Bellay states that if archers and cross-bowmen could carry their arrows, &c., as easy as harquebusiers do their ammunition, he would prefer the former weapon over the latter.Arrows make more severe wounds than bullets.The effects of arrows sticking in horses, are said to have been frightful. This can be easily imagined. A fire-arm bullet can be shot quite through a horse without causing the animal to show one sign of anguish. He goes steadily on his previous course, and makes no sign. However fatal of necessity, a fire-arm bullet gives no immediate pain. Not so the arrow. Planted never so lightly in a horse’s neck or flank, the animal grew furious. Starting off into a wild gallop to escape the barbed sting, the animal had no respite for his agony. The wilder the pace, the greater the pain. Far from the serried squadrons where he fain would be, sore against his will, rushed the mail-clad knight. Plunging and rearing, the steed would throw him at last, amidst the dead and dying; himself to die.Though comparatively few men or horses were killed by arrow wounds at once, few, nevertheless, recovered. The barbed arrow-head was immeasurably more dangerous, imbedded in the flesh, than a mere lump of lead. Hundreds of men, hale and well to-day, have had fire-arm bullets imbedded in their flesh for years. Not so in the time of archery. The arrow-head must be extracted, or mortification came on, and soon a cruel death. Neither was the surgical process of extraction often happy in the results. It would not be easy to extract a barbed arrow-head even now, with all the appliances of modern surgery at hand.Arrow wounds more fatal.Another fatal consequence of arrow wounds on the field of battle was this: men wounded thus were rarely taken prisoners. Arrows were expensive ammunition. The battle over, detachments were sent out to collect them; and the collection was not done too tenderly. To regain an arrow seemed a far more meritorious act than to save the life of an enemy. The throat of many a wounded wretch was mercilessly cut, that he might be quiet whilst the arrow was being extracted.Bows useless in wind.The defects of archery were these:—the ammunition was expensive, and when lost, not easily replaced. The flight of arrows is never correct on a windy day, from whatever direction the wind may blow.In rain.Rain relaxes the bow and bowstring, so thatarchery then is of little use. All these are serious defects; but there was another of more importance still. When the archer’s ammunition was all expended, he was nearly powerless. A sword, indeed, he carried, for close fighting; and each archer stuck into the ground before him a sharp pointed stake as a protection against cavalry.Hand-gun most penetration.Silent discharge in favor of bows.The great advantage of the hand-gun was from its penetration, as no armour could keep out balls, but thesilentdischarge of the cross-bow rendered it superior in the pursuit of timid animals, and the prodd has continued in use to the present day, for the purpose of killing deer, rooks, and rabbits.Note.—The articles on ancient Engines of War, and upon the Bow, are principally taken from the following works, viz:—“Military Antiquities,” by F. Grose, Esq.; “A Critical Inquiry into Ancient Armour,” by Sir S. R. Meyrick; “Ancient Armour and Weapons in Europe,” by John Hewitt; “Projectile Weapons of War,” and “Report of the Rifle Match at Wimbledon Common,” by J. Scoffern, M. B.; “Engines of War,” by H. Wilkinson, and “The Long-Bow of the Past and the Rifle for the Future,” by H. Britannicus.HISTORY OF ARTILLERY.There is no subject more intimately connected with the history of the world, from the remotest antiquity than the history of Arms,Fate of nations depends on arms.the fate of nations having always depended either on the superiority of the Arms employed, or on the superior discipline or dexterity of those who used them, wholly independent of the numbers by which they were opposed.Artillery includes all war-engines.Before the introduction of gunpowder, all kinds of weapons, both offensive and defensive, were included in the term “Artillery,” which has since become restricted to the larger kinds of fire-arms, such as guns, mortars, howitzers, rockets, &c. Thus we find in the I. Saml. xx., 40, “And Jonathan gave his artillery to his lad,” when speaking of bows and arrows. Again, in the 20th, Henry VIII., a patent was granted to Anthony Knevt and Peter Mentas, “to be overseers of the science of Artillery;” and in an enumeration of the different species of Artillery, printed in 1594, are reckoned “long-bows, cross-bows, slur-bows, stone-bows, scorpions, and catapultas.”Definition of Artillery.The root of the word “artillery,” is the Latin word “ars,” an “art.” It has been fantastically derived from the Italianarte di tirare, the art of firing. In the fourteenth century the science of war-engines was calledartemonie, and its productionsartillerie, from the old French wordartiller, “to employ art.” Some writers state that the word “artillery,” is derived fromarcus“a bow,” the earlier species of artillery being termedarcualia.First invention unknown.It is difficult to determine with any degree of accuracy the epoch at which gunpowder and its resultants, fire-arms, were first employed for the purposes of war in any part of the world; and this difficulty is increased, at least, as far as regards Europe, from the fact,Names of gun—from old machines.that the first engines of war, depending on the use of gunpowder, were named after the old machines for throwing darts, stones, &c.First mention of guns.The earliest account which we have of gunpowder, where it is mentioned as applied to fire-arms, exists in a code of Gentoo Laws, and is thought by many to be coeval with the time of Moses. The notice occurs in the Sanscrit preface to the Code of Gentoo Laws, translated by Halhed, at page 53, viz:—“The Magistrate shall not make war with any deceitful machine, or with poisoned weapons, or withcannon or guns, &c.” Halhed observes: “It will no doubt strike the reader with wonder to find a prohibition of fire-arms in records of such unfathomable antiquity, and he will probably hence renew the suspicion, which has long been deemed absurd, that Alexander the Great did absolutely meet with some weapons of this kind in India, as a passage in Quintus Curtius seems to ascertain.”Greek fire, earliest European combustible.The Greek fire seems to have been one of the earliest attempts in Europe at the manufacture of a military combustible;Gunpowder known before in China.but there is some reason to believe that the Chinese had become acquainted with the nature of gunpowder long before the introduction or invention of the aforenamed substance; and they appear to have been the first who took any steps in its manufacture, or in that of weapons of war resulting from its use. Amongst the machines constructed by this extraordinary people, was one called “the thunder of the earth,” which is thus described by M. Reinaud; and M. Favé:Chinese explosive shell.“A hollow globe of iron was filled with a bucket of gunpowder, mixed with fragments of metal, and was so arranged, that it exploded on the approach of an enemy, so as to cause great destruction in his ranks.”Early Chinese cannon.The “impetuous” dart of the Chinese, was a round bamboo, about two and a half feet in length, lashed with hempen cords to prevent its splitting, and having a strong wooden handle fixed to one end, thus making its entire length about five feet. This was then charged with powder of different kinds, arranged in layers, over which were placed fire balls, which being thrown to a distance of thirty or forty yards by the discharge, consumed any combustible materials they might come in contact with.A late writer, M. Paravey, has in a great measure established the fact, that gunpowder and fire-arms were known to the Chinese long before the Christian era; and it is mentioned in Chinese writings,Guns in China, 618 B. C.that in the year 618B. C., a gun was in use, bearing this inscription, “I hurl death to the traitor, and extermination to the rebel.”A. D. 757.Guns are said to have been constructed in China, in 757A. D., for the purpose of throwing stones of the weight of from ten to fourteen pounds to a distance of 300 paces. Whatever doubts may exist as to the earlier history of artillery among the Chinese, it is almost beyond question, that cannon were extensively used by them in the beginning of the 13th century, as we have access to various reliable accounts, establishing this fact.Artillery at Saragossa, A. D., 1118.Condé, in his history of the Moors in Spain, states that artillery was used by them against Saragossa in 1118A. D.,At Niebla, A. D., 1157.and that in 1157,A. D.they defended themselves in Niebla, against the Spaniards, by means of machines, which threw darts and stones, through the agency of fire.Used against the Moguls, A. D. 1232.In 1232A. D.cannon throwing stone shot were used against the Moguls, and during this war, certain machines were also employed, which being filled with powder, and ignited at the proper time, burst with a noise like thunder, and whose effect extended for the space of half an acre round the spot where they exploded.Cannon bearing date 1258 found in France.A small brass cannon is said to have been found at the bottom of a deep well of the Castle de Clucy, in France, with the date 1258 upon it.Cannon used against Cordova, A. D. 1280.In 1280A. D., cannon were used against Cordova, after which period, they are frequently mentioned in the records of Spain.Iron shot, 14th century.Iron shot appear to have been first used in that country in the beginning of the 14th century.Cannon used by Arabians, 1312.Cannon are described by Arabian authors as early as 1312.The first mention we have of the use of fire arms, after this period, is in the life of Robert Bruce, by John Barbour, Archdeacon of Aberdeen, in which certain engines termed, “crakeys of war,” are spoken of, as having been used by Edward III., in his campaign against the Scots, in 1327.Cannon in France, 1338.It is generally believed that cannon were commonly employed in Europe since 1338, as they were used by the French in that year to demolish some castles.Siege of Algesiras, 1342 to 1344.Gunpowder is said to have been used at the siege of Algesiras by Alphonse of Castile against the Moors, 1342 to 1344.Cannon at Cressy, 1346.Edward III. had four guns at the battle of Cressy, 1346. Froissart mentions these guns in one of his manuscripts, now preserved in the library of Amiens. A free translation of the passage referred to would run as follows: “And the English caused to fire suddenly certain guns which they had in the battle, to astonish (or confound) the Genoese.” Vilani, a Florentine historian, also confirms this statement, as well as a passage in the chronicles of St. Denis, which speaks of the use of cannon by the English at Cressy. An ancient manuscript also mentions the existence of gunners and artillerymen, whom Edward III. employed when he landed before Calais in 1346, and the several stipends each soldier received. The sentence runs thus: “Masons, carpenters, engineers, gunners, and artillerymen, the sum of 12, 10, 6, and 3 pence per diem.”Cannon of two kinds.The first fire-arms appear to have consisted of two kinds; a larger one for discharging stones, called a bombard, (plate 18, fig. 3) and a smaller for propelling darts and leaden balls,Used by the Black Prince, 1356.both of which were used in 1356, by the Black Prince, to reduce the castle of Romozantin;At St. Valery, 1358.and two years later, the artillery of St. Valery did great execution among its besiegers.Cannon made in England, 1377Cannon were made in England in the fourteenth century, and Richard II. commissioned Sir Thomas Norwich to buy two great and two small cannon in London, or in any other place; and also 600 balls of stone for cannon and for other engines, to be sent to the Castle of Bristol.Cannon at St. Malo.When the English unsuccessfully besieged St. Malo, 400 cannon are said to have been used, but these are supposed to have been of the smaller kind, called hand cannon, or culverins, which were carried by two men, and fired from a kind of tripod or rest fixed in the ground.Cannon general.From this period, cannon were used in all the offensive and defensive operations of war; though a considerable time elapsed before it became a really serviceable arm for field operations. The earlier kinds of cannon were called bombards or bombardæ. Those first employed were clumsy, (plate 16) and ill contrived, wider at the mouth than at the chamber.Bombards made of iron.They merely consisted of bars of iron, arranged in such a manner that their internal aspects should form a tube. The bars were not welded together, but merely confined by hoops. They were also made of iron bars over a cylinder of copper, strengthened by iron hoops, driven on red hot, and others were entirely composed of copper.Bronze.Bronze was also employed in the manufacture of artillery, as well as thin sheets of iron rolled together;Leather, rope, &c.and guns made of leather, and coiled rope, over a cylinder of copper or gun metal, were also introduced, and continued in use for a considerable time.Wood.Guns also appear to have been made of wood.Rope mortar at Venice.In the arsenal at Venice there is an ancient mortar, constructed of leather and rope, used in the siege of the island of Chioggia, near Venice, against the Genoese, 1380. The shot is of stone, 14in. in diameter.Cannon of paper.It has been heard recently, that the Chinese constructed their cannon of prepared paper, lined with copper.Field cannon to keep up with army, 1380.As early as 1380 it is said the French were able to procure for the invasion of Italy, a great number of brass cannon, mounted on carriages, and drawn by horses, instead of oxen; these pieces threw balls of from 40lbs. to 60lbs. in weight and could always keep pace with the army. (Plate 18, fig. 1, 3, and 4.)Large cannon 1400.A cannon taken at the siege of Dien in 1546, by John de Castro, and now in Lisbon, is 20 feet 7in. in length, 6 feet 3in. in diameter in the middle, and threw a ball of 100lbs. A Hindostani inscription on it states that it was cast in 1400.Bolts and quarrels shot, 1413.Bolts and quarrels were shot from cannon in the reign of Henry V.; these were succeeded by stones, as he ordered in 1418, “labourers to make 7,000 stones for the guns of different sorts from the quarries of Maidstone.”Red-hot iron balls used at Cherbourg, 1418.We learn from Elam’s life of Henry V., that when an English army, commanded by the Duke of Gloucester, besieged Cherbourg in 1418, the besieged dischargedred-hotballs ofironfrom their cannon into the English camp, to burn the huts.Slow to discharge.So much time elapsed between the loading and discharging the great guns, that the besieged had sufficient time to repair at their leisure, the breaches made by the enormous stones, &c., thrown from them.Cannon at Meaux, 1422.Five wrought-iron bombards are preserved in the “Musée de l’Artillerie,” at Paris; which were, it is said, abandoned by the English, at the town of Meaux, in 1422.Cannon cast, 1450.About the middle of the fifteenth century, the ancient method of constructing cannon was exchanged for that of casting. A hard or mixed metal was invented called “font metal” or bronze, and cannon were then cast in one piece, and instead of fanciful names, they began to be indicated by the weight of their ball, as at present.Siege of Constantinople, 1453.At the siege of Constantinople, by Mahomet II., stones were thrown weighing 1,200lbs.! The cannon employed could not be discharged more than three or four times a day. This siege was distinguished by the re-union of ancient and modern artillery;Small guns with several barrels.the small arms of the Christians discharged five, or even ten balls at the same time, as large as walnuts; and one piece made for the Turks, by Urban, a Dane, cast a stone bullet weighing 600lbs., which could be discharged seven times a day, but it ultimately burst.Large brass gun, cast at Adrianople.This gun was cast of brass at Adrianople, of stupendous and almost incredible magnitude; twelve palms is assigned to the bore. A vacant space before the palace was chosen for the first experiment, but to prevent the sudden and mischievous effects of astonishment and fear, a proclamation was issued that the cannon would be discharged on the following day. The explosion was felt or heard in a circuit of 100 furlongs, the ball was driven above a mile and buried itself a fathom in the ground. A carriage of thirty waggons was linked together to carry the gun along, and drawn by a team of sixty oxen; 200 men on both sides were stationed to poise or sustain the rolling weight, 250 workmen marched before it to smooth the way, and repair the bridges, and near two months were employed in a laborious journey of 150 miles. This enormous gun was flanked by two of almost equal magnitude, and fourteen batteries, mounting 130 guns, were brought to bear upon the place. The cannon were intermingled with machines for throwing stones and darts.Artillery of Scots 1496.The Scots had a kind of artillery peculiar to themselves, called “Carts of War.” They are described in an Act of Parliament, thus “ilk Cart twa gunnis and ilk ane to have twa Chalmers and an Cumrand man to shute theme.”Breech-loaders.These were breech-loaders, and in 1471, the Barons were commanded to provide such “Carts of War” against their old enemies the English. (Plate 18, fig. 1.)Cannon named.It was not uncommon to give strange names to early cannon; thus Louis XII. had twelve brass ones cast in 1503, of enormous size, which he named after the twelve Peers of France; the Spaniards and Portugese christened theirs after their Saints, and the Emperor Charles V. had twelve when he went against Tunis, which he named after the Twelve Apostles.Cause of improvements.As a knowledge of the art of gunnery increased, great improvements took place with regard to projectiles;Iron balls in England, 15th century.and balls of iron were substituted in the place of those formed of stone, being introduced into England in the sixteenth century.Iron guns cast.Iron guns were not cast in this country until the year 1547, foreigners being generally employed to manufacture them. Both Henry VII. and Henry VIII. took great pains to introduce the art of gunnery into the kingdom; and to this end, had a number of Flemish gunners in their daily pay; in fact, it is said, that the latter monarch himself, invented small pieces of artillery to defend his waggons.Hand-culverines.The earlier species of field artillery, embraced among others, a small kind of ordnance called, “hand cannon,” or culverins, which were so light and portable, that they could be carried and served by two men; they were fired from a rest, placed on the ground;Organ-guns.also “ribandequins” or organ guns; these latter consisted of a number of tubes, placed in a row, like those of an organ, and appear to have been of French origin, as were many of the improvements which took place about that period, including the invention of wall pieces, throwing leaden balls of ten to the pound.Mortars, Henry VIII.For mortars we are indebted to workmen of Henry VIII. as “one Peter Bawd and one Peter Vancollen, both the king’s feed men, devised and caused to be made certain mortar pieces, being at the mouth from eleven to nineteen inches wide,Shells.and also certain hollow shot of cast iron, to be stuffed with fire-work or wild-fire, for to break in pieces the same hollow shot.”Varieties of cannon.And in the first year of Edward VI. the said Peter Bawd did make ordnance of iron of divers forms, as fawconet, fawkons, minions, sakers, &c. His servant, J. Johnson, did like make and cast iron ordnance cleaner and to better perfection, to the great use of this land. His son Thomas Johnson, in 1593, made forty two cast pieces of great ordnance for the Earl of Cumberland, demi cannon, weighing 5,000lbs. or three tons the piece.Queen Elizabeth’s Pocket-pistol.At Dover there is a culverine, presented to Queen Elizabeth, by the States General of Holland, and called Queen Elizabeth’s Pocket-pistol. It is 24 feet long, diameter of bore 41⁄2inches, weight of shot 12lbs.; it was manufactured in 1544, and is mounted on an ornamented iron carriage made in 1827, at the Royal Carriage Department, Woolwich Arsenal. (Plate 17, fig. 2.)Mons Meg.There is a large gun at Edinburgh Castle, called Mons Meg; it measures about 13 feet 4 inches in length, the diameter of the bore is about 1 foot 6 inches; it has a chamber about 4 feet long and 6 inches in diameter. (Plate 17, fig. 3.)Field-guns, 1554.The battle of Remi, in 1554, was the first action in which light field guns, having limbers, were used,—these guns accompanied the cavalry.Red-hot shot, 1580.Pere Daniel says that red-hot iron shot were used by Marshal Matignan, during the siege of la Fère, in 1580.Calibre, time of Queen Elizabeth.In a table of ordnance, given by Fosbrooke, as being a list of the guns used in the time of Elizabeth, and immediately preceding her, we find how little the calibres of iron guns have altered during the last two or three centuries, as these guns have all their antitypes among those of the present day.The beginning of the seventeenth century was an important epoch in the history of artillery; and much attention was given to this branch of the military profession, by Henry IV., of France, Maurice, of Nassau, and Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden.Origin of canister and grape.The former of these distinguished leaders, introduced new and improved forms and kinds of missiles; such as tin cases, filled with steel bolts or darts; canvas cartridges, containing small balls, and hollow shot or shells, filled with combustible materials.Improved mode of loading, by Gustavus Adolphus.Gustavus Adolphus, introduced really serviceable field guns, of a lighter construction than had hitherto been made use of, and he also adopted the use of cartridges, with shot attached, so that these pieces might be discharged eight times before the musket could be fired six. It is said that he chiefly owed his victory at Leipzig, in 1631, to guns made of leather and coiled rope, over a cylinder of copper or gun metal. On the whole, the artillery of Gustavus was admirably organized; and he was the first who appreciated the importance of causing artillery to act in concentrated masses, a principle, now so fully recognized by all artillerists.Bombs at sea.Bombs were first used at sea, by the French, in the bombardment of Algiers, Oct. 28th, 1681, in the reign of Louis XIV.The largest gun.One of the largest cannon now existing is a brass one at Bejapoor, called “Moolik-i-Meidan,” or “The Lord of the Plain.” It was cast in commemoration of the capture of that place by the Emperor Alum Geer, in 1685. Its length is 14ft. 1in., diameter about 5ft. 8in., diameter of bore, 2ft. 4in., interior length of bore, 10ft.; length of chamber unknown; shape of gun nearly “cylindrical;” description of shot,stone. An iron shot for this gun, of proper size, would weigh 1600lbs. It is now lying in a dilapidated circular bastion on the left of the principal gateway of the city. The trunnions are broken off, and there is a ring on each side of it, as well as two Persian inscriptions on the top. It is placed on three heavy beams of wood, packed round with large stones. A number ofstoneshot, of 2ft. 2in. in diameter, are scattered about. This gun is said to be the heaviest piece of ordnance in the world. It weighs about forty-two tons. An Italian of Otranto, who served in the Mogul armies under the title of Renni Khan, had it in his park of artillery, and used it at several battles, occasionally firing sacks of copper coins out of it. (Plate 18, fig. 2.)Gun at Moorshedabad.There is a remarkable gun near the palace of the Nawab of Moorshedabad, which measures 17ft. 8in. in length, 5ft. in circumference at the smallest part near the muzzle, while it is only 6in. in the diameter of the bore, and the foresight is at least four or five inches above the muzzle. After the battle of Khallissie, which was fought about 25 miles from here, it is supposed to have been buried under a tree. The tree, having grown since then, has forced the gun above the ground about three feet, where it now remains, partly encircled by the roots and trunk. It has no name;the natives call it “the gun in the tree.” It is made of cast iron, and is evidently of Indian manufacture, having Hindostanee inscriptions engraved on it, but no date.Size and expense of cannon, 1688.Bishop Wilkins says, “These Gunpowder instruments are extremely expensive, as a whole cannon commonly weighs 8000lbs., requiring 90 men, or 16 horses, with a charge of 40lbs. of powder, and a ball weighing 64lbs”.Length and weight gradually reduced.The length and diameter of cannon became gradually much reduced, experience having determined how much they might be diminished in weight without injury to their safety, or to the effects they were intended to produce.Horse artillery by Frederick the Great.Frederick the Great of Prussia made some improvements with regard to the calibre of field guns, and to him may be given the credit of the introduction of Horse Artillery.Guns bored.Guns, at this period, were cast hollow by means of a core, which was kept suspended in the centre of the mould, while the metal was being run in. Owing, however, to the great difficulty experienced in keeping this core in a perfectly true position, several artillerists deliberated whether guns, cast hollow or solid, had the preference, and investigations took place as to the possibility of boring the latter, the result of which was, that Maritz, who had a foundry at Geneva, informed the Court of France, in 1739, that he had discovered a method of boring guns and mortars which had been cast solid. He was at once invited to France, where, first at Lyons, and afterwards at Strasbourg, he secretly worked at boring pieces of ordnance, which, on trial, proved perfectly satisfactory.Guns of ice.In the year 1740, a curious experiment in artillery was made at St. Petersburgh, where guns were cut out of solid ice, from which balls of the same substance were fired repeatedly, without bursting.Improvements.From this period, the science of artillery progressed rapidly, and various improvements were made in this arm of the service,Axle-trees.such as the introduction of iron axle-trees,High limbers.and high limbers for the carriages of field guns.Reduction of windage.The reduction of windage, (mainly owing to the invention of carronades), and the use of cartridges and elevating screws, which latter served to render the fire of artillery much more rapid and regular.The invention of rifled ordnance is claimed by a Dr. Lind and a Capt. A. Blair, late 69th regt.Rifled ordnance 1774.Experiments were made at Landguard Fort, 26th August, 1774, by which it was intended to prove that shot weighing 42lbs., in the shape of a pear, would do as much execution, fired out of an 18 pounder, with a third of the quantity of powder, as could be effected by round balls of the same weight, fired from a 42 pounder.Perforated and fluted shot.Sundry trials were also made with shot perforated through the centre, and spirally fluted on the surface, suggested by Professor Anderson, of Glasgow, in order to prevent the common aberration in the flight of shot.Leaden projectiles.There were different modes of charging the rifled guns; one was, after the powder was put in, to take a leaden bullet something larger than the bore of the gun, and grease it well; in ramming it down with an iron rammer hollow at one end, the spiral threads of the rifle entered and cut into the bullet, and caused it to turn roundin going down, and on being shot out, it would rotate on an axis coincident with its flight.Breech-loading Rifled cannon.Another mode was to charge them at the breech, where an opening for the reception of the powder and ball was afterwards closed up by a screw; but some barrels were screwed off at the breech-end to be charged, where they were made stronger than common.Congreve’s rockets.The adaptation of the rocket to the purposes of war, by Sir William Congreve, in 1806, introduced a new feature into the artillery of this and other countries.Mr. Monk’s improvements.Recently, at the suggestion of a Mr. Monk, of Woolwich Arsenal, a quantity of useless metal has been removed from before the trunnions, and the thickness increased considerably at the breech end, where alone it was wanted.Mallet’s monster mortar.The monster mortars recently constructed by Mr. Mallet, of separate compound hoops, must be regarded as a triumph of constructive skill. The shell is 30 inches in diameter, holding a bursting charge of 480 lbs., and weighing when charged 11⁄2tons (3,360 lbs.). Value of shell charged, £25. Weight, without bed, 42 tons. Weight of bed, 8 tons. Total, 50 tons.Cavalli’s and Wahrendorff’sIn 1846, two rifled cannon were invented, one by Major Cavalli, of the Sardinian Artillery; and the other by Baron Wahrendorff, a Swedish nobleman. Both of these were iron breech-loading guns, having two grooves in order to give the requisite rifle motion to their projectiles.Experiments to test.Experiments were carried on at Shoeburyness, in 1850, with these guns. The deviations were always in the direction of the rotation of the projectiles; but they were so variable in amount that no allowance could be made for them in laying the gun with respect to the object. The Cavalli gun became unserviceable after having fired four rounds, by the copper ring or bouche imbedded in the metal of the gun at the bottom of the bore being damaged. The Wahrendorff gun stood well, the wedge resisting more effectually the force of the discharge than that of the Cavalli gun.Lancaster’s rifle gun.Mr. Lancaster’s novel invention of applying the rifle principle to cannon, may be described as “a two-grooved rifle in disguise,” having a “gaining twist,” the bore being an ellipse.Defects of.The chief defect in the Lancaster gun is the liability of the projectile to jam in the bore, both in loading and firing, the former rendering the loading difficult, while the latter endangers the safety of the gun. In consequence of several of these guns bursting, and also from the anticipated large range with great precision not being obtained from them, the Lancaster guns were removed from the service after the Crimean war.Sir W. Armstrong.Sir W. Armstrong submitted a proposal for his breech-loading gun to the Duke of Newcastle, then Minister at War, towards the end of 1854; his proposal being accepted, and a gun accordingly constructed, it was submitted to numerous trials, both at Shoeburyness, and near Sir W. Armstrong’s private factory at Newcastle. This gun is now made entirely of wrought iron, although the original one had a steel bore. It is a built-up gun, that is to say, it is composed of separate pieces, each piece being of such moderate size as to admit of being forged without risk of flaw or failure. By this mode of construction, great strength, and consequently, great lightness,are secured. The shell used combines the principle of the shrapnel and percussion shell, i.e., it may be made to explode either as it approaches the object, or as it strikes it. Moreover, it may be made to explode at the instant of leaving the gun, in which case, the pieces spread out like a fan, and produce the usual effect of grape or canister. Armstrong’s guns are now (1860) being employed in China.Whitworth.Mr. Whitworth’s rifled gun, with which experiments were lately made near Liverpool, is also a breech-loading piece, and of the following construction. The form of the bore is that of a hexagonal spiral, the corners of which are rounded off. The inclination of the spiral varies with the diameter of the bore, but is in all these guns very great, the projectiles being comparatively long.French rifled ordnance.Rifled ordnance were introduced into the French service just previous to the commencement of the late Italian war of 1859, and aiming at the greatest practical simplicity, the French government adopted only one nature of gun for field service, and one for siege purposes, both made of bronze. The French rifled cannon are muzzle loading, and those first introduced had two or three grooves, but the field pieces used in Italy had six grooves, their inclination being about one turn in 59 inches. A number of heavy cast-iron guns are rifled with two grooves, and have been placed on board French ships of war; and these, unless strengthened, could be used but with very small charges.Advantages of rifled guns.The advantages obtained by the successful employment of rifledguns—Great accuracy of fire,Long range,Penetration,Small charge,Simplicity of equipment and ammunition,Lightness of gun.Classification of artillery.Artillery may be classed under the several heads of field artillery (including artillery of position), siege artillery and artillery for the armament of garrisons, fortresses, and coast defences; its equipment is a combination of men, materiel, and horses necessary for these services.Three kinds of guns.All ordnance employed in the service, may be divided into three classes, viz., Guns, Mortars, and Howitzers.Carronades discontinued.Carronades may be considered obsolete, although a certain number are still supplied to the navy, and a few will be found mounted in some garrisons and coast batteries.Classification of guns and their uses.Guns are used for projecting shot and shell, horizontally or at very low angles, and as they are fired with large charges of powder, which are fixed for each nature of gun, very great strength and considerable weight are required in their construction. Guns are of two kinds, viz., (solid) shot guns, and shell guns. Some guns are also classed as heavy, medium, and light. Those generally employed for field service, are made of bronze or gun-metal; all guns of higher calibre, of cast-iron.Mortars.Mortars are short pieces of ordnance, used to throw shells at high angles (vertical fire), generally 45°, the charge varying with the range required; they are distinguishedby the diameters of their bores. Mortars are made of cast-iron or bronze; the former being principally intended for garrisons, battering trains, the navy, &c., and the latter, which are of small calibre, and very light, are chiefly employed in sieges.Howitzers.Howitzers resemble guns in form, but are much shorter and lighter in proportion to their calibre, and are, consequently, fired with less charges of powder; shells and case are fired from them, but not solid shot.Use of Howitzers.These pieces were originally introduced for the purpose of firing shells at low angles, and have constantly been found most useful both in the field and in siege operations during the wars of the last and present centuries.Superseded by shell guns.Since, however, the introduction of shell guns their utility has greatly decreased, for the shell gun possesses greater accuracy and range than the howitzer, those being in the present day of greater importance than small weight.Artillery from the East.The Germans claim the invention of cannon for their countryman, Bartholdus Schwartz, who is said to have discovered it in 1336, but seeing that fire-arms first became prevalent in Europe in those countries which mixed with the Saracens, we are constrained to lean to the opinion that fire-arms were not re-invented in Europe, but introduced from the East.This part of our subject might be much enlarged, but we have merely attempted to give heads of information, which can be pursued by those who desire to do so. We must now leave it, in order to treat upon that more immediately interesting to officers of infantry, viz., the history of portable fire-arms.
Description.
The ancient cross-bow, which differed in many particulars from those of late times, is thus described by Father Daniel, who formed his description from one or more then before him.
The cross-bow was an offensive weapon, which consisted of a bow fixed to the top of a sort of staff, or stock of wood, which the string of the bow, when unbent, crossed at right angles.
Stock.
The handle or bed, which was called the stock of the cross-bow, had towards the middle a small opening or slit, of the length of two fingers, in which was a little moveable wheel of solid steel; through the centre of it passed a screw that served for an axis; this wheel projected a little beyond the surface of the stock, and had a notch, or catch, which stopped and held the string of the bow when bent.Trigger.In the opposite side of the circumference was a much smaller notch, by the means of which the spring of the trigger kept the wheel firmer, and in its place; this wheel is called the nut of the cross-bow. Under the stock, near the handle, was the key of the trigger, like that of the serpentine of a musket; by pressing this key with the hand, to the handle of the cross-bow, the spring released the wheel that held the string, and the string by its motion drove forward the dart.
Back-sight.
Upon the stock below the little wheel was a small plate of copper, which lifted up and shut down, and was fixed by its two legs, with two screws to the two sides of the stock; this was a back-sight; it was pierced above by two little holes, one over the other, and when the plate was raised, these two holes answered to aFore-sight.globule, which was a small bead, no bigger than that of a chaplet, that was suspended at the end of the cross-bow by a fine wire, and fastened to two perpendicular columns of iron, one on the right, the other on the left, and this little globule, answering to the holes in the plate, served to direct the aim, whether for shooting horizontally, upwards, or downwards.
Cord.
The cord or string of the bow was double, each string separated by two little cylinders of iron, equi-distant from the extremities of the bow and the centre; to these two strings in the middle was fixed a ring of cord, which served to confine it in the notch previously mentioned when the bow was bent. Between the two cords in the centre of the string, and immediately before the ring, was a little square of cord, against which was placed the extremity of the arrow or dart, to be pushed forward by the cord.
Bent by hand.
The smaller cross-bows were bent with the hand;By footthe larger ones were at first bent by the soldier placing his foot in a stirrup, attached to the end of the bow; a cordwas then fixed by one end to the butt of the stock, the other end being fastened to a waistbelt.By pulley.A pulley, running upon the cord, was hooked to the bowstring, and the bow was then bent by raising the body and keeping the leg firm.
By moulinet.
The cross-bow was afterwards furnished with the moulinet and pulleys, (plate 13) which after the bow had been bent, could be removed for the discharge; these consisted of an iron cylinder in a frame of the same metal, made to turn by two moveable handles in opposite directions, and having a cap likewise of iron to fit on the butt end of the stock. On each side of this cap was a small pulley, the wheel of which was one inch and a half in diameter, having attached to one of its arms a strong cord that passed thence round an equal sized wheel, returned over the first, and then went round one double in diameter, situated beyond the second, and so passed to the cylinder of the moulinet, by winding which, the power required to bend the bow was lessened to one fourth. Attached to the arms of the greater wheels was a double claw, made to slide on the plane of the stock, which, catching hold of the bowstring, drew it up to the nut. An improvement of the moulinet was, that the handles of the cylinder were both made in the same line, instead of being one up and the other down.
By windlass.
At a later period the cross-bow was bent by a windlass, which consisted of a bar of iron, shaped at its end into a claw, and having teeth the whole length of one edge. This slipped through an iron box, containing a wheel, the cogs of which fitted the teeth of the bar, and as a handle was fixed to the axle, on turning it the string was wound up. This apparatus was attached by a loop, which slipped over the stock, and was kept in its place by two iron pins, that projected from the side, and then, when bent, it could be easily removed.
By steel lever.
Another mode of bending the cross-bow was by means of a steel lever, called the goat’s-foot lever, which was moveable. This was formed of two legs, a catch and a handle, all acting on one pivot. The legs were applied to the projecting pieces of iron on each side the stock, and then the purchase was very great.
Latch.
There were two principal varieties of cross-bows, viz., the “Latch,” with grooved stock, for “quarrels,”Prodd.and the “Prodd,” for bullets. (Plate 14, fig. 1 and 2.)
Dimensions and form of latch.
In the reign of Henry VI. the stocks of cross-bows were made of hard wood, ornamented with ivory. They were about three feet three inches long, the bow of steel, about two feet eight inches from end to end, weighing in all about fifteen pounds. The length of the groove for the quarrel about one foot four inches.Quarrels viretons.The arrows discharged were called both quarrels and viretons, (plate 14, fig. 2 and 4,) some with feathers, others without. The vireton is a French name; the feathers being set on a little curved, made it spin round as it passed through the air.
It is stated by Captain Panôt, that the Arquebus was in use before the invention of powder, and was but an improvement on the arbalest, or cross-bow.Arquebus or barrelled cross-bow.The Arquebus, like the cross-bow, had a stock, upon which was fixed a tube, intended to receive the projectile.Slit in tube.This tube was split, for the passage of a cord, which was held back by a kind of sheave or pulley, which communicated motion to the projectile, on the trigger being pulled.Fired leaden balls.In general, leaden balls were fired from the arquebus. The barrelled cross-bow was suggested by the “balista grossa de arganellis,” which was furnished with tubes for ejecting Greek fire.
Repeating cross-bow.
In the United Service Museum, Whitehall, there is a cross-bow of Cingalese manufacture. It strings itself, and discharges two arrows each time in rapid succession, until the magazine is exhausted, which contains twelve arrows, and may be replenished in a moment.
Range in Henry V.
It is evident that the different sizes and various powers of cross-bows occasioned a great diversity in the distance of their range. Thus, in Henry 5th’s time the range of the cross-bow is stated to have been forty rods (220 yards), and it never appears to have been more powerful than at that period.
Range in Elizabeth’s.
M. de Bellay says that the cross-bowman will kill at 100 or 200 paces, which gives a great range to the arbalests of Elizabeth’s time.
Sir John Smith, however, in his observations, not long after this, very much contracts the distance of their shot, for he says that “a cross-bow will kill point-blank between 40 and 60 yards, and, if elevated, 120, 140, or 160 yards, or further.”
The former probably alluded to the prod, the latter to the latch.
How inefficient the cross-bow was found, when opposed by English archery, appears in every page of the histories of the fourteenth century.
Why long-bow superior.
The superiority of the long-bow mainly depended upon the strength and skill of the archer, while a greater amount of accuracy at shorter ranges could be had out of the cross-bow, with much less training; and the success of the English archers when opposed to cross-bowmen may be mainly ascribed to the more “rapid” fire of the former.
Celerity the great advantage of the long-bow.
It is generally conceded that the long-bow could deliver at least six shafts while the cross-bow discharged one; and, “with such odds against them, it became impossible for the bravest and most expert troops, whether at Cressy or elsewhere, to make a stand against their opponents”.
Cross-bow best on horseback.
On the other hand, the cross-bow was decidedly a more convenient weapon on horseback than the long-bow.
The invention of gunpowder, and its application to artillery and small arms, did not produce that sudden change in the art of war, or in weapons, that might, on a first consideration, have been expected. Many of the old soldiers were much divided in their opinion of the superiority of fire-arms, nor does it appear that the government of those days were decided upon it, as the strongest statutes for enforcing the practice of archery were enacted after their introduction.
Long-bow preferred in Edward III.
Joshua Barnes, in his life of Edward III., observes, that “without all question, the guns which are used now-a-days, are neither so terrible in battle nor do such execution nor work such confusion as arrows can do; for bullets, being not seen, only hurtwhere they hit, but arrows enrage the horse, and break the array, and terrify all that behold them in the bodies of their neighbours. Not to say that every archer can shoot thrice to a gunner’s once, and that whole squadrons of bows may let fly at one time, when only one or two files of musqueteers can discharge at once. Also, that whereas guns are useless when your pikes join, because they only do execution point-blank, the arrows which will kill at random may do good service even behind your men of arms.”
Long-bow the favourite in Henry VIII.
Although fire-arms had attained no inconsiderable degree of perfection in the reign of Henry VIII., yet the long-bow was still the favourite weapon.
Merits balanced in Queen Mary’s reign.
So indifferent were the ministers of Queen Mary respecting them, that in her ordinance respecting armour and weapons, the alternative is left to the choice of the people, whether they should find a long-bow and sheaf of arrows, or a haquebutt, in every case where they were by law charged with the latter.
The lighter ammunition of the harquebus an advantage.
In the reign of Elizabeth, the musket was so slow to charge and discharge that the bow was considered superior by many; and Mons. de Bellay states that if archers and cross-bowmen could carry their arrows, &c., as easy as harquebusiers do their ammunition, he would prefer the former weapon over the latter.
Arrows make more severe wounds than bullets.
The effects of arrows sticking in horses, are said to have been frightful. This can be easily imagined. A fire-arm bullet can be shot quite through a horse without causing the animal to show one sign of anguish. He goes steadily on his previous course, and makes no sign. However fatal of necessity, a fire-arm bullet gives no immediate pain. Not so the arrow. Planted never so lightly in a horse’s neck or flank, the animal grew furious. Starting off into a wild gallop to escape the barbed sting, the animal had no respite for his agony. The wilder the pace, the greater the pain. Far from the serried squadrons where he fain would be, sore against his will, rushed the mail-clad knight. Plunging and rearing, the steed would throw him at last, amidst the dead and dying; himself to die.
Though comparatively few men or horses were killed by arrow wounds at once, few, nevertheless, recovered. The barbed arrow-head was immeasurably more dangerous, imbedded in the flesh, than a mere lump of lead. Hundreds of men, hale and well to-day, have had fire-arm bullets imbedded in their flesh for years. Not so in the time of archery. The arrow-head must be extracted, or mortification came on, and soon a cruel death. Neither was the surgical process of extraction often happy in the results. It would not be easy to extract a barbed arrow-head even now, with all the appliances of modern surgery at hand.
Arrow wounds more fatal.
Another fatal consequence of arrow wounds on the field of battle was this: men wounded thus were rarely taken prisoners. Arrows were expensive ammunition. The battle over, detachments were sent out to collect them; and the collection was not done too tenderly. To regain an arrow seemed a far more meritorious act than to save the life of an enemy. The throat of many a wounded wretch was mercilessly cut, that he might be quiet whilst the arrow was being extracted.
Bows useless in wind.
The defects of archery were these:—the ammunition was expensive, and when lost, not easily replaced. The flight of arrows is never correct on a windy day, from whatever direction the wind may blow.In rain.Rain relaxes the bow and bowstring, so thatarchery then is of little use. All these are serious defects; but there was another of more importance still. When the archer’s ammunition was all expended, he was nearly powerless. A sword, indeed, he carried, for close fighting; and each archer stuck into the ground before him a sharp pointed stake as a protection against cavalry.
Hand-gun most penetration.
Silent discharge in favor of bows.
The great advantage of the hand-gun was from its penetration, as no armour could keep out balls, but thesilentdischarge of the cross-bow rendered it superior in the pursuit of timid animals, and the prodd has continued in use to the present day, for the purpose of killing deer, rooks, and rabbits.
Note.—The articles on ancient Engines of War, and upon the Bow, are principally taken from the following works, viz:—“Military Antiquities,” by F. Grose, Esq.; “A Critical Inquiry into Ancient Armour,” by Sir S. R. Meyrick; “Ancient Armour and Weapons in Europe,” by John Hewitt; “Projectile Weapons of War,” and “Report of the Rifle Match at Wimbledon Common,” by J. Scoffern, M. B.; “Engines of War,” by H. Wilkinson, and “The Long-Bow of the Past and the Rifle for the Future,” by H. Britannicus.
There is no subject more intimately connected with the history of the world, from the remotest antiquity than the history of Arms,Fate of nations depends on arms.the fate of nations having always depended either on the superiority of the Arms employed, or on the superior discipline or dexterity of those who used them, wholly independent of the numbers by which they were opposed.
Artillery includes all war-engines.
Before the introduction of gunpowder, all kinds of weapons, both offensive and defensive, were included in the term “Artillery,” which has since become restricted to the larger kinds of fire-arms, such as guns, mortars, howitzers, rockets, &c. Thus we find in the I. Saml. xx., 40, “And Jonathan gave his artillery to his lad,” when speaking of bows and arrows. Again, in the 20th, Henry VIII., a patent was granted to Anthony Knevt and Peter Mentas, “to be overseers of the science of Artillery;” and in an enumeration of the different species of Artillery, printed in 1594, are reckoned “long-bows, cross-bows, slur-bows, stone-bows, scorpions, and catapultas.”
Definition of Artillery.
The root of the word “artillery,” is the Latin word “ars,” an “art.” It has been fantastically derived from the Italianarte di tirare, the art of firing. In the fourteenth century the science of war-engines was calledartemonie, and its productionsartillerie, from the old French wordartiller, “to employ art.” Some writers state that the word “artillery,” is derived fromarcus“a bow,” the earlier species of artillery being termedarcualia.
First invention unknown.
It is difficult to determine with any degree of accuracy the epoch at which gunpowder and its resultants, fire-arms, were first employed for the purposes of war in any part of the world; and this difficulty is increased, at least, as far as regards Europe, from the fact,Names of gun—from old machines.that the first engines of war, depending on the use of gunpowder, were named after the old machines for throwing darts, stones, &c.
First mention of guns.
The earliest account which we have of gunpowder, where it is mentioned as applied to fire-arms, exists in a code of Gentoo Laws, and is thought by many to be coeval with the time of Moses. The notice occurs in the Sanscrit preface to the Code of Gentoo Laws, translated by Halhed, at page 53, viz:—“The Magistrate shall not make war with any deceitful machine, or with poisoned weapons, or withcannon or guns, &c.” Halhed observes: “It will no doubt strike the reader with wonder to find a prohibition of fire-arms in records of such unfathomable antiquity, and he will probably hence renew the suspicion, which has long been deemed absurd, that Alexander the Great did absolutely meet with some weapons of this kind in India, as a passage in Quintus Curtius seems to ascertain.”
Greek fire, earliest European combustible.
The Greek fire seems to have been one of the earliest attempts in Europe at the manufacture of a military combustible;Gunpowder known before in China.but there is some reason to believe that the Chinese had become acquainted with the nature of gunpowder long before the introduction or invention of the aforenamed substance; and they appear to have been the first who took any steps in its manufacture, or in that of weapons of war resulting from its use. Amongst the machines constructed by this extraordinary people, was one called “the thunder of the earth,” which is thus described by M. Reinaud; and M. Favé:Chinese explosive shell.“A hollow globe of iron was filled with a bucket of gunpowder, mixed with fragments of metal, and was so arranged, that it exploded on the approach of an enemy, so as to cause great destruction in his ranks.”Early Chinese cannon.The “impetuous” dart of the Chinese, was a round bamboo, about two and a half feet in length, lashed with hempen cords to prevent its splitting, and having a strong wooden handle fixed to one end, thus making its entire length about five feet. This was then charged with powder of different kinds, arranged in layers, over which were placed fire balls, which being thrown to a distance of thirty or forty yards by the discharge, consumed any combustible materials they might come in contact with.
A late writer, M. Paravey, has in a great measure established the fact, that gunpowder and fire-arms were known to the Chinese long before the Christian era; and it is mentioned in Chinese writings,Guns in China, 618 B. C.that in the year 618B. C., a gun was in use, bearing this inscription, “I hurl death to the traitor, and extermination to the rebel.”
A. D. 757.
Guns are said to have been constructed in China, in 757A. D., for the purpose of throwing stones of the weight of from ten to fourteen pounds to a distance of 300 paces. Whatever doubts may exist as to the earlier history of artillery among the Chinese, it is almost beyond question, that cannon were extensively used by them in the beginning of the 13th century, as we have access to various reliable accounts, establishing this fact.
Artillery at Saragossa, A. D., 1118.
Condé, in his history of the Moors in Spain, states that artillery was used by them against Saragossa in 1118A. D.,At Niebla, A. D., 1157.and that in 1157,A. D.they defended themselves in Niebla, against the Spaniards, by means of machines, which threw darts and stones, through the agency of fire.
Used against the Moguls, A. D. 1232.
In 1232A. D.cannon throwing stone shot were used against the Moguls, and during this war, certain machines were also employed, which being filled with powder, and ignited at the proper time, burst with a noise like thunder, and whose effect extended for the space of half an acre round the spot where they exploded.
Cannon bearing date 1258 found in France.
A small brass cannon is said to have been found at the bottom of a deep well of the Castle de Clucy, in France, with the date 1258 upon it.
Cannon used against Cordova, A. D. 1280.
In 1280A. D., cannon were used against Cordova, after which period, they are frequently mentioned in the records of Spain.Iron shot, 14th century.Iron shot appear to have been first used in that country in the beginning of the 14th century.
Cannon used by Arabians, 1312.
Cannon are described by Arabian authors as early as 1312.
The first mention we have of the use of fire arms, after this period, is in the life of Robert Bruce, by John Barbour, Archdeacon of Aberdeen, in which certain engines termed, “crakeys of war,” are spoken of, as having been used by Edward III., in his campaign against the Scots, in 1327.
Cannon in France, 1338.
It is generally believed that cannon were commonly employed in Europe since 1338, as they were used by the French in that year to demolish some castles.
Siege of Algesiras, 1342 to 1344.
Gunpowder is said to have been used at the siege of Algesiras by Alphonse of Castile against the Moors, 1342 to 1344.
Cannon at Cressy, 1346.
Edward III. had four guns at the battle of Cressy, 1346. Froissart mentions these guns in one of his manuscripts, now preserved in the library of Amiens. A free translation of the passage referred to would run as follows: “And the English caused to fire suddenly certain guns which they had in the battle, to astonish (or confound) the Genoese.” Vilani, a Florentine historian, also confirms this statement, as well as a passage in the chronicles of St. Denis, which speaks of the use of cannon by the English at Cressy. An ancient manuscript also mentions the existence of gunners and artillerymen, whom Edward III. employed when he landed before Calais in 1346, and the several stipends each soldier received. The sentence runs thus: “Masons, carpenters, engineers, gunners, and artillerymen, the sum of 12, 10, 6, and 3 pence per diem.”
Cannon of two kinds.
The first fire-arms appear to have consisted of two kinds; a larger one for discharging stones, called a bombard, (plate 18, fig. 3) and a smaller for propelling darts and leaden balls,Used by the Black Prince, 1356.both of which were used in 1356, by the Black Prince, to reduce the castle of Romozantin;At St. Valery, 1358.and two years later, the artillery of St. Valery did great execution among its besiegers.
Cannon made in England, 1377
Cannon were made in England in the fourteenth century, and Richard II. commissioned Sir Thomas Norwich to buy two great and two small cannon in London, or in any other place; and also 600 balls of stone for cannon and for other engines, to be sent to the Castle of Bristol.
Cannon at St. Malo.
When the English unsuccessfully besieged St. Malo, 400 cannon are said to have been used, but these are supposed to have been of the smaller kind, called hand cannon, or culverins, which were carried by two men, and fired from a kind of tripod or rest fixed in the ground.
Cannon general.
From this period, cannon were used in all the offensive and defensive operations of war; though a considerable time elapsed before it became a really serviceable arm for field operations. The earlier kinds of cannon were called bombards or bombardæ. Those first employed were clumsy, (plate 16) and ill contrived, wider at the mouth than at the chamber.Bombards made of iron.They merely consisted of bars of iron, arranged in such a manner that their internal aspects should form a tube. The bars were not welded together, but merely confined by hoops. They were also made of iron bars over a cylinder of copper, strengthened by iron hoops, driven on red hot, and others were entirely composed of copper.Bronze.Bronze was also employed in the manufacture of artillery, as well as thin sheets of iron rolled together;Leather, rope, &c.and guns made of leather, and coiled rope, over a cylinder of copper or gun metal, were also introduced, and continued in use for a considerable time.Wood.Guns also appear to have been made of wood.
Rope mortar at Venice.
In the arsenal at Venice there is an ancient mortar, constructed of leather and rope, used in the siege of the island of Chioggia, near Venice, against the Genoese, 1380. The shot is of stone, 14in. in diameter.
Cannon of paper.
It has been heard recently, that the Chinese constructed their cannon of prepared paper, lined with copper.
Field cannon to keep up with army, 1380.
As early as 1380 it is said the French were able to procure for the invasion of Italy, a great number of brass cannon, mounted on carriages, and drawn by horses, instead of oxen; these pieces threw balls of from 40lbs. to 60lbs. in weight and could always keep pace with the army. (Plate 18, fig. 1, 3, and 4.)
Large cannon 1400.
A cannon taken at the siege of Dien in 1546, by John de Castro, and now in Lisbon, is 20 feet 7in. in length, 6 feet 3in. in diameter in the middle, and threw a ball of 100lbs. A Hindostani inscription on it states that it was cast in 1400.
Bolts and quarrels shot, 1413.
Bolts and quarrels were shot from cannon in the reign of Henry V.; these were succeeded by stones, as he ordered in 1418, “labourers to make 7,000 stones for the guns of different sorts from the quarries of Maidstone.”Red-hot iron balls used at Cherbourg, 1418.We learn from Elam’s life of Henry V., that when an English army, commanded by the Duke of Gloucester, besieged Cherbourg in 1418, the besieged dischargedred-hotballs ofironfrom their cannon into the English camp, to burn the huts.Slow to discharge.So much time elapsed between the loading and discharging the great guns, that the besieged had sufficient time to repair at their leisure, the breaches made by the enormous stones, &c., thrown from them.
Cannon at Meaux, 1422.
Five wrought-iron bombards are preserved in the “Musée de l’Artillerie,” at Paris; which were, it is said, abandoned by the English, at the town of Meaux, in 1422.
Cannon cast, 1450.
About the middle of the fifteenth century, the ancient method of constructing cannon was exchanged for that of casting. A hard or mixed metal was invented called “font metal” or bronze, and cannon were then cast in one piece, and instead of fanciful names, they began to be indicated by the weight of their ball, as at present.
Siege of Constantinople, 1453.
At the siege of Constantinople, by Mahomet II., stones were thrown weighing 1,200lbs.! The cannon employed could not be discharged more than three or four times a day. This siege was distinguished by the re-union of ancient and modern artillery;Small guns with several barrels.the small arms of the Christians discharged five, or even ten balls at the same time, as large as walnuts; and one piece made for the Turks, by Urban, a Dane, cast a stone bullet weighing 600lbs., which could be discharged seven times a day, but it ultimately burst.Large brass gun, cast at Adrianople.This gun was cast of brass at Adrianople, of stupendous and almost incredible magnitude; twelve palms is assigned to the bore. A vacant space before the palace was chosen for the first experiment, but to prevent the sudden and mischievous effects of astonishment and fear, a proclamation was issued that the cannon would be discharged on the following day. The explosion was felt or heard in a circuit of 100 furlongs, the ball was driven above a mile and buried itself a fathom in the ground. A carriage of thirty waggons was linked together to carry the gun along, and drawn by a team of sixty oxen; 200 men on both sides were stationed to poise or sustain the rolling weight, 250 workmen marched before it to smooth the way, and repair the bridges, and near two months were employed in a laborious journey of 150 miles. This enormous gun was flanked by two of almost equal magnitude, and fourteen batteries, mounting 130 guns, were brought to bear upon the place. The cannon were intermingled with machines for throwing stones and darts.
Artillery of Scots 1496.
The Scots had a kind of artillery peculiar to themselves, called “Carts of War.” They are described in an Act of Parliament, thus “ilk Cart twa gunnis and ilk ane to have twa Chalmers and an Cumrand man to shute theme.”Breech-loaders.These were breech-loaders, and in 1471, the Barons were commanded to provide such “Carts of War” against their old enemies the English. (Plate 18, fig. 1.)
Cannon named.
It was not uncommon to give strange names to early cannon; thus Louis XII. had twelve brass ones cast in 1503, of enormous size, which he named after the twelve Peers of France; the Spaniards and Portugese christened theirs after their Saints, and the Emperor Charles V. had twelve when he went against Tunis, which he named after the Twelve Apostles.
Cause of improvements.
As a knowledge of the art of gunnery increased, great improvements took place with regard to projectiles;Iron balls in England, 15th century.and balls of iron were substituted in the place of those formed of stone, being introduced into England in the sixteenth century.
Iron guns cast.
Iron guns were not cast in this country until the year 1547, foreigners being generally employed to manufacture them. Both Henry VII. and Henry VIII. took great pains to introduce the art of gunnery into the kingdom; and to this end, had a number of Flemish gunners in their daily pay; in fact, it is said, that the latter monarch himself, invented small pieces of artillery to defend his waggons.Hand-culverines.The earlier species of field artillery, embraced among others, a small kind of ordnance called, “hand cannon,” or culverins, which were so light and portable, that they could be carried and served by two men; they were fired from a rest, placed on the ground;Organ-guns.also “ribandequins” or organ guns; these latter consisted of a number of tubes, placed in a row, like those of an organ, and appear to have been of French origin, as were many of the improvements which took place about that period, including the invention of wall pieces, throwing leaden balls of ten to the pound.
Mortars, Henry VIII.
For mortars we are indebted to workmen of Henry VIII. as “one Peter Bawd and one Peter Vancollen, both the king’s feed men, devised and caused to be made certain mortar pieces, being at the mouth from eleven to nineteen inches wide,Shells.and also certain hollow shot of cast iron, to be stuffed with fire-work or wild-fire, for to break in pieces the same hollow shot.”Varieties of cannon.And in the first year of Edward VI. the said Peter Bawd did make ordnance of iron of divers forms, as fawconet, fawkons, minions, sakers, &c. His servant, J. Johnson, did like make and cast iron ordnance cleaner and to better perfection, to the great use of this land. His son Thomas Johnson, in 1593, made forty two cast pieces of great ordnance for the Earl of Cumberland, demi cannon, weighing 5,000lbs. or three tons the piece.Queen Elizabeth’s Pocket-pistol.At Dover there is a culverine, presented to Queen Elizabeth, by the States General of Holland, and called Queen Elizabeth’s Pocket-pistol. It is 24 feet long, diameter of bore 41⁄2inches, weight of shot 12lbs.; it was manufactured in 1544, and is mounted on an ornamented iron carriage made in 1827, at the Royal Carriage Department, Woolwich Arsenal. (Plate 17, fig. 2.)
Mons Meg.
There is a large gun at Edinburgh Castle, called Mons Meg; it measures about 13 feet 4 inches in length, the diameter of the bore is about 1 foot 6 inches; it has a chamber about 4 feet long and 6 inches in diameter. (Plate 17, fig. 3.)
Field-guns, 1554.
The battle of Remi, in 1554, was the first action in which light field guns, having limbers, were used,—these guns accompanied the cavalry.
Red-hot shot, 1580.
Pere Daniel says that red-hot iron shot were used by Marshal Matignan, during the siege of la Fère, in 1580.
Calibre, time of Queen Elizabeth.
In a table of ordnance, given by Fosbrooke, as being a list of the guns used in the time of Elizabeth, and immediately preceding her, we find how little the calibres of iron guns have altered during the last two or three centuries, as these guns have all their antitypes among those of the present day.
The beginning of the seventeenth century was an important epoch in the history of artillery; and much attention was given to this branch of the military profession, by Henry IV., of France, Maurice, of Nassau, and Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden.Origin of canister and grape.The former of these distinguished leaders, introduced new and improved forms and kinds of missiles; such as tin cases, filled with steel bolts or darts; canvas cartridges, containing small balls, and hollow shot or shells, filled with combustible materials.Improved mode of loading, by Gustavus Adolphus.Gustavus Adolphus, introduced really serviceable field guns, of a lighter construction than had hitherto been made use of, and he also adopted the use of cartridges, with shot attached, so that these pieces might be discharged eight times before the musket could be fired six. It is said that he chiefly owed his victory at Leipzig, in 1631, to guns made of leather and coiled rope, over a cylinder of copper or gun metal. On the whole, the artillery of Gustavus was admirably organized; and he was the first who appreciated the importance of causing artillery to act in concentrated masses, a principle, now so fully recognized by all artillerists.
Bombs at sea.
Bombs were first used at sea, by the French, in the bombardment of Algiers, Oct. 28th, 1681, in the reign of Louis XIV.
The largest gun.
One of the largest cannon now existing is a brass one at Bejapoor, called “Moolik-i-Meidan,” or “The Lord of the Plain.” It was cast in commemoration of the capture of that place by the Emperor Alum Geer, in 1685. Its length is 14ft. 1in., diameter about 5ft. 8in., diameter of bore, 2ft. 4in., interior length of bore, 10ft.; length of chamber unknown; shape of gun nearly “cylindrical;” description of shot,stone. An iron shot for this gun, of proper size, would weigh 1600lbs. It is now lying in a dilapidated circular bastion on the left of the principal gateway of the city. The trunnions are broken off, and there is a ring on each side of it, as well as two Persian inscriptions on the top. It is placed on three heavy beams of wood, packed round with large stones. A number ofstoneshot, of 2ft. 2in. in diameter, are scattered about. This gun is said to be the heaviest piece of ordnance in the world. It weighs about forty-two tons. An Italian of Otranto, who served in the Mogul armies under the title of Renni Khan, had it in his park of artillery, and used it at several battles, occasionally firing sacks of copper coins out of it. (Plate 18, fig. 2.)
Gun at Moorshedabad.
There is a remarkable gun near the palace of the Nawab of Moorshedabad, which measures 17ft. 8in. in length, 5ft. in circumference at the smallest part near the muzzle, while it is only 6in. in the diameter of the bore, and the foresight is at least four or five inches above the muzzle. After the battle of Khallissie, which was fought about 25 miles from here, it is supposed to have been buried under a tree. The tree, having grown since then, has forced the gun above the ground about three feet, where it now remains, partly encircled by the roots and trunk. It has no name;the natives call it “the gun in the tree.” It is made of cast iron, and is evidently of Indian manufacture, having Hindostanee inscriptions engraved on it, but no date.
Size and expense of cannon, 1688.
Bishop Wilkins says, “These Gunpowder instruments are extremely expensive, as a whole cannon commonly weighs 8000lbs., requiring 90 men, or 16 horses, with a charge of 40lbs. of powder, and a ball weighing 64lbs”.
Length and weight gradually reduced.
The length and diameter of cannon became gradually much reduced, experience having determined how much they might be diminished in weight without injury to their safety, or to the effects they were intended to produce.
Horse artillery by Frederick the Great.
Frederick the Great of Prussia made some improvements with regard to the calibre of field guns, and to him may be given the credit of the introduction of Horse Artillery.
Guns bored.
Guns, at this period, were cast hollow by means of a core, which was kept suspended in the centre of the mould, while the metal was being run in. Owing, however, to the great difficulty experienced in keeping this core in a perfectly true position, several artillerists deliberated whether guns, cast hollow or solid, had the preference, and investigations took place as to the possibility of boring the latter, the result of which was, that Maritz, who had a foundry at Geneva, informed the Court of France, in 1739, that he had discovered a method of boring guns and mortars which had been cast solid. He was at once invited to France, where, first at Lyons, and afterwards at Strasbourg, he secretly worked at boring pieces of ordnance, which, on trial, proved perfectly satisfactory.
Guns of ice.
In the year 1740, a curious experiment in artillery was made at St. Petersburgh, where guns were cut out of solid ice, from which balls of the same substance were fired repeatedly, without bursting.
Improvements.
From this period, the science of artillery progressed rapidly, and various improvements were made in this arm of the service,Axle-trees.such as the introduction of iron axle-trees,High limbers.and high limbers for the carriages of field guns.Reduction of windage.The reduction of windage, (mainly owing to the invention of carronades), and the use of cartridges and elevating screws, which latter served to render the fire of artillery much more rapid and regular.
The invention of rifled ordnance is claimed by a Dr. Lind and a Capt. A. Blair, late 69th regt.Rifled ordnance 1774.Experiments were made at Landguard Fort, 26th August, 1774, by which it was intended to prove that shot weighing 42lbs., in the shape of a pear, would do as much execution, fired out of an 18 pounder, with a third of the quantity of powder, as could be effected by round balls of the same weight, fired from a 42 pounder.
Perforated and fluted shot.
Sundry trials were also made with shot perforated through the centre, and spirally fluted on the surface, suggested by Professor Anderson, of Glasgow, in order to prevent the common aberration in the flight of shot.
Leaden projectiles.
There were different modes of charging the rifled guns; one was, after the powder was put in, to take a leaden bullet something larger than the bore of the gun, and grease it well; in ramming it down with an iron rammer hollow at one end, the spiral threads of the rifle entered and cut into the bullet, and caused it to turn roundin going down, and on being shot out, it would rotate on an axis coincident with its flight.Breech-loading Rifled cannon.Another mode was to charge them at the breech, where an opening for the reception of the powder and ball was afterwards closed up by a screw; but some barrels were screwed off at the breech-end to be charged, where they were made stronger than common.
Congreve’s rockets.
The adaptation of the rocket to the purposes of war, by Sir William Congreve, in 1806, introduced a new feature into the artillery of this and other countries.
Mr. Monk’s improvements.
Recently, at the suggestion of a Mr. Monk, of Woolwich Arsenal, a quantity of useless metal has been removed from before the trunnions, and the thickness increased considerably at the breech end, where alone it was wanted.
Mallet’s monster mortar.
The monster mortars recently constructed by Mr. Mallet, of separate compound hoops, must be regarded as a triumph of constructive skill. The shell is 30 inches in diameter, holding a bursting charge of 480 lbs., and weighing when charged 11⁄2tons (3,360 lbs.). Value of shell charged, £25. Weight, without bed, 42 tons. Weight of bed, 8 tons. Total, 50 tons.
Cavalli’s and Wahrendorff’s
In 1846, two rifled cannon were invented, one by Major Cavalli, of the Sardinian Artillery; and the other by Baron Wahrendorff, a Swedish nobleman. Both of these were iron breech-loading guns, having two grooves in order to give the requisite rifle motion to their projectiles.
Experiments to test.
Experiments were carried on at Shoeburyness, in 1850, with these guns. The deviations were always in the direction of the rotation of the projectiles; but they were so variable in amount that no allowance could be made for them in laying the gun with respect to the object. The Cavalli gun became unserviceable after having fired four rounds, by the copper ring or bouche imbedded in the metal of the gun at the bottom of the bore being damaged. The Wahrendorff gun stood well, the wedge resisting more effectually the force of the discharge than that of the Cavalli gun.
Lancaster’s rifle gun.
Mr. Lancaster’s novel invention of applying the rifle principle to cannon, may be described as “a two-grooved rifle in disguise,” having a “gaining twist,” the bore being an ellipse.
Defects of.
The chief defect in the Lancaster gun is the liability of the projectile to jam in the bore, both in loading and firing, the former rendering the loading difficult, while the latter endangers the safety of the gun. In consequence of several of these guns bursting, and also from the anticipated large range with great precision not being obtained from them, the Lancaster guns were removed from the service after the Crimean war.
Sir W. Armstrong.
Sir W. Armstrong submitted a proposal for his breech-loading gun to the Duke of Newcastle, then Minister at War, towards the end of 1854; his proposal being accepted, and a gun accordingly constructed, it was submitted to numerous trials, both at Shoeburyness, and near Sir W. Armstrong’s private factory at Newcastle. This gun is now made entirely of wrought iron, although the original one had a steel bore. It is a built-up gun, that is to say, it is composed of separate pieces, each piece being of such moderate size as to admit of being forged without risk of flaw or failure. By this mode of construction, great strength, and consequently, great lightness,are secured. The shell used combines the principle of the shrapnel and percussion shell, i.e., it may be made to explode either as it approaches the object, or as it strikes it. Moreover, it may be made to explode at the instant of leaving the gun, in which case, the pieces spread out like a fan, and produce the usual effect of grape or canister. Armstrong’s guns are now (1860) being employed in China.
Whitworth.
Mr. Whitworth’s rifled gun, with which experiments were lately made near Liverpool, is also a breech-loading piece, and of the following construction. The form of the bore is that of a hexagonal spiral, the corners of which are rounded off. The inclination of the spiral varies with the diameter of the bore, but is in all these guns very great, the projectiles being comparatively long.
French rifled ordnance.
Rifled ordnance were introduced into the French service just previous to the commencement of the late Italian war of 1859, and aiming at the greatest practical simplicity, the French government adopted only one nature of gun for field service, and one for siege purposes, both made of bronze. The French rifled cannon are muzzle loading, and those first introduced had two or three grooves, but the field pieces used in Italy had six grooves, their inclination being about one turn in 59 inches. A number of heavy cast-iron guns are rifled with two grooves, and have been placed on board French ships of war; and these, unless strengthened, could be used but with very small charges.
Advantages of rifled guns.
The advantages obtained by the successful employment of rifledguns—
Classification of artillery.
Artillery may be classed under the several heads of field artillery (including artillery of position), siege artillery and artillery for the armament of garrisons, fortresses, and coast defences; its equipment is a combination of men, materiel, and horses necessary for these services.
Three kinds of guns.
All ordnance employed in the service, may be divided into three classes, viz., Guns, Mortars, and Howitzers.
Carronades discontinued.
Carronades may be considered obsolete, although a certain number are still supplied to the navy, and a few will be found mounted in some garrisons and coast batteries.
Classification of guns and their uses.
Guns are used for projecting shot and shell, horizontally or at very low angles, and as they are fired with large charges of powder, which are fixed for each nature of gun, very great strength and considerable weight are required in their construction. Guns are of two kinds, viz., (solid) shot guns, and shell guns. Some guns are also classed as heavy, medium, and light. Those generally employed for field service, are made of bronze or gun-metal; all guns of higher calibre, of cast-iron.
Mortars.
Mortars are short pieces of ordnance, used to throw shells at high angles (vertical fire), generally 45°, the charge varying with the range required; they are distinguishedby the diameters of their bores. Mortars are made of cast-iron or bronze; the former being principally intended for garrisons, battering trains, the navy, &c., and the latter, which are of small calibre, and very light, are chiefly employed in sieges.
Howitzers.
Howitzers resemble guns in form, but are much shorter and lighter in proportion to their calibre, and are, consequently, fired with less charges of powder; shells and case are fired from them, but not solid shot.
Use of Howitzers.
These pieces were originally introduced for the purpose of firing shells at low angles, and have constantly been found most useful both in the field and in siege operations during the wars of the last and present centuries.Superseded by shell guns.Since, however, the introduction of shell guns their utility has greatly decreased, for the shell gun possesses greater accuracy and range than the howitzer, those being in the present day of greater importance than small weight.
Artillery from the East.
The Germans claim the invention of cannon for their countryman, Bartholdus Schwartz, who is said to have discovered it in 1336, but seeing that fire-arms first became prevalent in Europe in those countries which mixed with the Saracens, we are constrained to lean to the opinion that fire-arms were not re-invented in Europe, but introduced from the East.
This part of our subject might be much enlarged, but we have merely attempted to give heads of information, which can be pursued by those who desire to do so. We must now leave it, in order to treat upon that more immediately interesting to officers of infantry, viz., the history of portable fire-arms.