It is easy to explain the musical accomplishments. The tones which were played for the horse, were known to Mr. von Osten, since he himself played the harmonica, or when someone else played it, he, Mr. von Osten, could see the stoppers. He then thought of the numberwhich indicated the tone in question, and Hans would tap it. Thus arose the tale of the horse's absolute tonal memory. This tale gained much support at the time, from an experience which has been recounted to me by the well-known composer, Professor Max Schillings. It shows more clearly than any other report how very confused were the threads that had been spun in the whole matter. In order to test the horse's musical ability Prof. Schillings played, let us say, three tones upon the accustomed instrument. Complying with Mr. von Osten's wish, Prof. Schillings always indicated which three he was about to play. The horse always tapped them correctly. In order to make a decisive test, Prof. Schillings then played, without anyone's knowledge, a note that was in reality a third below the one he had indicated to Mr. von Osten. Curiously enough, Hans tapped, as a matter of fact, the number indicating the note that was actually struck, and it was only in the third repetition and after many exhortations on the part of the master "to have a care", that the horse finally tapped the number indicating the note Mr. von Osten had in mind and which in truth was the wrong one. This curious experiment seemed to those to whom Professor Schillings communicated it, to yield conclusive evidence of the horse's absolute hearing. As a matter of fact, however, Prof. Schillings had unwittingly, and, contrary to any intention on his part, inspired the horse. Standing, as he did, just behind the right shoulder of the horse, he was able to interrupt Hans (who had begun to tap in response to a move on the part of Mr. von Osten,) by means of an involuntary movement which did the work of a closing signal. At the same time Mr. von Osten, likewise standing to the right of the horse and expecting more taps,remained perfectly quiet. (This is as it was in the tests, mentioned onpage 71, in which, of two experimenters, one started the horse tapping, and the other stopped him.) Mr. von Osten very probably lost patience after Hans had seemingly given the wrong response twice, and thereupon came nearer to the horse and thus by monopolizing its attention—so as to exclude Prof. Schillings—he was able to get the response so ardently desired.[AF]When, in tests such as these, two stopperswere opened and thus two notes sounded, Mr. von Osten would count the number of stoppers intervening between the two, and Hans would tap the number. And so arose the tale of Hans's knowledge of musical intervals. Whenever the two notes were sung or whistled, in which case there would be no stoppers that could be counted, then Mr. von Osten, who was quite destitute of musical knowledge, was at a loss, and also Hans. If, however, the intervening notes were sung, then everything went smoothly once more. Major and minor chords were regularly characterized as "beautiful", all others as "bad", (but even here errors occurred). A musician had taught Mr. von Osten these distinctions. The old man also knew the melodies that were played on the hand-organ. Each one had a number assigned to it, and Hans was required to tap the number of the melody in token of recognition.—Hans was as ignorant of musical time, as he was of melody, and all attempts to get him to march in regular step were utterly futile. A number of musical tests were made in the absence of Mr. von Osten. In these Mr. Hahn undertook the questioner's rôle, andsince he had had musical training, he was aware of what the numbers should be, even when he could not see the stoppers of the harmonica, and, therefore, we readily understand why it was that the horse responded so wonderfully in his case.
The so-called musical ability of horses appears, from all that is known, to be confined within very narrow bounds. Only one fact is universally accepted, viz., horses of the military are believed to possess a knowledge of the significance of trumpet signals, and are often said to interpret them more readily than the recruits.[81]Since no experiments had been made along these lines, I undertook to make a brief test of the cavalry horses mentioned onpage 188. As in the preceding tests, the three animals were arranged behind one another with the customary distance of two horses' lengths between, and each was ridden by his accustomed rider. They were held by the reins, but received no aid of any kind, either to start them or to restrain them. A bugle then sounded the various signals at the other end of the barrack's courtyard. We had been previously assured that the horses would certainly react without fail. But, as a matter of fact, the result was quite the contrary. Two of the horses did not move at all, and the third, a thirteen-year old gelding, was startled nearly every time and would tear off in a gallop—even though a trot had been sounded. I would not, however, venture to draw any conclusions from results such as these. Many more tests would have to be made, and some of them upon the whole squadron, before a judgment could be given.[AG]
I shall now turn to peculiarities of character, highly humanized, which have been attributed to Hans. His "sympathies" and "antipathies", so-called, were nothing but erroneous appellations for the success or failure on the part of the respective individuals to elicit responses. He who could procure answers frequently, apparently stood high in the horse's favor. That Hans shook his head violently when asked by Mr. von Osten: "Do you like Mr. Stumpf?", and answered in the affirmative the further question: "Do you like Mr. Busch?", was nothing but a confession—unwilling, to be sure—on the part of the master himself. In the first case the master thought "no", in the second instance, "yes", and thetwo thoughts were accompanied by the corresponding head movements, to which Hans responded mechanically. Hans appeared to be well-disposed toward me, but evidently because I always rewarded him liberally when he answered correctly, and I did not scold him when his responses were wrong, as did Mr. von Osten and Mr. Schillings, who instead of seeking the cause within themselves, were always ready to rebuke Hans for his contrariety and fickleness. The horse did not show, in so far as can be judged at all, any real affection for his master. On the other hand it would be unwarranted to say that, in spite of all rewards, he developed a grudge against all those who bothered him with instruction and examination. Shortly after the close of our experimentation it happened that Hans severely injured his groom by a blow in the face. Yet this man had always been very gentle with the horse and had been forbidden by Mr. von Osten to make Hans solve any problems for him. Experts assure me that we have here to deal, not with a case of "moral insanity", but with a very common experience,—although this view will probably be cavilled at by enthusiastic lovers of horses. The work of so excellent an expert as Fillis,[92]for instance, bears us out in this respect.
The horse's supposed fickleness was nothing but a token of the fact that even those who were accustomed to working with him, did not have him completely in hand. (They simply did not understand how to obtain correct responses from the horse.) It often happened that in the evening, when it had become so dark that the movements of Mr. von Osten could no longer be seen, Hans had to suffer bitter reproaches because he made so many errors. That, in truth, he never was stubborn and that the cause of failure really lay in the questioner, is shown by the fact that the mood, for which he was reproved, would disappear the moment the questioner voluntarily controlled the signals. We may add that there was no basis for the assumption that "he had an uncommon, finely constituted nervous system" or was possessed of a "high degree of nervousness". Both these phrases were often mentioned by way of explanation. Hans was restive, as horses usually are. And besides, he lived a life so secluded (he was never allowed to leave the courtyard) that as a result he was easily disturbed by strange sights and sounds. There was not the slightest trace of the clinical symptoms of neurasthenia—on the contrary he gave the impressionof perfect health,—which was curious enough when we remember his rather unnatural mode of life.
Hans's stubbornness was a myth. He was suspected of it whenever the same error occurred a number of times in succession, i. e., when the questioner did not properly regulate his attention (page 146) or when he was being controlled by "perseverative tendency", mentioned onpage 149. Mr. Schillings, who has provided me with material here as elsewhere, relates the following episode which occurred on one such occasion. To one and the same question put alternately by Mr. von Osten and Mr. Schillings, Hans responded correctly, with two taps, to the former, and just as persistently incorrectly, with three taps, to the latter. After Mr. Schillings had suffered this to occur three times he accosted the horse peremptorily: "And now are you going to answer correctly?". Hereupon Hans promptly shook his head, to the great merriment of all those present. (Mr. Schillings had, with no accounted reason, expected a "no".) Hans was called willful whenever the same question was successively answered by different responses, as frequently happened with the increasing tension that characterized the high numbers (page 145). He was also regarded as stubborn when no reply at all was forthcoming, as in the tests with the blinders.
Hans's supposed distrust of the questioner, when the latter did not know the answer to the problem, is nothing but a poor attempt to account for the failure of those tests. Hans's distrust of the correctness of his own responses was supposed to be evident from his tendency to begin to tap once more if, after the completion of a task, the questioner did not immediately give expression tosome form of approval or disapproval—just as a schoolboy begins to doubt his answer if the teacher remains silent for a short time. In terms of the results of our experimentation this would mean that whenever the questioner did not resume the erect posture, after Hans had given the final tap with the left foot, then the horse would immediately begin once more to tap with the other foot (page 61).
As the evil characteristics, so, too, the good. Thus, his precipitancy, which was supposedly evidenced by his beginning to tap before the questioner had enunciated the question, was nothing but a reflection of the questioner's own precipitancy in bending forward (page 57). Never did Hans evince the slightest trace of spontaneity. He never spelled, of his own accord, anything like "Hans is hungry," for instance. He was rather like a machine that must be started and kept going by a certain amount of fuel (in the form of bread and carrots). The desire for food did not have to be operative in every case. The tapping might ensue mechanically as a matter of habit—for horses are to a large extent creatures of habit. This lack of spontaneity could hardly be reconciled with the horse's reputation for cleverness. It would not be necessary to touch upon the signs that were supposed to betoken genius: the intelligent eye, the high forehead, the carriage of the head, which clearly showed that "a real thought process was going on inside",—all these, we said, would not need mentioning, if they had not been taken seriously by sober-minded folk. If there is a report that Hans turned appreciatively toward visitors who made some remark in praise of his accomplishments,—it is evidence only of the observer's imaginativeness.
Turning from a consideration of the horse to that ofthe persons experimenting with him,[AH]the first and most important question that arises is this: How was it possible that so many persons (there were about forty) wereable to receive responses from the horse, and many of them on the very first occasion? The answer is not hard to find. All of these persons came to the horse in very much the same frame of mind—which found a similar expression in all, in both posture and movements. And it was these motor expressions of the questioner (aside from the signs for "yes" and "no", which I believe I have adequately explained onpage 98), that the horse needed as stimuli for his activity.
The next question that arises is: why did only a few persons receive responses regularly from Hans, whereas the greater number were favored only occasionally? What was the selective principle involved? The answer is, that the successful person had to belong to a certain type, which embodied the following essential characteristics.
1. A certain measure of ability and tact in dealing with the horse. As in the case of dealing with wild animals, such as the lion, etc., Hans must not be made uneasy by timidity in the questioner, but must be approached with an air of quiet authority.
2. The power of intense concentration, whether in expectation of a certain sensory impression (the final tap), or in fixing attention upon some idea-content ("yes", "no", etc.). It is only when expectancy and volition are very forceful, that a sufficient release of tension can ensue. This release of tension is accompanied by a change in innervation and results in a perceptible movement. And it was only when the thought of "yes", or "up", etc., was very vivid, that the nervous energy would spread to the motor areas and thence to the efferent fibers, and thus result in the head-movement of the questioner.From infancy we are trained to keep all of our voluntary muscles under a certain measure of control. During the state of concentration just described, this control is relaxed, and our whole musculature becomes the instrument for the play of non-voluntary impulses. The stronger the customary control, the stronger must the stimuli be which can overcome it. The steady unremitting fixation, which resulted in the horse's selection of the cloths, also involves a high degree of concentration.
3. Facility of motor discharge. Great concentration was necessary of course, but not sufficient. Persons in whom the flow of nervous energy tended to drain off over the nerves leading to the glands and the vascular system might betray great tension, not so much by movements as by a flow of perspiration (we have many excellent examples of this given by Manouvrier)[93]or by a violent beating of the heart, blushing and the like,—in short, by secretory and vasomotor effects. Or it is not inconceivable that long dealing with very abstract thoughts might have weakened the tendency of overflow to other parts of the brain, and that therefore the entire discharge is used up in those portions of the brain which are the basis of the intellectual processes. But if expressive movements occur, the motor pathways must be particularly unresisting in order to take up the overflow of psychophysic energy. This is the necessary condition for obtaining the tapping and the head movements on the part of the horse, although for the tapping there is still one other circumstance necessary: viz.,
4. The power to distribute tension economically—i. e., the ability to sustain it long enough, and to release it at the right moment (after the manner of the curves described onpage 93), and to control properly the unavoidable variations which will occur.[AI]
The experience of a number of practical men, who have had much to do with horses and yet achieved butvery modest success with Hans, goes to show that it is not always the lack of sufficient authoritativeness, mentioned under heading 1 that is the sole cause of failure, as has been claimed so often. That the horse was, to a certain degree, influenced by this element of authority is shown, however, by the following incident. A certain gentleman, when alone in the courtyard with Hans, received responses only so long as I (concealed in the barn) kept the barn-door open just a little, so that my presence could be known to the horse. As soon as I closed the door, Hans refused to respond to the gentleman. Those who possessed sufficient power of concentration and the requisite motor tendency—the two characteristics mentioned under 1 and 2 above,—were able to obtain responses from the horse without any previous practice. Practice merely effected a more economic distribution of attention, so that the larger numbers especially were more successful as a result (pages68and89). Those who were lacking in either of the characteristics mentioned under 2 and 3 would not be aided even by the greatest amount of practice, as is shown by the case mentioned inSupplement III (page 255).—That many individuals were at first successful but were later unable to get any successful responses, is to be accounted for by the fact that the power of concentration, at first present, later rapidly disappeared. This temporary increase in the power of doing mental work was first investigated experimentally by Rivers and Kraepelin,[95]and was called by them "Antrieb" and aptly likened to the first pull of a team of horses in starting off. This, too, explains an experience which befell a number of the horse's visitors, who later described it to me. Wishing to utilize a momentary absence of Mr. von Osten, they excitedly put a hasty question to Hans, and with amazing regularity received correct responses.—Besides Mr. von Osten, Mr. Schillings and myself, not many were always able to induce Hans to bring the colored cloths or to execute the head movements. It was easy, on the other hand, to get him to nod. Therefore there was some truth in Mr. vonOsten's assertion, that Hans would be unable to answer a difficult question if he had not previously indicated by means of a nod that he had grasped its import. Those who were not concentrating sufficiently, would not look into Hans's face, when he was expected to nod, and would not bend over, when Hans ought to begin tapping—such persons could not, therefore, since they did not induce Hans to nod, elicit the tapping. I, myself saw the "no" successfully elicited only in the case of Mr. von Osten, Mr. Schillings and Mr. Hahn; the "right" and "left" only in the case of the former two. It must remain uncertain whether this failure on the part of otherwise suitable persons to elicit the responses for "right" and "left" was due to their accompanying these ideas by movements of the eyes instead of by movements of thehead, (page 106). For unfortunately it was not possible to make special tests to discover whether Hans reacted to isolated eye movements. There is, however, more than one reason why I would doubt this. Taken all in all, there were but few persons who were entirely representative of the type described (c. f.page 31)—they were those who are commonly characterized as being of a lively temperament and strongly impulsive. Thus Hans acquired a reputation for "Einkennigkeit", that is, he would accustom himself only to certain persons. Such a reputation was hard to reconcile with his much praised intelligence.
In closing, just a word on the influence of the public that was present. As was shown onpage 69, the public in general did not influence the horse in his reactions. The effect upon the questioner, however, was unmistakable, and worked in a twofold manner. On the one hand the questioner's zeal was increased and with it the tension of concentration. On the other hand, it introduced an element of diversion, and attention was divided between the horse and the spectators, and thus concentration suffered. If the disturbing effect was slight, as in the case of Mr. von Osten, then the favorable influence exercised by the presence of the public outweighed the unfavorable. Mr. von Osten was, for that reason, often particularly successful when working in the presence of a large body of spectators. This was noted by many and was ascribed to the ambition of the horse. When, however, a person was easily diverted, as was Mr. Schillings, then the presence of the public had a less fortunate effect.
This, then, completes my explanation of the facts gleaned from observation and experimentation. It accomplishes all, I hope, that may be expected of an explanation. All the known achievements of the horse, all the successes and failures of the questioner, have been reduced to a single principle; no secondary hypothesis has been invoked, and but slight place has been given to the element of chance. Nevertheless, it may not be out of place to forestall two objections which might possibly be raised. First, some may assert that it was through our experimentation that the horse became mechanized and incapacitated as regards conceptual thinking; that formerly he really could solve arithmetical problems, and only later developed the very bad habit of depending upon the signs which I gave him. This objection is to be refuted in that I did not originate these signs, but first noted them in Mr. von Osten, himself, and in that Hans still works as faithfully as ever for Mr. von Osten. I have learned from many trustworthy witnesses that the horse still continues to give brilliant exhibitions of his "ability". If, on the other hand, anyone should assert that it was only with us that Hans reacted to movements, but that with his master he really thought and still thinks, then I must ask for proof. This latter argument is by no means very original. When Faraday in 1853 proved experimentally that "table-rapping" is the result of involuntary movements on the part of the participants standing about the table, the spiritualists asserted that his experiments had nothing in common with their own proceedings, because his subjects (who by the way, had been up to that time firm believers in table-rapping) probably did move the table, they said, while they (the spiritualists) do no such thing.[96]
FOOTNOTES:[T]Professor Shaler[24], a well-known American savant, mentions a three-year old pig belonging to a Virginian farmer, that was able to read and had some understanding of language. From numerals which were written upon cards and spread out before it, this pig could compose dates. It could also select from among certain cards one upon which was written a given name, asked for by the master. Supposedly no signs of any kind were given. (Shaler thought to exclude effectively the sense of smell, which is so highly developed in the pig, in that he, Shaler, himself smelled at the cards, since he also "possessed an acute olfactory sense!") Since we are told that the farmer in question made a business of supplying trained pigs for exhibition purposes, the case appears suspicious. We hear of a pig exhibited in London, that was able to read and spell, and could also tell the time by the watch[25]. We cannot tell, however, whether the two pigs, which beyond a doubt were mechanically trained to respond to signals, are identical or not.[U]It has been scientifically proven that a number of supposed mystical phenomena, table-moving, table-rapping, and divination by means of the rod, all are the result of involuntary movements made unawares by those concerned, just as in the case of this work with Hans. (We must of course except those not infrequent instances in which the phenomena in question are purposely and fraudulently simulated.) There is this difference, however, that there the thing affected is a lifeless object,—the table or the rod,—here it is a living organism, the horse; hence there the immediate effect of the movement is physical work in the form of energy expended in moving the table, here the movement becomes a visual stimulus. A number of observations which I find in the relevant literature, and which I shall introduce into this chapter, may serve to show how close is the similarity between the two cases, how much depends upon the questioner, and how little really upon the instrument—whether table or horse—which is acted upon.Two examples will suffice to illustrate the significance of belief and of the concentrated attention that results from it. The first is taken from the letters of Father P. Lebrun on the divining rod[26], which appeared in 1696. An old woman once told a treasure-seeker that she had always heard that a treasure was buried at a certain place in the fields. The man, who was known as an expert in the art of using the divining rod, immediately set out to locate the gold. Lo, and behold, the moment he set foot on the spot described by the old woman, the branch turns downward, and from its movements the man gathers that twelve feet below ground there lies buried some copper, silver and gold. He calls a peasant to dig a pit eleven feet deep, then he sends him away so that no other should get into the secret. He himself digs a foot deeper, but all in vain, for he finds nothing. Standing in the pit, he again takes up the branch. Again it moves, but this time it points upward, as if to indicate that the treasure had disappeared from the earth. Dismayed, he climbs out of the pit and questions the branch a third time. This time it points downward once more. He climbs back into the pit. Presently he feels the prick of conscience (for in the 17th century many regarded the dipping of the divining rod as the work of the Devil). Terrified, he exclaims: "O God, if the thing I am doing here is wrong, then I renounce the Evil One and his rod (s'il y a du mal, je renonce au démon et à labaguette)". Having spoken, he once more takes the rod in hand to test it. It does not move. Horrified, for now there was no longer any doubt that Satan was the cause of its movements, the man makes the sign of the cross and runs away. But he had hardly gone more than two or three hundred paces when the thought strikes him: Is it really true that the branch will no longer move for him? He throws a coin to the ground, cuts a branch from a bush nearby, and is overjoyed when he notes how it dips down toward the money.Another example is to be found in a report of the well-known physicist, Ritter[27], of Munich, which appeared during the early part of the 19th century. Ritter, a man with a bent for natural philosophy and metaphysics, describes an instrument which was to replace the divining rod, and which he called "balancier." It was simple enough, consisting of a metal strip that was balanced horizontally upon a pivot, and was supposed to be put into motion in the presence of metals. Ritter used this instrument in his numerous experiments with the Italian Campetti, a man who had achieved a measure of fame in Europe for his ability to discover springs and metals by the use of the divining rod. Carrying the "balancier" on the tip of the middle finger of his left hand, Campetti—whose integrity one cannot cavil at—had to touch repeatedly a plate of zinc or pewter, and had to count aloud the number of touches he made. The following curious law was found to obtain (that was probably suggested to the subject by Ritter without his being aware of it): with the first contact the "balancier" turns to the left, with the second to the right, and with the third it remains at rest. At 4 it turns once more to the left, at 5 to the right, at 6 it remains at rest, etc. It remained immovable only at the so-called trigonal numbers (3, 6, 9, 15, 21, etc.). Ritter tells us that when Campetti did not really count or did not think of the number, then it would not have any influence whatever upon the action of the instrument. This Ritter ascribes to the agency of electricity (which in the 18th and 19th centuries was made to play very much the samerôle that Satan had played in the 16th and 17th centuries).The similarity of these two cases and that of Mr. Schillings is evident. When the questioner of the horse and the bearers of the "balancier" and of the divining rod are confident of success, they succeed. When they do not expect success, they fail.[V]The French investigators Vaschide and Rousseau make a reference to this case, and mistakenly state the number of signals as 1500 instead of 115[30]. Ettlinger[31]takes over this wrong figure and makes the additional mistake of assuming that the reference is to an original investigation made by the two Frenchmen.[W]All told, there are hardly more than half dozen experimental investigations of the color-sense in mammals,—to speak only of these. Three of them deserve especial mention. One, the work of the American, Kinnaman,[33]on two Rhesus monkeys. Then a brief but careful piece of work by Himstedt and Nagel.[34]These two investigators were able to determine that their trained poodle could distinguish red of any tone or shade from the other colors, and from Professor Nagel I learned that later the tests were extended and the same was shown to be true concerning the blue and the green. And finally there is an investigation which hitherto has been known only from a reference which Professor Dahl,[35]the investigator, himself makes. The work is on a monkey, Cercopithecus (Chlorocebus) griseoviridis Desm. (Professor Dahl has kindly allowed me to look over the records of the experiments. He intends to publish the monograph at an early date.)All of these investigators arrive at the conclusion that the animals tested by them possess color-sense. The monkey last-mentioned shows one peculiarity: it was unable to distinguish a saturated blue from the black. It will require further tests to clear this up.[X]There is no justification for the wide-spread belief that the horse which on account of the greater size of his eye (more correctly, on account of the greater focal distance) receives larger retinal images of objects than does the human eye, for that reason also sees objects, larger than we do. Horses' shying is often explained in this way. But the conclusion just mentioned is erroneous. The retinal image is not the perceptual image. It undergoes many transformations within the nervous system itself.[Y]"Butzenscheiben" are the small circular panes of green glass, used in leaded windows in early days. They are high in the middle (hence the name: "Butze," a protuberance) with a number of concentric circles around the central elevation.—Translator.[Z]Since no opportunity was given us to examine Hans's eyes we do not know what their condition is in this respect. Though it would have been interesting to know, it would hardly make any difference in the views presented. If Hans should prove to be either far or near-sighted, then, if we are to make any supposition at all, it would be that the defect could not be very great, since near sightedness exceeding 2 or 3 diopters and far-sightedness exceeding one diopter is seldom found in the case of the horse. According to Mr. von Osten, Hans at one time manifested a tendency to shy easily. Be this as it may, for little could be concluded from it, since in many extremely shy horses, no kind of visual imperfection can be discovered.[AA]For the benefit of specialists I would say the following in addition to the more general remarks just made. For the most part, the determinations of refraction made on the eye of the horse are still rather unreliable. In sciascopy there is a dispute among investigators concerning ambiguous shadows, and in the use of the refraction-ophthalmoscope no definite region of the eye's background has been adhered to by the various investigators. It appears that Riegel, whose diligent researches mentioned onpage 164were published in 1904, knew nothing concerning the round area in the horse's eye, discovered by I. Zürn[42]in 1902. Also, if so great a degree of astigmatism is really the rule as is emphasized especially by Hirschberg[43]and Berlin,[44]then the simple refractive index usually given—sometimes within a half diopter—would be meaningless. Berlin[45]and Bayer[46]believe the vagueness of the retinal image resulting from the astigmatism, is offset by this: that the oval pupil functions as a stenopaic slit. In view of the width of the horse's pupil this appears to me to be rather hypothetical.Concerning Berlin's theory of deflecting astigmatism I would say the following: Of the two ophthalmoscopic signs mentioned as being characteristic of this form of astigmatism,—the concentric circles and the arcuate deflection of the pathway of the fixated points,—when there is a movement of the eye of the observer (or of the eye observed), according to Berlin the former is not so constant as the latter. So far as I know, the concentric ring formation is mentioned only by Bayer[47]and Riegel,[48]and is said to occur principally in horses with myopic vision—and hence, relatively, in a minority of cases. Judging from the particulars, we are inclined to believe that a case of"Butzenscheiben"-lens reported by Schwendimann[48a]is in reality a case of senile sclerosis. Berlin repeatedly warns us against mistaking the one for the other.[48b]The arcuate deflection, on the other hand, has not been mentioned elsewhere as a personal observation. In Berlin's calculation[49]of the increase in the extent of the retinal pathway an ambiguity has crept in. He says that "in the astigmatic eye there are stimulated 207 times as many nervous elements as would be stimulated in the ideally normal eye." It ought to read "207 more" instead of "207 times as many." And this number holds only for the one case computed by Berlin, and under the specific assumption that exactly π/2 times the normal number of elements were stimulated (571 instead of 364). Therefore the general statement which Bayer[50]makes in his text-book, that according to Berlin's evaluation "207 times more nervous elements" are stimulated in the astigmatic eye than in the non-astigmatic one, does not hold true.Closing this note, a few remarks concerning the experiments made by Dr. Simon and myself. All of the nine horses were tested for the vertical image by means of the ophthalmoscope. In most cases Wolff's electric speculum was used. Atropine was not employed.—For the laboratory tests the adipose and the muscular tissues were removed from the eye-ball and the rear part of the bulb cut away. The front part, containing the cornea and the lens, was fastened over one opening of a metal cylinder which was closed at the other end by means of a disc of ground glass. The whole, approximately as long as a horse's eye, was filled with a normal salt solution whose refractive index (1.336) corresponds quite closely with that of the vitreous humor of the horse's eye. The pressure from within was regulated so that on the one hand it was not dimmed and yet on the other there were no wrinkles in the cornea. The source of light—the filament of a Nernst lamp—was moved about in a plane 120 cm. distant from the eye and perpendicular to the optic axis. It was moved through the point of intersection as well as at various distances from it. Movement in horizontal and vertical directions was in each case along lines 150 centimeters in length, which would correspond to an angle of vision of not less than 64°. The pathway of the imaged point was controlled by means of the cross-hairs of the telescope. If in the same way we observe through the sclerotic of an intact eye-bulb a point of light falling upon the retina and shining through the sclerotic and choroid (which is not difficult when we use an intense light), then to the observer its pathway will, of course, appear to be deflected convexly toward the periphery,—and the deflection will appear the greater, the farther the point of light is removed from the optic axis.[AB]Königshöfer, who as we have already said, seconds the explanation given by the ophthalmologist Berlin (and who confounds "Butzenscheiben" astigmatism with the common, so-called regular form), believes[54]that not only astigmatism but also the shape of the blind-spot of the eye must be taken into consideration. This portion of the retina, where the fibres of the optic nerve enter the eye (and called "blind-spot" because there are no cells there that are sensitive to light) is very nearly circular in man, but differs in shape in the different species of animals. Königshöfer thought he had discovered that a relatively elongated blind spot was favorable to keenness of vision. If we place the mammalia in series on the basis of their relative keenness of vision, he says, we would find that this series is identical with the one in which they are grouped with reference to the form of the blind-spot from the circular up to the most elongated. (In such a series the marmot takes the place of honor.)This exposition is not verysatisfactory, however. We cannot be sure what he means by "keenness of vision" ("scharfäugigkeit"). Is it visual acuity in the usual sense of the term (as is said in one of his passages), or keenness in the perception of the movements of objects, (this would appear to be his real meaning), or both at the same time. But whatever the significance he may put into the term, any such attempt at grouping the lower forms must prove unsatisfactory from the very start on account of the scant data which we possess on visual perception in animals. The experiences of the hunt upon which Königshöfer partly bases his view, are entirely inadequate for such a purpose. This much is certain, that the Osten horse, in spite of a blind-spot which,though somewhat oval, is by no means very elongated, possesses an extraordinary acuity in the perception of movements. Even if the parallelism mentioned by Königshöfer were really shown to exist, it would not explain the matter until it were also shown in what way keenness of vision is dependent upon the shape of the blind-spot,—a portion of the eye which is not immediately operative in the visual sensation at all.[AC]I can find examples of supposed suggestion in the case of animals given only by Rouhet.[61]He says that by means of suggestion he taught a half-year old half-blooded mare-colt which he had raised himself, to fetch and carry, and this in a very short time. In order to indicate to the colt what was wanted, Rouhet would concentrate with his whole mind upon the object intended (a watch), and at the same time he would bend forward slightly. In the third test, that is at the end of fifteen minutes, he had accomplished his purpose, and in the tenth lesson, no more mistakes occurred. The colt would fail to respond, however, as soon as he refrained from making any gestures, or was in a laissez faire frame of mind, or when he thought of other things. He therefore believes that there must have been some kind of immediate, though inexplicable, connection between the brain of the trainer and that of the horse. I think the explanation is evident: the connection was not as he thought, an immediate one, but arising through the mediation of the man's attitude ("attitude un peu baissée"), and of his movements ("gestes"), both resulting from his intense concentration ("tension de la pensée").In general we may say that, no matter what content we may wish to put into the term "suggestion," not a single fact has since come to light which would justify, and much less demand, the application of the term to lower forms, unless we would expand the definition of the term to the extent of comprising every kind of command, every arousal of ideas, whatsoever. But it would then be nothing but a new name for old knowledge[62]and would lose all explanatory value. (Hypnotism, so-called, in the case of horses, I shall discuss elsewhere in another connection.)[AD]An illustration is given by Babinet[66]concerning the horse of an English lord. Mr. Burkhardt-Foottit, also, that excellent trainer, who has been master for more than forty of the most highly-trained horses, tells us that while sitting on a well-managed horse it sometimes happened that he had merely thought of making a certain turn, when the horse immediately executed it, before he, the rider, had to his knowledge given any sign or aid. An observation belonging under this head is also made in Tolstoi's "Anna Karenina"[67], this perfect mine of acute psychological observation. In the famous description of the race we are told concerning Count Wronskij riding his Frou-Frou just behind Machotin mounted upon Gladiator, who was leading the race: "At the very moment when Wronskij thought that it was time to overtake Machotin, Frou-Frou, divining her master's thought, increased her pace considerably and this without any incitement on his part. She began to come nearer to Gladiator from the more favorable, the near side. But Machotin would not give it up. Wronskij was just considering that he might get past by making the larger circuit on the off-side, when Frou-Frou was already changing direction and began to pass Gladiator on that side." Similar experiences might be gathered elsewhere. Not infrequently the reflection of the rider that his horse had not for a long time indulged in some trick peculiar to him, will immediately call it forth; or doubts on the part of the rider concerning the possibility of crossing some barrier, are often the cause of the horse's fall or of his refusal to leap and of his running away.[AE]All the authors who have given practical suggestions for the training of horses, whether free or with lunging reins, have great faith in the efficacy of calls, but usually recommend a mingling of calls and movements in the way of signs, (thus Loiset,[71]Baucher,[72]vonArnim[73]). It therefore cannot be stated just in how far the calls really effect anything. In other cases I am inclined to doubt outright the influence which is ascribed to the auditory signs. Meehan[74]gives an account of a horse that was exhibited in London in the early 90's of the last century. Pawing with his hoof, this horse apparently was able to count and answer questions in arithmetic, and among other accomplishments he was supposed also to be able to understand something of language. In reality, however, he merely responded to cues which were disclosed to the reporter by the trainer. In pawing, the horse was guided by movements of the trainer, and in nodding or shaking the head he reputedly got his cue from the inflections of the man's voice. Is it not probable that in this latter case it was the movements which accompanied speech that were alone effective in inducing the nod or the shake of the head, so that the exhibiter was deceiving not merely the public, but also himself? Perhaps we may also doubt the exposition made by the well-known hippologist, Colonel Spohr.[75]He tells us that it is easy to train horses to raise the left foot or the right foot in response to the commands "Left—foot!" or "Right—foot!" and that it will be the fore foot when one is standing in front of the horse, and the hind foot if one stands near the rear. It cannot be so very difficult, he thinks, even to get the horse to understand the commands "Left (or right)—fore foot!" and "Left (or right)—hind foot!"—and all without any other aids but the spoken words. Should this really be possible without even the slightest kind of designating movement?——The following case, again, I believe is undoubtedly based upon a misinterpretation. Redding[76]relates concerning his nineteen-year old horse that he himself had owned for thirteen years, and had always kept in single harness,——that this horse not only understood the meaning of a long list of words, such as: bureau, post-office, school, churchyard, apple, grass, etc., but he also knew a number of persons by name, as well as their places of residence. If he were told in advance to halt at a certain residence, he would do it without any further aid from the driver. For this reason the happy owner felt certain that the animal possessed a high order of intelligence and "that this horse does reason." What sources of error were here operative, whether signs were given by means of reins, or head or arm movements, could be determined only by a careful examination of the case.And finally we would exercise some reserve in entertaining the suggestions for the acoustic education of horses which have come from various sources. Colonel Spohr[77]whom we have just been mentioning, thinks that it would not be a difficult matter to get a horse to respond with a walk to one smack of the lips, with a trot to two smacks, and with a galop to three, and then he could be made to slacken his pace once more into a trot in response to one long-drawn "Pst!" and to stop in response to two. Others have gone even further. Decroix,[78]at one time leader in veterinary affairs in France, conceived the idea of working out a universal language as regards the commands that are given to horses, in the humane purpose of sparing them the whip. He called it "Volapük hippique." For the commands "go," "right," "left," and "halt," he suggests these: "Hi!" "Ha!" "Hé!" and "Ho!" respectively. From these it was possible to make eight combinations, such as "Hi! Hi!" for "Trot!" "Hé! Hé!" for "Left about" (while the single "Hé" was to mean "Forward, to the left!") "Ho! Ho!" for "Back!" etc. Decroix thought that the whole system could be inculcated in a very few lessons. He even had a medal struck which was to be awarded to the driver or rider who should first exhibit a horse, thus instructed, to the Société Nationale d'Acclimatation de France (of which Decroix was president). Eight years have elapsed since then, but we have heard of no one who has earned the medal mentioned. In the future greater care will probably be exercised in the putting forth of such suggestions, and two sources of error may be guarded against, viz.: involuntary movements on the part of the rider or driver, and imitation of the horses amongst themselves. (One horse, guarded by an experienced rider, may serve as copy for ten others with inexperienced men in the saddle.)[AF]General Noizet[79]has left us a story of the middle of the last century, which in essential detail corresponds closely with the one just given. The scene is a French chateau and the hero is—a rapping table, highly prized on account of the intelligent answers it could give. Seated about it were a number of ladies and at the other end of the room sat a French savant, a member of the Academy. The ladies requested him to put a simple mathematical question to the table, and complying with their request, he asked for the cube root of 4. None of the ladies who sat about the table knew the solution; the table unhesitatingly gave 6 raps. This answer was refused as incorrect. The table was asked to try again, and again it wrapped 6. For this it was bitterly reproached. Hereupon the questioner, who during the whole time had remained in his place at the other end of the room, came forward with the confession that the table was innocent, that he had made a mistake. He had asked for the cube root of 4, but had really meant to ask for the cube of that number, viz., 64, and the table had as a matter of fact given the first numeral of that number.One is immediately struck by the analogy between this case and that of Professor Schillings. In both cases those immediately concerned (the women in the one, Mr. von Osten in the other) believe that a wrong answer is being given repeatedly. The cause of the error lies in a person who seemingly is not concerned with the response. (The Frenchman asked the question, but did not sit at the table. Professor Schillings sounded the notes, but it was Mr. von Osten who got the horse to tap.) In both instances the questioner asks one thing, but had something else in mind. (With the Frenchman it was a slip of the tongue; Mr. Schillings did it purposely.) And finally, in both cases the response corresponds not to the question that has been asked, but to that which has been thought, so that, though seemingly wrong, the responses of both table and horse were really correct. By way of explanation, Noizet believes that he has a case of true thought-transference or "telepathy" (page 108). The questioner watched with utmost attentiveness the rapping of the table, and the women in turn regarded the man. And thus, Noizet believes, the man's thought was transferred to the minds of the others without the mediation of eye or ear, etc., and hence unvitiated by the words that had been spoken. I myself prefer another explanation. At that moment in which the rapping arrived at the expected number, the Frenchman executed a movement characteristic of release of tension and to this the women of the circle reacted. It was not necessary that they should be able to account for this afterward, (just as sometimes occurs in the case of thought-readers[80]). It is very probable, too, that they were not of a very reflective turn of mind anyway. We are warranted, I think, in regarding the two cases as identical in kind.[AG]Professor Flügel,[82]basing his statements on an article appearing in "Schorer's Familienblatt" (Berlin, 1890, No. 8, p. 128), gives an account of similar experiments which were supposed to have been conducted by the Zoological Society for Westphalia and Lippe, and presumably showed that "the horses of the military do not understand the bugle calls." No matter how well trained a horse may have been, it would not respond to a signal. This report, however, is due to a mistake. Such experiments have never been made by the society mentioned, so I am told by its director, Dr. Reeker. Nor do I know of any one else who has made experiments of this kind. However, Professor Landois,[83]the eminent zoologist, now deceased (founder of the scientific society mentioned), tested four circus-horses for their musical ability and specifically for their sense of musical time. He arrives at the conclusion that horses "have no feeling for time, whatsoever." With but fewexceptions,[84,85]all experts to-day are of the same opinion. Horse-trainers, especially, are universally agreed on this point. It is easy to see in any circus performance that it is not the horses that accommodate themselves to the music, but that the music accommodates itself to them, and that the trained horses[86]are induced to do their artistic stepping only by the aids given by their riders. Furthermore, all these horses are trained without the use of music.——It would therefore appear that the time had arrived when the tales of the dancing horses of the Sybarites ought no longer to gain credence. Two Greek writers, Athenaeus[87]and Ælian,[88]tell us that the inhabitants of Sybaris, far-famed for their luxurious habits, had trained their horses to dance to the music of flutes during their banquets. Building upon this, the men of Crotona, in one of their campaigns against the Sybarites, ordered the flute-players to play the tunes familiar to the Sybarite horses. Immediately the well-trained steeds began to dance, thus throwing the whole Sybarite army into confusion, and the men of Crotona won the day. (The same story is told in more detail concerning the horses of the inhabitants of Cardia. Both accounts, somewhat mixed, are to be found in Julius Africanus,[89]a writer of the third century of the Christian era.)—In recent years a French veterinary surgeon, Guénon,[90]experimented on the effect of music upon the horses of the military. He entered their stalls, playing upon a flute, and noted their behavior. Four-fifths of the animals, he says, were deeply moved, yes, delighted, even, ("charmés." One interpreter[91]calls it a case of hypnosis!). This emotional excitement was expressed—somewhat unaesthetically—by the dropping of excrementa. Guénon characterizes the feeling-state of these animals as being a mixture of pleasure and astonishment, of satisfaction and excitement ("mélange de plaisir et d'étonnement, de satisfaction et de trouble.") He also asserts that the horse's musical taste is similar to our own. But I can find nothing in his whole exposition which might prove this. Indeed there is nothing that could be interpreted as anything other than a purely sensuous effect upon the horses. I may go a step farther and say that thus far the sense of music, i. e., understanding of melody, harmony and rhythm, has not been shown to exist in any animal. Some animals may, however, be susceptible to the sensuous pleasantness of the tones themselves.[AH]I cannot enter upon a discussion of the latest psychological problems, here involved, partly because that would take us beyond the purpose of this monograph, and partly because they are still moot questions and hence not suited to popular treatment. Briefly though, they are these: What is the nature of the relationship between cognitive and affective states on the one hand and involuntary, (so-called expressive) movements on the other? Is this connection an external thing, as it were, an association arising as a habit formation, or does every idea partake essentially of a motor character? Do purely cognitive states give rise to such movements, or does the movement impulse depend more particularly upon the affective consciousness accompanying the cognitive states? And in how far do given kinds of expressive movements depend upon certain ideational types (c.f.page 95)? Thus, what is the influence of the visual image upon the gestures for "up," "down," etc.? And then, are these involuntary movements, when not noted, truly unconscious, or merely not attended to,——in other words, are they beyond the pale of consciousness or merely "at the fringe?" The various writers speak almost without exception of unconscious movements in the strict sense of the term. My own introspections, however, have led me to doubt whether they are quite unconscious. Since I have attained some practice I am able to describe in detail (under conditions of objective control) my involuntary movements, no matter how slight, even down to mere muscular tensions. None of my subjects, however, has as yet succeeded in this. It is no very easy matter to be on the lookout for some unknown movements which might eventually occur, while attempting to concentrate attention to the utmost upon a certain definite ideational content, for this very dividing of attention effects a decrease in the force of the movement, and thus makes it all the more difficult to discover. From my own experience, however, I am inclined to believe that these movements are not unconscious, but merely unattended to, in other words, we have a narrowing down of the apperceived content within certain limits, but not a narrowing down of consciousness, (much less a "splitting" of consciousness or of personality as the thing unfortunately has sometimes been called). In order, however, not to be guilty of premature judgment, I have avoided the terms "unconscious" and "unattended to," and chose expressions which leave these finer distinctions untouched.[AI]The mental state just described is probably essentially the same as that of the spiritualistic "mediums" when they are occupied with table-rapping and table-moving. In both cases concentration is very intense,——in other words, the field of attention is limited. We saw that this state not only favors the tendency toward involuntary movement, but on account of the absorption of the individual's attention by a certain limited content, the person will be unaware of the voluntary movements as they occur. And we are not necessarily here dealing with neurasthenic, hysteric, or other diseased nervous conditions. In the case of table-rapping there are movements of the hands, in our case there are those of the head. Our head, balanced as it is upon the cervical vertebral column, is continually in a state of unstable equilibrium and therefore peculiarly susceptible to movement-impulses of every kind. But I could induce not only movements of the head, but also of the arms and legs, and this by having the subject assume a posture which enabled him to hold arms or legs in as unstable a position as possible. He might stretch out his legs horizontally before him, or he could raise them vertically upward as in the hand-stand in gymnastic work. An extract from a treatise by Count A. de Gasparin,[94]which appeared about the middle of the last century, may serve to show how close the correspondence between the two processes, that of getting the table to rap and that of causing Hans to respond, really is. The report of this writer, based upon the detailed record of his tests in table-moving and table-rapping, closely parallels in many minutedetails the observations which were made in the course of our experimentation with Hans. The case is all the more remarkable when we bear in mind that this writer did not seek the cause of the phenomena, as we did, in involuntary movements, but thrusting aside this explanation, he posited the cause in the agency of some mysterious fluid. It may not be amiss to say that this as well as most other references were consulted after the present experiments and introspections had been completed. Of the page references preceding the following citations, the first always refers to the page in the French original, and the other, enclosed in brackets, to the parallel passage in the present monograph.P. 49[31]. Some questioners are especially suitable ("experimentateurs hors ligne"), but in their absence, other persons may also operate successfully ("le succès, quoique moins brillant alors, n'est pas impossible.")P. 25[229]. But even the most suitable questioners do not always succeed equally well ("les plus sûrs d'eux-mêmes ne réussissaient pas également tous les jours.")P. 42[151]. When the questioner is in any way indisposed, the measure of success is also less.P. 91 & 87[150]. The Questioner must first get into the sweep of things ("en train"), and once he has done so, all interruption whatsoever must be avoided.P. 91[93]. Unless there is sufficient tension on the part of the questioner, the test will fail. ("La volonté est-elle absente, rien ne bouge.")P. 210[93]. When there is too low a degree of tension, then too great a number will be tapped ("si votre volonté ne les [les tables] arrête pas au moment où se termine le chiffre pensé, elles continueront indéfiniment.")P. 31[93]. But too great concentration of attention will also produce failure ("s'il n'arrivait ... de désirer trop fortement le succès et de m'impatienter en cas de retard, je n'avais plus aucune action sur la table.")P. 36[151]. If the proper mood ("entrain habituel") is wanting and the tests are unsuccessful, it is best not to attempt some new and difficult experiment, but to turn to some that are simpler and more entertaining ("La table obéissait mal; les coups étaient frappés mollement et comme à regret.... Alors nous avons pris un parti dont nous nous sommes bien trouvés; nous avons persévéré, et persévéré gaiement; ... nous avons écarté la pensée des tentatives nouvelles, et insisté sur les opérations aisées et amusantes. Après un certain temps les dispositions étaient changées, la table bondissait et attendait à peine nos commandements.")P. 199[41,90]. It is not necessary to enunciate the questions aloud ("On est convenu que celui qui commanderait ne prononcerait pas à haute voix le nombre de coups, mais se contenterait de les penser, après les avoir communiqués à l'oreille de son voisin. Eh bien! la table a obéi. Il n'y a jamais eu la moindre erreur.")P. 199[64 ff.]. The large numbers are tapped more rapidly than the small ones ("la table a indiqué notre âge tel qu'il était dans notre esprit, se hâtant même de la manière la plus comique lorsque le nombre des coups à frapper était un peu considérable.")P. 210[35 ff.]. Tests in which "procedure was without knowledge" failed completely ("Les tables ne révèlent pas ce qui n'est pas dans la pensée et dans la volonté de l'expérimentateur; quand on veut les charger d'autre chose que d'obéir comme des membres, on arrive à des erreurs continuelles.")P. 28, 29, 217[72]. When of two experimenters each tries to get the horse to tap a different number, then that one who is the better able to compel the animal's attention, will be the successful one. ("L'un veut faire prévaloire un chiffre pensé plus considérable, l'autre un chiffre pensé moins considérable.... Eh bien: l'opérateur le plus puissant l'emporte." "Ainsi A est chargé secrètement de faire frapper 25 coups, B est chargé secrètement de l'arrêter à 18; A l'emporte, et les 25 coups s'achèvent.... On fait maintenant l'inverse: B est chargé secrètement de faire frapper 13 coups; A est chargé secrètement de l'arrêter à 7; A l'emporte encore et le chiffre 7 ne peut être dépassé.")
[T]Professor Shaler[24], a well-known American savant, mentions a three-year old pig belonging to a Virginian farmer, that was able to read and had some understanding of language. From numerals which were written upon cards and spread out before it, this pig could compose dates. It could also select from among certain cards one upon which was written a given name, asked for by the master. Supposedly no signs of any kind were given. (Shaler thought to exclude effectively the sense of smell, which is so highly developed in the pig, in that he, Shaler, himself smelled at the cards, since he also "possessed an acute olfactory sense!") Since we are told that the farmer in question made a business of supplying trained pigs for exhibition purposes, the case appears suspicious. We hear of a pig exhibited in London, that was able to read and spell, and could also tell the time by the watch[25]. We cannot tell, however, whether the two pigs, which beyond a doubt were mechanically trained to respond to signals, are identical or not.
[T]Professor Shaler[24], a well-known American savant, mentions a three-year old pig belonging to a Virginian farmer, that was able to read and had some understanding of language. From numerals which were written upon cards and spread out before it, this pig could compose dates. It could also select from among certain cards one upon which was written a given name, asked for by the master. Supposedly no signs of any kind were given. (Shaler thought to exclude effectively the sense of smell, which is so highly developed in the pig, in that he, Shaler, himself smelled at the cards, since he also "possessed an acute olfactory sense!") Since we are told that the farmer in question made a business of supplying trained pigs for exhibition purposes, the case appears suspicious. We hear of a pig exhibited in London, that was able to read and spell, and could also tell the time by the watch[25]. We cannot tell, however, whether the two pigs, which beyond a doubt were mechanically trained to respond to signals, are identical or not.
[U]It has been scientifically proven that a number of supposed mystical phenomena, table-moving, table-rapping, and divination by means of the rod, all are the result of involuntary movements made unawares by those concerned, just as in the case of this work with Hans. (We must of course except those not infrequent instances in which the phenomena in question are purposely and fraudulently simulated.) There is this difference, however, that there the thing affected is a lifeless object,—the table or the rod,—here it is a living organism, the horse; hence there the immediate effect of the movement is physical work in the form of energy expended in moving the table, here the movement becomes a visual stimulus. A number of observations which I find in the relevant literature, and which I shall introduce into this chapter, may serve to show how close is the similarity between the two cases, how much depends upon the questioner, and how little really upon the instrument—whether table or horse—which is acted upon.Two examples will suffice to illustrate the significance of belief and of the concentrated attention that results from it. The first is taken from the letters of Father P. Lebrun on the divining rod[26], which appeared in 1696. An old woman once told a treasure-seeker that she had always heard that a treasure was buried at a certain place in the fields. The man, who was known as an expert in the art of using the divining rod, immediately set out to locate the gold. Lo, and behold, the moment he set foot on the spot described by the old woman, the branch turns downward, and from its movements the man gathers that twelve feet below ground there lies buried some copper, silver and gold. He calls a peasant to dig a pit eleven feet deep, then he sends him away so that no other should get into the secret. He himself digs a foot deeper, but all in vain, for he finds nothing. Standing in the pit, he again takes up the branch. Again it moves, but this time it points upward, as if to indicate that the treasure had disappeared from the earth. Dismayed, he climbs out of the pit and questions the branch a third time. This time it points downward once more. He climbs back into the pit. Presently he feels the prick of conscience (for in the 17th century many regarded the dipping of the divining rod as the work of the Devil). Terrified, he exclaims: "O God, if the thing I am doing here is wrong, then I renounce the Evil One and his rod (s'il y a du mal, je renonce au démon et à labaguette)". Having spoken, he once more takes the rod in hand to test it. It does not move. Horrified, for now there was no longer any doubt that Satan was the cause of its movements, the man makes the sign of the cross and runs away. But he had hardly gone more than two or three hundred paces when the thought strikes him: Is it really true that the branch will no longer move for him? He throws a coin to the ground, cuts a branch from a bush nearby, and is overjoyed when he notes how it dips down toward the money.Another example is to be found in a report of the well-known physicist, Ritter[27], of Munich, which appeared during the early part of the 19th century. Ritter, a man with a bent for natural philosophy and metaphysics, describes an instrument which was to replace the divining rod, and which he called "balancier." It was simple enough, consisting of a metal strip that was balanced horizontally upon a pivot, and was supposed to be put into motion in the presence of metals. Ritter used this instrument in his numerous experiments with the Italian Campetti, a man who had achieved a measure of fame in Europe for his ability to discover springs and metals by the use of the divining rod. Carrying the "balancier" on the tip of the middle finger of his left hand, Campetti—whose integrity one cannot cavil at—had to touch repeatedly a plate of zinc or pewter, and had to count aloud the number of touches he made. The following curious law was found to obtain (that was probably suggested to the subject by Ritter without his being aware of it): with the first contact the "balancier" turns to the left, with the second to the right, and with the third it remains at rest. At 4 it turns once more to the left, at 5 to the right, at 6 it remains at rest, etc. It remained immovable only at the so-called trigonal numbers (3, 6, 9, 15, 21, etc.). Ritter tells us that when Campetti did not really count or did not think of the number, then it would not have any influence whatever upon the action of the instrument. This Ritter ascribes to the agency of electricity (which in the 18th and 19th centuries was made to play very much the samerôle that Satan had played in the 16th and 17th centuries).The similarity of these two cases and that of Mr. Schillings is evident. When the questioner of the horse and the bearers of the "balancier" and of the divining rod are confident of success, they succeed. When they do not expect success, they fail.
[U]It has been scientifically proven that a number of supposed mystical phenomena, table-moving, table-rapping, and divination by means of the rod, all are the result of involuntary movements made unawares by those concerned, just as in the case of this work with Hans. (We must of course except those not infrequent instances in which the phenomena in question are purposely and fraudulently simulated.) There is this difference, however, that there the thing affected is a lifeless object,—the table or the rod,—here it is a living organism, the horse; hence there the immediate effect of the movement is physical work in the form of energy expended in moving the table, here the movement becomes a visual stimulus. A number of observations which I find in the relevant literature, and which I shall introduce into this chapter, may serve to show how close is the similarity between the two cases, how much depends upon the questioner, and how little really upon the instrument—whether table or horse—which is acted upon.
Two examples will suffice to illustrate the significance of belief and of the concentrated attention that results from it. The first is taken from the letters of Father P. Lebrun on the divining rod[26], which appeared in 1696. An old woman once told a treasure-seeker that she had always heard that a treasure was buried at a certain place in the fields. The man, who was known as an expert in the art of using the divining rod, immediately set out to locate the gold. Lo, and behold, the moment he set foot on the spot described by the old woman, the branch turns downward, and from its movements the man gathers that twelve feet below ground there lies buried some copper, silver and gold. He calls a peasant to dig a pit eleven feet deep, then he sends him away so that no other should get into the secret. He himself digs a foot deeper, but all in vain, for he finds nothing. Standing in the pit, he again takes up the branch. Again it moves, but this time it points upward, as if to indicate that the treasure had disappeared from the earth. Dismayed, he climbs out of the pit and questions the branch a third time. This time it points downward once more. He climbs back into the pit. Presently he feels the prick of conscience (for in the 17th century many regarded the dipping of the divining rod as the work of the Devil). Terrified, he exclaims: "O God, if the thing I am doing here is wrong, then I renounce the Evil One and his rod (s'il y a du mal, je renonce au démon et à labaguette)". Having spoken, he once more takes the rod in hand to test it. It does not move. Horrified, for now there was no longer any doubt that Satan was the cause of its movements, the man makes the sign of the cross and runs away. But he had hardly gone more than two or three hundred paces when the thought strikes him: Is it really true that the branch will no longer move for him? He throws a coin to the ground, cuts a branch from a bush nearby, and is overjoyed when he notes how it dips down toward the money.
Another example is to be found in a report of the well-known physicist, Ritter[27], of Munich, which appeared during the early part of the 19th century. Ritter, a man with a bent for natural philosophy and metaphysics, describes an instrument which was to replace the divining rod, and which he called "balancier." It was simple enough, consisting of a metal strip that was balanced horizontally upon a pivot, and was supposed to be put into motion in the presence of metals. Ritter used this instrument in his numerous experiments with the Italian Campetti, a man who had achieved a measure of fame in Europe for his ability to discover springs and metals by the use of the divining rod. Carrying the "balancier" on the tip of the middle finger of his left hand, Campetti—whose integrity one cannot cavil at—had to touch repeatedly a plate of zinc or pewter, and had to count aloud the number of touches he made. The following curious law was found to obtain (that was probably suggested to the subject by Ritter without his being aware of it): with the first contact the "balancier" turns to the left, with the second to the right, and with the third it remains at rest. At 4 it turns once more to the left, at 5 to the right, at 6 it remains at rest, etc. It remained immovable only at the so-called trigonal numbers (3, 6, 9, 15, 21, etc.). Ritter tells us that when Campetti did not really count or did not think of the number, then it would not have any influence whatever upon the action of the instrument. This Ritter ascribes to the agency of electricity (which in the 18th and 19th centuries was made to play very much the samerôle that Satan had played in the 16th and 17th centuries).
The similarity of these two cases and that of Mr. Schillings is evident. When the questioner of the horse and the bearers of the "balancier" and of the divining rod are confident of success, they succeed. When they do not expect success, they fail.
[V]The French investigators Vaschide and Rousseau make a reference to this case, and mistakenly state the number of signals as 1500 instead of 115[30]. Ettlinger[31]takes over this wrong figure and makes the additional mistake of assuming that the reference is to an original investigation made by the two Frenchmen.
[V]The French investigators Vaschide and Rousseau make a reference to this case, and mistakenly state the number of signals as 1500 instead of 115[30]. Ettlinger[31]takes over this wrong figure and makes the additional mistake of assuming that the reference is to an original investigation made by the two Frenchmen.
[W]All told, there are hardly more than half dozen experimental investigations of the color-sense in mammals,—to speak only of these. Three of them deserve especial mention. One, the work of the American, Kinnaman,[33]on two Rhesus monkeys. Then a brief but careful piece of work by Himstedt and Nagel.[34]These two investigators were able to determine that their trained poodle could distinguish red of any tone or shade from the other colors, and from Professor Nagel I learned that later the tests were extended and the same was shown to be true concerning the blue and the green. And finally there is an investigation which hitherto has been known only from a reference which Professor Dahl,[35]the investigator, himself makes. The work is on a monkey, Cercopithecus (Chlorocebus) griseoviridis Desm. (Professor Dahl has kindly allowed me to look over the records of the experiments. He intends to publish the monograph at an early date.)All of these investigators arrive at the conclusion that the animals tested by them possess color-sense. The monkey last-mentioned shows one peculiarity: it was unable to distinguish a saturated blue from the black. It will require further tests to clear this up.
[W]All told, there are hardly more than half dozen experimental investigations of the color-sense in mammals,—to speak only of these. Three of them deserve especial mention. One, the work of the American, Kinnaman,[33]on two Rhesus monkeys. Then a brief but careful piece of work by Himstedt and Nagel.[34]These two investigators were able to determine that their trained poodle could distinguish red of any tone or shade from the other colors, and from Professor Nagel I learned that later the tests were extended and the same was shown to be true concerning the blue and the green. And finally there is an investigation which hitherto has been known only from a reference which Professor Dahl,[35]the investigator, himself makes. The work is on a monkey, Cercopithecus (Chlorocebus) griseoviridis Desm. (Professor Dahl has kindly allowed me to look over the records of the experiments. He intends to publish the monograph at an early date.)
All of these investigators arrive at the conclusion that the animals tested by them possess color-sense. The monkey last-mentioned shows one peculiarity: it was unable to distinguish a saturated blue from the black. It will require further tests to clear this up.
[X]There is no justification for the wide-spread belief that the horse which on account of the greater size of his eye (more correctly, on account of the greater focal distance) receives larger retinal images of objects than does the human eye, for that reason also sees objects, larger than we do. Horses' shying is often explained in this way. But the conclusion just mentioned is erroneous. The retinal image is not the perceptual image. It undergoes many transformations within the nervous system itself.
[X]There is no justification for the wide-spread belief that the horse which on account of the greater size of his eye (more correctly, on account of the greater focal distance) receives larger retinal images of objects than does the human eye, for that reason also sees objects, larger than we do. Horses' shying is often explained in this way. But the conclusion just mentioned is erroneous. The retinal image is not the perceptual image. It undergoes many transformations within the nervous system itself.
[Y]"Butzenscheiben" are the small circular panes of green glass, used in leaded windows in early days. They are high in the middle (hence the name: "Butze," a protuberance) with a number of concentric circles around the central elevation.—Translator.
[Y]"Butzenscheiben" are the small circular panes of green glass, used in leaded windows in early days. They are high in the middle (hence the name: "Butze," a protuberance) with a number of concentric circles around the central elevation.—Translator.
[Z]Since no opportunity was given us to examine Hans's eyes we do not know what their condition is in this respect. Though it would have been interesting to know, it would hardly make any difference in the views presented. If Hans should prove to be either far or near-sighted, then, if we are to make any supposition at all, it would be that the defect could not be very great, since near sightedness exceeding 2 or 3 diopters and far-sightedness exceeding one diopter is seldom found in the case of the horse. According to Mr. von Osten, Hans at one time manifested a tendency to shy easily. Be this as it may, for little could be concluded from it, since in many extremely shy horses, no kind of visual imperfection can be discovered.
[Z]Since no opportunity was given us to examine Hans's eyes we do not know what their condition is in this respect. Though it would have been interesting to know, it would hardly make any difference in the views presented. If Hans should prove to be either far or near-sighted, then, if we are to make any supposition at all, it would be that the defect could not be very great, since near sightedness exceeding 2 or 3 diopters and far-sightedness exceeding one diopter is seldom found in the case of the horse. According to Mr. von Osten, Hans at one time manifested a tendency to shy easily. Be this as it may, for little could be concluded from it, since in many extremely shy horses, no kind of visual imperfection can be discovered.
[AA]For the benefit of specialists I would say the following in addition to the more general remarks just made. For the most part, the determinations of refraction made on the eye of the horse are still rather unreliable. In sciascopy there is a dispute among investigators concerning ambiguous shadows, and in the use of the refraction-ophthalmoscope no definite region of the eye's background has been adhered to by the various investigators. It appears that Riegel, whose diligent researches mentioned onpage 164were published in 1904, knew nothing concerning the round area in the horse's eye, discovered by I. Zürn[42]in 1902. Also, if so great a degree of astigmatism is really the rule as is emphasized especially by Hirschberg[43]and Berlin,[44]then the simple refractive index usually given—sometimes within a half diopter—would be meaningless. Berlin[45]and Bayer[46]believe the vagueness of the retinal image resulting from the astigmatism, is offset by this: that the oval pupil functions as a stenopaic slit. In view of the width of the horse's pupil this appears to me to be rather hypothetical.Concerning Berlin's theory of deflecting astigmatism I would say the following: Of the two ophthalmoscopic signs mentioned as being characteristic of this form of astigmatism,—the concentric circles and the arcuate deflection of the pathway of the fixated points,—when there is a movement of the eye of the observer (or of the eye observed), according to Berlin the former is not so constant as the latter. So far as I know, the concentric ring formation is mentioned only by Bayer[47]and Riegel,[48]and is said to occur principally in horses with myopic vision—and hence, relatively, in a minority of cases. Judging from the particulars, we are inclined to believe that a case of"Butzenscheiben"-lens reported by Schwendimann[48a]is in reality a case of senile sclerosis. Berlin repeatedly warns us against mistaking the one for the other.[48b]The arcuate deflection, on the other hand, has not been mentioned elsewhere as a personal observation. In Berlin's calculation[49]of the increase in the extent of the retinal pathway an ambiguity has crept in. He says that "in the astigmatic eye there are stimulated 207 times as many nervous elements as would be stimulated in the ideally normal eye." It ought to read "207 more" instead of "207 times as many." And this number holds only for the one case computed by Berlin, and under the specific assumption that exactly π/2 times the normal number of elements were stimulated (571 instead of 364). Therefore the general statement which Bayer[50]makes in his text-book, that according to Berlin's evaluation "207 times more nervous elements" are stimulated in the astigmatic eye than in the non-astigmatic one, does not hold true.Closing this note, a few remarks concerning the experiments made by Dr. Simon and myself. All of the nine horses were tested for the vertical image by means of the ophthalmoscope. In most cases Wolff's electric speculum was used. Atropine was not employed.—For the laboratory tests the adipose and the muscular tissues were removed from the eye-ball and the rear part of the bulb cut away. The front part, containing the cornea and the lens, was fastened over one opening of a metal cylinder which was closed at the other end by means of a disc of ground glass. The whole, approximately as long as a horse's eye, was filled with a normal salt solution whose refractive index (1.336) corresponds quite closely with that of the vitreous humor of the horse's eye. The pressure from within was regulated so that on the one hand it was not dimmed and yet on the other there were no wrinkles in the cornea. The source of light—the filament of a Nernst lamp—was moved about in a plane 120 cm. distant from the eye and perpendicular to the optic axis. It was moved through the point of intersection as well as at various distances from it. Movement in horizontal and vertical directions was in each case along lines 150 centimeters in length, which would correspond to an angle of vision of not less than 64°. The pathway of the imaged point was controlled by means of the cross-hairs of the telescope. If in the same way we observe through the sclerotic of an intact eye-bulb a point of light falling upon the retina and shining through the sclerotic and choroid (which is not difficult when we use an intense light), then to the observer its pathway will, of course, appear to be deflected convexly toward the periphery,—and the deflection will appear the greater, the farther the point of light is removed from the optic axis.
[AA]For the benefit of specialists I would say the following in addition to the more general remarks just made. For the most part, the determinations of refraction made on the eye of the horse are still rather unreliable. In sciascopy there is a dispute among investigators concerning ambiguous shadows, and in the use of the refraction-ophthalmoscope no definite region of the eye's background has been adhered to by the various investigators. It appears that Riegel, whose diligent researches mentioned onpage 164were published in 1904, knew nothing concerning the round area in the horse's eye, discovered by I. Zürn[42]in 1902. Also, if so great a degree of astigmatism is really the rule as is emphasized especially by Hirschberg[43]and Berlin,[44]then the simple refractive index usually given—sometimes within a half diopter—would be meaningless. Berlin[45]and Bayer[46]believe the vagueness of the retinal image resulting from the astigmatism, is offset by this: that the oval pupil functions as a stenopaic slit. In view of the width of the horse's pupil this appears to me to be rather hypothetical.
Concerning Berlin's theory of deflecting astigmatism I would say the following: Of the two ophthalmoscopic signs mentioned as being characteristic of this form of astigmatism,—the concentric circles and the arcuate deflection of the pathway of the fixated points,—when there is a movement of the eye of the observer (or of the eye observed), according to Berlin the former is not so constant as the latter. So far as I know, the concentric ring formation is mentioned only by Bayer[47]and Riegel,[48]and is said to occur principally in horses with myopic vision—and hence, relatively, in a minority of cases. Judging from the particulars, we are inclined to believe that a case of"Butzenscheiben"-lens reported by Schwendimann[48a]is in reality a case of senile sclerosis. Berlin repeatedly warns us against mistaking the one for the other.[48b]The arcuate deflection, on the other hand, has not been mentioned elsewhere as a personal observation. In Berlin's calculation[49]of the increase in the extent of the retinal pathway an ambiguity has crept in. He says that "in the astigmatic eye there are stimulated 207 times as many nervous elements as would be stimulated in the ideally normal eye." It ought to read "207 more" instead of "207 times as many." And this number holds only for the one case computed by Berlin, and under the specific assumption that exactly π/2 times the normal number of elements were stimulated (571 instead of 364). Therefore the general statement which Bayer[50]makes in his text-book, that according to Berlin's evaluation "207 times more nervous elements" are stimulated in the astigmatic eye than in the non-astigmatic one, does not hold true.
Closing this note, a few remarks concerning the experiments made by Dr. Simon and myself. All of the nine horses were tested for the vertical image by means of the ophthalmoscope. In most cases Wolff's electric speculum was used. Atropine was not employed.—For the laboratory tests the adipose and the muscular tissues were removed from the eye-ball and the rear part of the bulb cut away. The front part, containing the cornea and the lens, was fastened over one opening of a metal cylinder which was closed at the other end by means of a disc of ground glass. The whole, approximately as long as a horse's eye, was filled with a normal salt solution whose refractive index (1.336) corresponds quite closely with that of the vitreous humor of the horse's eye. The pressure from within was regulated so that on the one hand it was not dimmed and yet on the other there were no wrinkles in the cornea. The source of light—the filament of a Nernst lamp—was moved about in a plane 120 cm. distant from the eye and perpendicular to the optic axis. It was moved through the point of intersection as well as at various distances from it. Movement in horizontal and vertical directions was in each case along lines 150 centimeters in length, which would correspond to an angle of vision of not less than 64°. The pathway of the imaged point was controlled by means of the cross-hairs of the telescope. If in the same way we observe through the sclerotic of an intact eye-bulb a point of light falling upon the retina and shining through the sclerotic and choroid (which is not difficult when we use an intense light), then to the observer its pathway will, of course, appear to be deflected convexly toward the periphery,—and the deflection will appear the greater, the farther the point of light is removed from the optic axis.
[AB]Königshöfer, who as we have already said, seconds the explanation given by the ophthalmologist Berlin (and who confounds "Butzenscheiben" astigmatism with the common, so-called regular form), believes[54]that not only astigmatism but also the shape of the blind-spot of the eye must be taken into consideration. This portion of the retina, where the fibres of the optic nerve enter the eye (and called "blind-spot" because there are no cells there that are sensitive to light) is very nearly circular in man, but differs in shape in the different species of animals. Königshöfer thought he had discovered that a relatively elongated blind spot was favorable to keenness of vision. If we place the mammalia in series on the basis of their relative keenness of vision, he says, we would find that this series is identical with the one in which they are grouped with reference to the form of the blind-spot from the circular up to the most elongated. (In such a series the marmot takes the place of honor.)This exposition is not verysatisfactory, however. We cannot be sure what he means by "keenness of vision" ("scharfäugigkeit"). Is it visual acuity in the usual sense of the term (as is said in one of his passages), or keenness in the perception of the movements of objects, (this would appear to be his real meaning), or both at the same time. But whatever the significance he may put into the term, any such attempt at grouping the lower forms must prove unsatisfactory from the very start on account of the scant data which we possess on visual perception in animals. The experiences of the hunt upon which Königshöfer partly bases his view, are entirely inadequate for such a purpose. This much is certain, that the Osten horse, in spite of a blind-spot which,though somewhat oval, is by no means very elongated, possesses an extraordinary acuity in the perception of movements. Even if the parallelism mentioned by Königshöfer were really shown to exist, it would not explain the matter until it were also shown in what way keenness of vision is dependent upon the shape of the blind-spot,—a portion of the eye which is not immediately operative in the visual sensation at all.
[AB]Königshöfer, who as we have already said, seconds the explanation given by the ophthalmologist Berlin (and who confounds "Butzenscheiben" astigmatism with the common, so-called regular form), believes[54]that not only astigmatism but also the shape of the blind-spot of the eye must be taken into consideration. This portion of the retina, where the fibres of the optic nerve enter the eye (and called "blind-spot" because there are no cells there that are sensitive to light) is very nearly circular in man, but differs in shape in the different species of animals. Königshöfer thought he had discovered that a relatively elongated blind spot was favorable to keenness of vision. If we place the mammalia in series on the basis of their relative keenness of vision, he says, we would find that this series is identical with the one in which they are grouped with reference to the form of the blind-spot from the circular up to the most elongated. (In such a series the marmot takes the place of honor.)
This exposition is not verysatisfactory, however. We cannot be sure what he means by "keenness of vision" ("scharfäugigkeit"). Is it visual acuity in the usual sense of the term (as is said in one of his passages), or keenness in the perception of the movements of objects, (this would appear to be his real meaning), or both at the same time. But whatever the significance he may put into the term, any such attempt at grouping the lower forms must prove unsatisfactory from the very start on account of the scant data which we possess on visual perception in animals. The experiences of the hunt upon which Königshöfer partly bases his view, are entirely inadequate for such a purpose. This much is certain, that the Osten horse, in spite of a blind-spot which,though somewhat oval, is by no means very elongated, possesses an extraordinary acuity in the perception of movements. Even if the parallelism mentioned by Königshöfer were really shown to exist, it would not explain the matter until it were also shown in what way keenness of vision is dependent upon the shape of the blind-spot,—a portion of the eye which is not immediately operative in the visual sensation at all.
[AC]I can find examples of supposed suggestion in the case of animals given only by Rouhet.[61]He says that by means of suggestion he taught a half-year old half-blooded mare-colt which he had raised himself, to fetch and carry, and this in a very short time. In order to indicate to the colt what was wanted, Rouhet would concentrate with his whole mind upon the object intended (a watch), and at the same time he would bend forward slightly. In the third test, that is at the end of fifteen minutes, he had accomplished his purpose, and in the tenth lesson, no more mistakes occurred. The colt would fail to respond, however, as soon as he refrained from making any gestures, or was in a laissez faire frame of mind, or when he thought of other things. He therefore believes that there must have been some kind of immediate, though inexplicable, connection between the brain of the trainer and that of the horse. I think the explanation is evident: the connection was not as he thought, an immediate one, but arising through the mediation of the man's attitude ("attitude un peu baissée"), and of his movements ("gestes"), both resulting from his intense concentration ("tension de la pensée").In general we may say that, no matter what content we may wish to put into the term "suggestion," not a single fact has since come to light which would justify, and much less demand, the application of the term to lower forms, unless we would expand the definition of the term to the extent of comprising every kind of command, every arousal of ideas, whatsoever. But it would then be nothing but a new name for old knowledge[62]and would lose all explanatory value. (Hypnotism, so-called, in the case of horses, I shall discuss elsewhere in another connection.)
[AC]I can find examples of supposed suggestion in the case of animals given only by Rouhet.[61]He says that by means of suggestion he taught a half-year old half-blooded mare-colt which he had raised himself, to fetch and carry, and this in a very short time. In order to indicate to the colt what was wanted, Rouhet would concentrate with his whole mind upon the object intended (a watch), and at the same time he would bend forward slightly. In the third test, that is at the end of fifteen minutes, he had accomplished his purpose, and in the tenth lesson, no more mistakes occurred. The colt would fail to respond, however, as soon as he refrained from making any gestures, or was in a laissez faire frame of mind, or when he thought of other things. He therefore believes that there must have been some kind of immediate, though inexplicable, connection between the brain of the trainer and that of the horse. I think the explanation is evident: the connection was not as he thought, an immediate one, but arising through the mediation of the man's attitude ("attitude un peu baissée"), and of his movements ("gestes"), both resulting from his intense concentration ("tension de la pensée").
In general we may say that, no matter what content we may wish to put into the term "suggestion," not a single fact has since come to light which would justify, and much less demand, the application of the term to lower forms, unless we would expand the definition of the term to the extent of comprising every kind of command, every arousal of ideas, whatsoever. But it would then be nothing but a new name for old knowledge[62]and would lose all explanatory value. (Hypnotism, so-called, in the case of horses, I shall discuss elsewhere in another connection.)
[AD]An illustration is given by Babinet[66]concerning the horse of an English lord. Mr. Burkhardt-Foottit, also, that excellent trainer, who has been master for more than forty of the most highly-trained horses, tells us that while sitting on a well-managed horse it sometimes happened that he had merely thought of making a certain turn, when the horse immediately executed it, before he, the rider, had to his knowledge given any sign or aid. An observation belonging under this head is also made in Tolstoi's "Anna Karenina"[67], this perfect mine of acute psychological observation. In the famous description of the race we are told concerning Count Wronskij riding his Frou-Frou just behind Machotin mounted upon Gladiator, who was leading the race: "At the very moment when Wronskij thought that it was time to overtake Machotin, Frou-Frou, divining her master's thought, increased her pace considerably and this without any incitement on his part. She began to come nearer to Gladiator from the more favorable, the near side. But Machotin would not give it up. Wronskij was just considering that he might get past by making the larger circuit on the off-side, when Frou-Frou was already changing direction and began to pass Gladiator on that side." Similar experiences might be gathered elsewhere. Not infrequently the reflection of the rider that his horse had not for a long time indulged in some trick peculiar to him, will immediately call it forth; or doubts on the part of the rider concerning the possibility of crossing some barrier, are often the cause of the horse's fall or of his refusal to leap and of his running away.
[AD]An illustration is given by Babinet[66]concerning the horse of an English lord. Mr. Burkhardt-Foottit, also, that excellent trainer, who has been master for more than forty of the most highly-trained horses, tells us that while sitting on a well-managed horse it sometimes happened that he had merely thought of making a certain turn, when the horse immediately executed it, before he, the rider, had to his knowledge given any sign or aid. An observation belonging under this head is also made in Tolstoi's "Anna Karenina"[67], this perfect mine of acute psychological observation. In the famous description of the race we are told concerning Count Wronskij riding his Frou-Frou just behind Machotin mounted upon Gladiator, who was leading the race: "At the very moment when Wronskij thought that it was time to overtake Machotin, Frou-Frou, divining her master's thought, increased her pace considerably and this without any incitement on his part. She began to come nearer to Gladiator from the more favorable, the near side. But Machotin would not give it up. Wronskij was just considering that he might get past by making the larger circuit on the off-side, when Frou-Frou was already changing direction and began to pass Gladiator on that side." Similar experiences might be gathered elsewhere. Not infrequently the reflection of the rider that his horse had not for a long time indulged in some trick peculiar to him, will immediately call it forth; or doubts on the part of the rider concerning the possibility of crossing some barrier, are often the cause of the horse's fall or of his refusal to leap and of his running away.
[AE]All the authors who have given practical suggestions for the training of horses, whether free or with lunging reins, have great faith in the efficacy of calls, but usually recommend a mingling of calls and movements in the way of signs, (thus Loiset,[71]Baucher,[72]vonArnim[73]). It therefore cannot be stated just in how far the calls really effect anything. In other cases I am inclined to doubt outright the influence which is ascribed to the auditory signs. Meehan[74]gives an account of a horse that was exhibited in London in the early 90's of the last century. Pawing with his hoof, this horse apparently was able to count and answer questions in arithmetic, and among other accomplishments he was supposed also to be able to understand something of language. In reality, however, he merely responded to cues which were disclosed to the reporter by the trainer. In pawing, the horse was guided by movements of the trainer, and in nodding or shaking the head he reputedly got his cue from the inflections of the man's voice. Is it not probable that in this latter case it was the movements which accompanied speech that were alone effective in inducing the nod or the shake of the head, so that the exhibiter was deceiving not merely the public, but also himself? Perhaps we may also doubt the exposition made by the well-known hippologist, Colonel Spohr.[75]He tells us that it is easy to train horses to raise the left foot or the right foot in response to the commands "Left—foot!" or "Right—foot!" and that it will be the fore foot when one is standing in front of the horse, and the hind foot if one stands near the rear. It cannot be so very difficult, he thinks, even to get the horse to understand the commands "Left (or right)—fore foot!" and "Left (or right)—hind foot!"—and all without any other aids but the spoken words. Should this really be possible without even the slightest kind of designating movement?——The following case, again, I believe is undoubtedly based upon a misinterpretation. Redding[76]relates concerning his nineteen-year old horse that he himself had owned for thirteen years, and had always kept in single harness,——that this horse not only understood the meaning of a long list of words, such as: bureau, post-office, school, churchyard, apple, grass, etc., but he also knew a number of persons by name, as well as their places of residence. If he were told in advance to halt at a certain residence, he would do it without any further aid from the driver. For this reason the happy owner felt certain that the animal possessed a high order of intelligence and "that this horse does reason." What sources of error were here operative, whether signs were given by means of reins, or head or arm movements, could be determined only by a careful examination of the case.And finally we would exercise some reserve in entertaining the suggestions for the acoustic education of horses which have come from various sources. Colonel Spohr[77]whom we have just been mentioning, thinks that it would not be a difficult matter to get a horse to respond with a walk to one smack of the lips, with a trot to two smacks, and with a galop to three, and then he could be made to slacken his pace once more into a trot in response to one long-drawn "Pst!" and to stop in response to two. Others have gone even further. Decroix,[78]at one time leader in veterinary affairs in France, conceived the idea of working out a universal language as regards the commands that are given to horses, in the humane purpose of sparing them the whip. He called it "Volapük hippique." For the commands "go," "right," "left," and "halt," he suggests these: "Hi!" "Ha!" "Hé!" and "Ho!" respectively. From these it was possible to make eight combinations, such as "Hi! Hi!" for "Trot!" "Hé! Hé!" for "Left about" (while the single "Hé" was to mean "Forward, to the left!") "Ho! Ho!" for "Back!" etc. Decroix thought that the whole system could be inculcated in a very few lessons. He even had a medal struck which was to be awarded to the driver or rider who should first exhibit a horse, thus instructed, to the Société Nationale d'Acclimatation de France (of which Decroix was president). Eight years have elapsed since then, but we have heard of no one who has earned the medal mentioned. In the future greater care will probably be exercised in the putting forth of such suggestions, and two sources of error may be guarded against, viz.: involuntary movements on the part of the rider or driver, and imitation of the horses amongst themselves. (One horse, guarded by an experienced rider, may serve as copy for ten others with inexperienced men in the saddle.)
[AE]All the authors who have given practical suggestions for the training of horses, whether free or with lunging reins, have great faith in the efficacy of calls, but usually recommend a mingling of calls and movements in the way of signs, (thus Loiset,[71]Baucher,[72]vonArnim[73]). It therefore cannot be stated just in how far the calls really effect anything. In other cases I am inclined to doubt outright the influence which is ascribed to the auditory signs. Meehan[74]gives an account of a horse that was exhibited in London in the early 90's of the last century. Pawing with his hoof, this horse apparently was able to count and answer questions in arithmetic, and among other accomplishments he was supposed also to be able to understand something of language. In reality, however, he merely responded to cues which were disclosed to the reporter by the trainer. In pawing, the horse was guided by movements of the trainer, and in nodding or shaking the head he reputedly got his cue from the inflections of the man's voice. Is it not probable that in this latter case it was the movements which accompanied speech that were alone effective in inducing the nod or the shake of the head, so that the exhibiter was deceiving not merely the public, but also himself? Perhaps we may also doubt the exposition made by the well-known hippologist, Colonel Spohr.[75]He tells us that it is easy to train horses to raise the left foot or the right foot in response to the commands "Left—foot!" or "Right—foot!" and that it will be the fore foot when one is standing in front of the horse, and the hind foot if one stands near the rear. It cannot be so very difficult, he thinks, even to get the horse to understand the commands "Left (or right)—fore foot!" and "Left (or right)—hind foot!"—and all without any other aids but the spoken words. Should this really be possible without even the slightest kind of designating movement?——The following case, again, I believe is undoubtedly based upon a misinterpretation. Redding[76]relates concerning his nineteen-year old horse that he himself had owned for thirteen years, and had always kept in single harness,——that this horse not only understood the meaning of a long list of words, such as: bureau, post-office, school, churchyard, apple, grass, etc., but he also knew a number of persons by name, as well as their places of residence. If he were told in advance to halt at a certain residence, he would do it without any further aid from the driver. For this reason the happy owner felt certain that the animal possessed a high order of intelligence and "that this horse does reason." What sources of error were here operative, whether signs were given by means of reins, or head or arm movements, could be determined only by a careful examination of the case.
And finally we would exercise some reserve in entertaining the suggestions for the acoustic education of horses which have come from various sources. Colonel Spohr[77]whom we have just been mentioning, thinks that it would not be a difficult matter to get a horse to respond with a walk to one smack of the lips, with a trot to two smacks, and with a galop to three, and then he could be made to slacken his pace once more into a trot in response to one long-drawn "Pst!" and to stop in response to two. Others have gone even further. Decroix,[78]at one time leader in veterinary affairs in France, conceived the idea of working out a universal language as regards the commands that are given to horses, in the humane purpose of sparing them the whip. He called it "Volapük hippique." For the commands "go," "right," "left," and "halt," he suggests these: "Hi!" "Ha!" "Hé!" and "Ho!" respectively. From these it was possible to make eight combinations, such as "Hi! Hi!" for "Trot!" "Hé! Hé!" for "Left about" (while the single "Hé" was to mean "Forward, to the left!") "Ho! Ho!" for "Back!" etc. Decroix thought that the whole system could be inculcated in a very few lessons. He even had a medal struck which was to be awarded to the driver or rider who should first exhibit a horse, thus instructed, to the Société Nationale d'Acclimatation de France (of which Decroix was president). Eight years have elapsed since then, but we have heard of no one who has earned the medal mentioned. In the future greater care will probably be exercised in the putting forth of such suggestions, and two sources of error may be guarded against, viz.: involuntary movements on the part of the rider or driver, and imitation of the horses amongst themselves. (One horse, guarded by an experienced rider, may serve as copy for ten others with inexperienced men in the saddle.)
[AF]General Noizet[79]has left us a story of the middle of the last century, which in essential detail corresponds closely with the one just given. The scene is a French chateau and the hero is—a rapping table, highly prized on account of the intelligent answers it could give. Seated about it were a number of ladies and at the other end of the room sat a French savant, a member of the Academy. The ladies requested him to put a simple mathematical question to the table, and complying with their request, he asked for the cube root of 4. None of the ladies who sat about the table knew the solution; the table unhesitatingly gave 6 raps. This answer was refused as incorrect. The table was asked to try again, and again it wrapped 6. For this it was bitterly reproached. Hereupon the questioner, who during the whole time had remained in his place at the other end of the room, came forward with the confession that the table was innocent, that he had made a mistake. He had asked for the cube root of 4, but had really meant to ask for the cube of that number, viz., 64, and the table had as a matter of fact given the first numeral of that number.One is immediately struck by the analogy between this case and that of Professor Schillings. In both cases those immediately concerned (the women in the one, Mr. von Osten in the other) believe that a wrong answer is being given repeatedly. The cause of the error lies in a person who seemingly is not concerned with the response. (The Frenchman asked the question, but did not sit at the table. Professor Schillings sounded the notes, but it was Mr. von Osten who got the horse to tap.) In both instances the questioner asks one thing, but had something else in mind. (With the Frenchman it was a slip of the tongue; Mr. Schillings did it purposely.) And finally, in both cases the response corresponds not to the question that has been asked, but to that which has been thought, so that, though seemingly wrong, the responses of both table and horse were really correct. By way of explanation, Noizet believes that he has a case of true thought-transference or "telepathy" (page 108). The questioner watched with utmost attentiveness the rapping of the table, and the women in turn regarded the man. And thus, Noizet believes, the man's thought was transferred to the minds of the others without the mediation of eye or ear, etc., and hence unvitiated by the words that had been spoken. I myself prefer another explanation. At that moment in which the rapping arrived at the expected number, the Frenchman executed a movement characteristic of release of tension and to this the women of the circle reacted. It was not necessary that they should be able to account for this afterward, (just as sometimes occurs in the case of thought-readers[80]). It is very probable, too, that they were not of a very reflective turn of mind anyway. We are warranted, I think, in regarding the two cases as identical in kind.
[AF]General Noizet[79]has left us a story of the middle of the last century, which in essential detail corresponds closely with the one just given. The scene is a French chateau and the hero is—a rapping table, highly prized on account of the intelligent answers it could give. Seated about it were a number of ladies and at the other end of the room sat a French savant, a member of the Academy. The ladies requested him to put a simple mathematical question to the table, and complying with their request, he asked for the cube root of 4. None of the ladies who sat about the table knew the solution; the table unhesitatingly gave 6 raps. This answer was refused as incorrect. The table was asked to try again, and again it wrapped 6. For this it was bitterly reproached. Hereupon the questioner, who during the whole time had remained in his place at the other end of the room, came forward with the confession that the table was innocent, that he had made a mistake. He had asked for the cube root of 4, but had really meant to ask for the cube of that number, viz., 64, and the table had as a matter of fact given the first numeral of that number.
One is immediately struck by the analogy between this case and that of Professor Schillings. In both cases those immediately concerned (the women in the one, Mr. von Osten in the other) believe that a wrong answer is being given repeatedly. The cause of the error lies in a person who seemingly is not concerned with the response. (The Frenchman asked the question, but did not sit at the table. Professor Schillings sounded the notes, but it was Mr. von Osten who got the horse to tap.) In both instances the questioner asks one thing, but had something else in mind. (With the Frenchman it was a slip of the tongue; Mr. Schillings did it purposely.) And finally, in both cases the response corresponds not to the question that has been asked, but to that which has been thought, so that, though seemingly wrong, the responses of both table and horse were really correct. By way of explanation, Noizet believes that he has a case of true thought-transference or "telepathy" (page 108). The questioner watched with utmost attentiveness the rapping of the table, and the women in turn regarded the man. And thus, Noizet believes, the man's thought was transferred to the minds of the others without the mediation of eye or ear, etc., and hence unvitiated by the words that had been spoken. I myself prefer another explanation. At that moment in which the rapping arrived at the expected number, the Frenchman executed a movement characteristic of release of tension and to this the women of the circle reacted. It was not necessary that they should be able to account for this afterward, (just as sometimes occurs in the case of thought-readers[80]). It is very probable, too, that they were not of a very reflective turn of mind anyway. We are warranted, I think, in regarding the two cases as identical in kind.
[AG]Professor Flügel,[82]basing his statements on an article appearing in "Schorer's Familienblatt" (Berlin, 1890, No. 8, p. 128), gives an account of similar experiments which were supposed to have been conducted by the Zoological Society for Westphalia and Lippe, and presumably showed that "the horses of the military do not understand the bugle calls." No matter how well trained a horse may have been, it would not respond to a signal. This report, however, is due to a mistake. Such experiments have never been made by the society mentioned, so I am told by its director, Dr. Reeker. Nor do I know of any one else who has made experiments of this kind. However, Professor Landois,[83]the eminent zoologist, now deceased (founder of the scientific society mentioned), tested four circus-horses for their musical ability and specifically for their sense of musical time. He arrives at the conclusion that horses "have no feeling for time, whatsoever." With but fewexceptions,[84,85]all experts to-day are of the same opinion. Horse-trainers, especially, are universally agreed on this point. It is easy to see in any circus performance that it is not the horses that accommodate themselves to the music, but that the music accommodates itself to them, and that the trained horses[86]are induced to do their artistic stepping only by the aids given by their riders. Furthermore, all these horses are trained without the use of music.——It would therefore appear that the time had arrived when the tales of the dancing horses of the Sybarites ought no longer to gain credence. Two Greek writers, Athenaeus[87]and Ælian,[88]tell us that the inhabitants of Sybaris, far-famed for their luxurious habits, had trained their horses to dance to the music of flutes during their banquets. Building upon this, the men of Crotona, in one of their campaigns against the Sybarites, ordered the flute-players to play the tunes familiar to the Sybarite horses. Immediately the well-trained steeds began to dance, thus throwing the whole Sybarite army into confusion, and the men of Crotona won the day. (The same story is told in more detail concerning the horses of the inhabitants of Cardia. Both accounts, somewhat mixed, are to be found in Julius Africanus,[89]a writer of the third century of the Christian era.)—In recent years a French veterinary surgeon, Guénon,[90]experimented on the effect of music upon the horses of the military. He entered their stalls, playing upon a flute, and noted their behavior. Four-fifths of the animals, he says, were deeply moved, yes, delighted, even, ("charmés." One interpreter[91]calls it a case of hypnosis!). This emotional excitement was expressed—somewhat unaesthetically—by the dropping of excrementa. Guénon characterizes the feeling-state of these animals as being a mixture of pleasure and astonishment, of satisfaction and excitement ("mélange de plaisir et d'étonnement, de satisfaction et de trouble.") He also asserts that the horse's musical taste is similar to our own. But I can find nothing in his whole exposition which might prove this. Indeed there is nothing that could be interpreted as anything other than a purely sensuous effect upon the horses. I may go a step farther and say that thus far the sense of music, i. e., understanding of melody, harmony and rhythm, has not been shown to exist in any animal. Some animals may, however, be susceptible to the sensuous pleasantness of the tones themselves.
[AG]Professor Flügel,[82]basing his statements on an article appearing in "Schorer's Familienblatt" (Berlin, 1890, No. 8, p. 128), gives an account of similar experiments which were supposed to have been conducted by the Zoological Society for Westphalia and Lippe, and presumably showed that "the horses of the military do not understand the bugle calls." No matter how well trained a horse may have been, it would not respond to a signal. This report, however, is due to a mistake. Such experiments have never been made by the society mentioned, so I am told by its director, Dr. Reeker. Nor do I know of any one else who has made experiments of this kind. However, Professor Landois,[83]the eminent zoologist, now deceased (founder of the scientific society mentioned), tested four circus-horses for their musical ability and specifically for their sense of musical time. He arrives at the conclusion that horses "have no feeling for time, whatsoever." With but fewexceptions,[84,85]all experts to-day are of the same opinion. Horse-trainers, especially, are universally agreed on this point. It is easy to see in any circus performance that it is not the horses that accommodate themselves to the music, but that the music accommodates itself to them, and that the trained horses[86]are induced to do their artistic stepping only by the aids given by their riders. Furthermore, all these horses are trained without the use of music.——It would therefore appear that the time had arrived when the tales of the dancing horses of the Sybarites ought no longer to gain credence. Two Greek writers, Athenaeus[87]and Ælian,[88]tell us that the inhabitants of Sybaris, far-famed for their luxurious habits, had trained their horses to dance to the music of flutes during their banquets. Building upon this, the men of Crotona, in one of their campaigns against the Sybarites, ordered the flute-players to play the tunes familiar to the Sybarite horses. Immediately the well-trained steeds began to dance, thus throwing the whole Sybarite army into confusion, and the men of Crotona won the day. (The same story is told in more detail concerning the horses of the inhabitants of Cardia. Both accounts, somewhat mixed, are to be found in Julius Africanus,[89]a writer of the third century of the Christian era.)—In recent years a French veterinary surgeon, Guénon,[90]experimented on the effect of music upon the horses of the military. He entered their stalls, playing upon a flute, and noted their behavior. Four-fifths of the animals, he says, were deeply moved, yes, delighted, even, ("charmés." One interpreter[91]calls it a case of hypnosis!). This emotional excitement was expressed—somewhat unaesthetically—by the dropping of excrementa. Guénon characterizes the feeling-state of these animals as being a mixture of pleasure and astonishment, of satisfaction and excitement ("mélange de plaisir et d'étonnement, de satisfaction et de trouble.") He also asserts that the horse's musical taste is similar to our own. But I can find nothing in his whole exposition which might prove this. Indeed there is nothing that could be interpreted as anything other than a purely sensuous effect upon the horses. I may go a step farther and say that thus far the sense of music, i. e., understanding of melody, harmony and rhythm, has not been shown to exist in any animal. Some animals may, however, be susceptible to the sensuous pleasantness of the tones themselves.
[AH]I cannot enter upon a discussion of the latest psychological problems, here involved, partly because that would take us beyond the purpose of this monograph, and partly because they are still moot questions and hence not suited to popular treatment. Briefly though, they are these: What is the nature of the relationship between cognitive and affective states on the one hand and involuntary, (so-called expressive) movements on the other? Is this connection an external thing, as it were, an association arising as a habit formation, or does every idea partake essentially of a motor character? Do purely cognitive states give rise to such movements, or does the movement impulse depend more particularly upon the affective consciousness accompanying the cognitive states? And in how far do given kinds of expressive movements depend upon certain ideational types (c.f.page 95)? Thus, what is the influence of the visual image upon the gestures for "up," "down," etc.? And then, are these involuntary movements, when not noted, truly unconscious, or merely not attended to,——in other words, are they beyond the pale of consciousness or merely "at the fringe?" The various writers speak almost without exception of unconscious movements in the strict sense of the term. My own introspections, however, have led me to doubt whether they are quite unconscious. Since I have attained some practice I am able to describe in detail (under conditions of objective control) my involuntary movements, no matter how slight, even down to mere muscular tensions. None of my subjects, however, has as yet succeeded in this. It is no very easy matter to be on the lookout for some unknown movements which might eventually occur, while attempting to concentrate attention to the utmost upon a certain definite ideational content, for this very dividing of attention effects a decrease in the force of the movement, and thus makes it all the more difficult to discover. From my own experience, however, I am inclined to believe that these movements are not unconscious, but merely unattended to, in other words, we have a narrowing down of the apperceived content within certain limits, but not a narrowing down of consciousness, (much less a "splitting" of consciousness or of personality as the thing unfortunately has sometimes been called). In order, however, not to be guilty of premature judgment, I have avoided the terms "unconscious" and "unattended to," and chose expressions which leave these finer distinctions untouched.
[AH]I cannot enter upon a discussion of the latest psychological problems, here involved, partly because that would take us beyond the purpose of this monograph, and partly because they are still moot questions and hence not suited to popular treatment. Briefly though, they are these: What is the nature of the relationship between cognitive and affective states on the one hand and involuntary, (so-called expressive) movements on the other? Is this connection an external thing, as it were, an association arising as a habit formation, or does every idea partake essentially of a motor character? Do purely cognitive states give rise to such movements, or does the movement impulse depend more particularly upon the affective consciousness accompanying the cognitive states? And in how far do given kinds of expressive movements depend upon certain ideational types (c.f.page 95)? Thus, what is the influence of the visual image upon the gestures for "up," "down," etc.? And then, are these involuntary movements, when not noted, truly unconscious, or merely not attended to,——in other words, are they beyond the pale of consciousness or merely "at the fringe?" The various writers speak almost without exception of unconscious movements in the strict sense of the term. My own introspections, however, have led me to doubt whether they are quite unconscious. Since I have attained some practice I am able to describe in detail (under conditions of objective control) my involuntary movements, no matter how slight, even down to mere muscular tensions. None of my subjects, however, has as yet succeeded in this. It is no very easy matter to be on the lookout for some unknown movements which might eventually occur, while attempting to concentrate attention to the utmost upon a certain definite ideational content, for this very dividing of attention effects a decrease in the force of the movement, and thus makes it all the more difficult to discover. From my own experience, however, I am inclined to believe that these movements are not unconscious, but merely unattended to, in other words, we have a narrowing down of the apperceived content within certain limits, but not a narrowing down of consciousness, (much less a "splitting" of consciousness or of personality as the thing unfortunately has sometimes been called). In order, however, not to be guilty of premature judgment, I have avoided the terms "unconscious" and "unattended to," and chose expressions which leave these finer distinctions untouched.
[AI]The mental state just described is probably essentially the same as that of the spiritualistic "mediums" when they are occupied with table-rapping and table-moving. In both cases concentration is very intense,——in other words, the field of attention is limited. We saw that this state not only favors the tendency toward involuntary movement, but on account of the absorption of the individual's attention by a certain limited content, the person will be unaware of the voluntary movements as they occur. And we are not necessarily here dealing with neurasthenic, hysteric, or other diseased nervous conditions. In the case of table-rapping there are movements of the hands, in our case there are those of the head. Our head, balanced as it is upon the cervical vertebral column, is continually in a state of unstable equilibrium and therefore peculiarly susceptible to movement-impulses of every kind. But I could induce not only movements of the head, but also of the arms and legs, and this by having the subject assume a posture which enabled him to hold arms or legs in as unstable a position as possible. He might stretch out his legs horizontally before him, or he could raise them vertically upward as in the hand-stand in gymnastic work. An extract from a treatise by Count A. de Gasparin,[94]which appeared about the middle of the last century, may serve to show how close the correspondence between the two processes, that of getting the table to rap and that of causing Hans to respond, really is. The report of this writer, based upon the detailed record of his tests in table-moving and table-rapping, closely parallels in many minutedetails the observations which were made in the course of our experimentation with Hans. The case is all the more remarkable when we bear in mind that this writer did not seek the cause of the phenomena, as we did, in involuntary movements, but thrusting aside this explanation, he posited the cause in the agency of some mysterious fluid. It may not be amiss to say that this as well as most other references were consulted after the present experiments and introspections had been completed. Of the page references preceding the following citations, the first always refers to the page in the French original, and the other, enclosed in brackets, to the parallel passage in the present monograph.P. 49[31]. Some questioners are especially suitable ("experimentateurs hors ligne"), but in their absence, other persons may also operate successfully ("le succès, quoique moins brillant alors, n'est pas impossible.")P. 25[229]. But even the most suitable questioners do not always succeed equally well ("les plus sûrs d'eux-mêmes ne réussissaient pas également tous les jours.")P. 42[151]. When the questioner is in any way indisposed, the measure of success is also less.P. 91 & 87[150]. The Questioner must first get into the sweep of things ("en train"), and once he has done so, all interruption whatsoever must be avoided.P. 91[93]. Unless there is sufficient tension on the part of the questioner, the test will fail. ("La volonté est-elle absente, rien ne bouge.")P. 210[93]. When there is too low a degree of tension, then too great a number will be tapped ("si votre volonté ne les [les tables] arrête pas au moment où se termine le chiffre pensé, elles continueront indéfiniment.")P. 31[93]. But too great concentration of attention will also produce failure ("s'il n'arrivait ... de désirer trop fortement le succès et de m'impatienter en cas de retard, je n'avais plus aucune action sur la table.")P. 36[151]. If the proper mood ("entrain habituel") is wanting and the tests are unsuccessful, it is best not to attempt some new and difficult experiment, but to turn to some that are simpler and more entertaining ("La table obéissait mal; les coups étaient frappés mollement et comme à regret.... Alors nous avons pris un parti dont nous nous sommes bien trouvés; nous avons persévéré, et persévéré gaiement; ... nous avons écarté la pensée des tentatives nouvelles, et insisté sur les opérations aisées et amusantes. Après un certain temps les dispositions étaient changées, la table bondissait et attendait à peine nos commandements.")P. 199[41,90]. It is not necessary to enunciate the questions aloud ("On est convenu que celui qui commanderait ne prononcerait pas à haute voix le nombre de coups, mais se contenterait de les penser, après les avoir communiqués à l'oreille de son voisin. Eh bien! la table a obéi. Il n'y a jamais eu la moindre erreur.")P. 199[64 ff.]. The large numbers are tapped more rapidly than the small ones ("la table a indiqué notre âge tel qu'il était dans notre esprit, se hâtant même de la manière la plus comique lorsque le nombre des coups à frapper était un peu considérable.")P. 210[35 ff.]. Tests in which "procedure was without knowledge" failed completely ("Les tables ne révèlent pas ce qui n'est pas dans la pensée et dans la volonté de l'expérimentateur; quand on veut les charger d'autre chose que d'obéir comme des membres, on arrive à des erreurs continuelles.")P. 28, 29, 217[72]. When of two experimenters each tries to get the horse to tap a different number, then that one who is the better able to compel the animal's attention, will be the successful one. ("L'un veut faire prévaloire un chiffre pensé plus considérable, l'autre un chiffre pensé moins considérable.... Eh bien: l'opérateur le plus puissant l'emporte." "Ainsi A est chargé secrètement de faire frapper 25 coups, B est chargé secrètement de l'arrêter à 18; A l'emporte, et les 25 coups s'achèvent.... On fait maintenant l'inverse: B est chargé secrètement de faire frapper 13 coups; A est chargé secrètement de l'arrêter à 7; A l'emporte encore et le chiffre 7 ne peut être dépassé.")
[AI]The mental state just described is probably essentially the same as that of the spiritualistic "mediums" when they are occupied with table-rapping and table-moving. In both cases concentration is very intense,——in other words, the field of attention is limited. We saw that this state not only favors the tendency toward involuntary movement, but on account of the absorption of the individual's attention by a certain limited content, the person will be unaware of the voluntary movements as they occur. And we are not necessarily here dealing with neurasthenic, hysteric, or other diseased nervous conditions. In the case of table-rapping there are movements of the hands, in our case there are those of the head. Our head, balanced as it is upon the cervical vertebral column, is continually in a state of unstable equilibrium and therefore peculiarly susceptible to movement-impulses of every kind. But I could induce not only movements of the head, but also of the arms and legs, and this by having the subject assume a posture which enabled him to hold arms or legs in as unstable a position as possible. He might stretch out his legs horizontally before him, or he could raise them vertically upward as in the hand-stand in gymnastic work. An extract from a treatise by Count A. de Gasparin,[94]which appeared about the middle of the last century, may serve to show how close the correspondence between the two processes, that of getting the table to rap and that of causing Hans to respond, really is. The report of this writer, based upon the detailed record of his tests in table-moving and table-rapping, closely parallels in many minutedetails the observations which were made in the course of our experimentation with Hans. The case is all the more remarkable when we bear in mind that this writer did not seek the cause of the phenomena, as we did, in involuntary movements, but thrusting aside this explanation, he posited the cause in the agency of some mysterious fluid. It may not be amiss to say that this as well as most other references were consulted after the present experiments and introspections had been completed. Of the page references preceding the following citations, the first always refers to the page in the French original, and the other, enclosed in brackets, to the parallel passage in the present monograph.
P. 49[31]. Some questioners are especially suitable ("experimentateurs hors ligne"), but in their absence, other persons may also operate successfully ("le succès, quoique moins brillant alors, n'est pas impossible.")
P. 25[229]. But even the most suitable questioners do not always succeed equally well ("les plus sûrs d'eux-mêmes ne réussissaient pas également tous les jours.")
P. 42[151]. When the questioner is in any way indisposed, the measure of success is also less.
P. 91 & 87[150]. The Questioner must first get into the sweep of things ("en train"), and once he has done so, all interruption whatsoever must be avoided.
P. 91[93]. Unless there is sufficient tension on the part of the questioner, the test will fail. ("La volonté est-elle absente, rien ne bouge.")
P. 210[93]. When there is too low a degree of tension, then too great a number will be tapped ("si votre volonté ne les [les tables] arrête pas au moment où se termine le chiffre pensé, elles continueront indéfiniment.")
P. 31[93]. But too great concentration of attention will also produce failure ("s'il n'arrivait ... de désirer trop fortement le succès et de m'impatienter en cas de retard, je n'avais plus aucune action sur la table.")
P. 36[151]. If the proper mood ("entrain habituel") is wanting and the tests are unsuccessful, it is best not to attempt some new and difficult experiment, but to turn to some that are simpler and more entertaining ("La table obéissait mal; les coups étaient frappés mollement et comme à regret.... Alors nous avons pris un parti dont nous nous sommes bien trouvés; nous avons persévéré, et persévéré gaiement; ... nous avons écarté la pensée des tentatives nouvelles, et insisté sur les opérations aisées et amusantes. Après un certain temps les dispositions étaient changées, la table bondissait et attendait à peine nos commandements.")
P. 199[41,90]. It is not necessary to enunciate the questions aloud ("On est convenu que celui qui commanderait ne prononcerait pas à haute voix le nombre de coups, mais se contenterait de les penser, après les avoir communiqués à l'oreille de son voisin. Eh bien! la table a obéi. Il n'y a jamais eu la moindre erreur.")
P. 199[64 ff.]. The large numbers are tapped more rapidly than the small ones ("la table a indiqué notre âge tel qu'il était dans notre esprit, se hâtant même de la manière la plus comique lorsque le nombre des coups à frapper était un peu considérable.")
P. 210[35 ff.]. Tests in which "procedure was without knowledge" failed completely ("Les tables ne révèlent pas ce qui n'est pas dans la pensée et dans la volonté de l'expérimentateur; quand on veut les charger d'autre chose que d'obéir comme des membres, on arrive à des erreurs continuelles.")
P. 28, 29, 217[72]. When of two experimenters each tries to get the horse to tap a different number, then that one who is the better able to compel the animal's attention, will be the successful one. ("L'un veut faire prévaloire un chiffre pensé plus considérable, l'autre un chiffre pensé moins considérable.... Eh bien: l'opérateur le plus puissant l'emporte." "Ainsi A est chargé secrètement de faire frapper 25 coups, B est chargé secrètement de l'arrêter à 18; A l'emporte, et les 25 coups s'achèvent.... On fait maintenant l'inverse: B est chargé secrètement de faire frapper 13 coups; A est chargé secrètement de l'arrêter à 7; A l'emporte encore et le chiffre 7 ne peut être dépassé.")