3. In questions,shallis always used in the first person; in the second and third persons the same auxiliary is used which is expected in the answer.
(NOTE.—Shouldandwouldfollow the rules forshallandwill.)
+61. Tenses for the Completed Action.+
1. To represent an action as completed at thepresenttime, the past participle is used withhave(hast, has). This forms thepresent perfecttense: [Ihave finished].
2. To represent an action as completed inpasttime, the past participle is combined withhad(hadst). This forms thepast perfect, orpluperfect, tense: [Ihad finished].
3. To represent action that will be completedin futuretime,shall haveorwill haveis combined with the past participle. This forms thefuture perfecttense: [Ishall have finished].
+62. Sequence of Tenses.+—It is, in general, true that the tense of a subordinate clause changes when the tense of the main verb changes. This is known as the Law of the Sequence (orfollowing) of Tenses: [I know he means well. I knew he meant well].
The verb in the main clause and the verb in the subordinate clause are not necessarily in the same tense.
[I think heisthere. I thought he was there.I think hewasthere. I thought he had been there.I think hewill bethere. I thought he would be there.]
In general, the principle may be laid down that in a complex sentence the tense for both principal and subordinate clauses is that which the sense requires.
General truths and present facts should be expressed in the present tense, whatever the tense of the principal verb: [He believed that truthisunchangeable. Who did you sayispresident of your society?].
Theperfect infinitiveis used to denote action completed at the time of the main verb: [I am sorryto have woundedyou].
+63. Mode.+—A statement may be regarded as the expression of a fact, of a doubt or supposition, or of a command. The power of the verb to show how an action should be regarded is calledmode (mood). In our language there is but a slight change of form for this purpose. The distinction of mode which we must make is a distinction that has regard to the thought or attitude of mind of the speaker rather than to the form of the verb.
Theindicativemode is used to state a fact or to ask questions of fact:[I shall write a letter. Shall I write a letter?].
Thesubjunctivemode indicates uncertainty, unreality, and some forms of condition: [If she were here, I should be glad].
Theimperativemode expresses a command or entreaty: [Come here].
+64. The Subjunctive Mode.+—The subjunctive is disappearing from colloquial speech, and the indicative form is used almost entirely.
The verbto behas the following indicative and subjunctive forms in the present and preterite:—
IND. SUBJ. IND. SUBJ.{ I am I be { I was I were{ Thou art Thou be { Thou wast Thou werePRESENT { He is He be PRETERITE { He was He were{ We are We be { We were We were{ You are You be { You were You were{ They are They be { They were They were
In other verbs the indicative and subjunctive forms are the same, except that the second and third persons singular subjunctive have no personal endings.
INDICATIVE Thou learnest He learnsSUBJUNCTIVE Thou learn He learn
The subjunctive idea is sometimes expressed by verb phrases, containing the auxiliary verbsmay (might), would, orshould.May, would, andshouldare not, however, always subjunctive. In "Imaygo" (may = am allowed to),mayis indicative. In "youshouldgo" (= ought to),shouldis indicative.
The subjunctive mode is used most frequently to express:—
1. A wish: [The Lord be with you].
2. A condition regarded as doubtful: [If it be true, what shall we think?], or a condition regarded as untrue: [If I were you, I should go]. When condition is expressed by the subjunctive withoutif, the verb precedes the subject: [Were my brother here, he could go with me].
3. A purpose: [He studies that he may learn].
4. Exhortations: [Sing we the song of freedom].
5. A concession,—supposed, not given as a fact: [Though he be my enemy, I shall pity him].
6. A possibility: [We fear lest he be too late].
The tenses of the subjunctive require especial notice. In conditional clauses, thepresentrefers either to present or future time: [Though the earth be removed, we shall not fear].
Thepreteriterefers to present time. It implies that the supposed case is not a fact: [If he were here, I should be much pleased].
Thepluperfectsubjunctive expresses a false supposition in past time:[If you had been here, this would not have happened].
The phrases withmay, might, can, must, could, would, andshouldare sometimes called thepotential mode, but the constructions all fall within either the indicative or the subjunctive uses, and a fourth mode is only an incumbrance.
+65. The Imperative Mode.+—The imperative is the mode of command and entreaty. It has but one form for both singular and plural, and but one tense,—the present. It has but one person,—the second. The subject is usually omitted. The case of direct address, frequently used with the imperative, should not be confused with the subject. In, "John, hold my books," the subject isyou, understood. WereJohnthe subject, the verb must beholds.Johnis, here, a compellative, or vocative.
+66. Voice.+—Verbs are said to be in theactivevoice when they represent the subject as acting, and in thepassivevoice when they represent the subject as being acted upon. Intransitive verbs, from their very nature, have no passive voice. Transitive verbs may have both voices, for they may represent the subject either as acting or as being acted upon.
The direct object in the active voice generally becomes the subject in the passive; if the subject of the active appears in the passive, it is the object of the prepositionby: [My dog loves me (active). I am loved by my dog (passive)].
Verbs of calling, naming, making, and thinking may take two objects referring to the same person or thing. The first of these is the direct object and the second is called the objective complement: [John called hima coward]. The objective complement becomes an attribute complement when the verb is changed from the active to the passive voice: [He was calleda cowardby John].
Certain verbs take both a direct and an indirect object in the active:[John paid him ninedollars]. If the indirect object becomes the subjectin the passive voice, the direct object is known as theretained object:[He was paid ninedollarsby John].
+67. Infinitives.+—The infinitive form of the verb is often called a verbal noun, because it partakes of the nature both of the verb and of the noun. It is distinguished from thefinite, or true, verb because it does not make an assertion, and yet it assumes one. While it has the modifiers and complements of a verb, it at the same time has the uses of a noun.
There are two infinitives: theroot infinitive(commonly preceded byto, the so-calledsignof the infinitive), and thegerund, orinfinitive in -ing.
1. Root infinitive: [To writea theme requires practice].
2. Gerund: [Ridingrapidly is dangerous]. In each of these sentences the infinitive, in its capacity as noun, stands as the subject of the sentence. In 1,to writeshows its verb nature by governing the objecttheme;in 2,ridingshows its verb nature by taking as a modifier the adverbrapidly.
Each form of the infinitive is found as the subject of a verb, as its object, as an attribute complement, and as the object of a preposition. The root infinitive, together with its subject in the objective case, is used as the object of verbs of knowing, telling, etc.: [I knowhim to be a good boy]. See also Appendix 85 for adjective and adverbial uses.
The infinitive has two tenses: thepresentand theperfect. Thepresenttense denotes action which is not completed at the time of the principal verb: [He triesto write. He triedto write. He will tryto write]. Theperfectinfinitive denotes action complete with reference to the time of the principal verb: [I am gladto have knownher].
+68. Participles.+—Participles are verbal adjectives: [The girlplayingthe piano is my cousin].Playing, as anadjective, modifies the noungirl; it shows itsverbalnature by taking the objectpiano.
Thepresent participleends in-ing. When thepast participlehas an ending, it is either-d, -ed, -t, or-en. Theperfect participleis formed by combininghavingwith a past participle; as,having gone.
There is danger of confusing the present participle with the gerund, or infinitive in-ing, unless the adjective character of the one and the noun character of the other are clearly distinguished: [The boy,drivingthe cows to pasture, was performing his daily task (participle).Drivingthe cows to pasture was his daily task (gerund)].
Participles are used to form verb-phrases. The present participle is used for the formation of the progressive conjugation; the past participle, for the formation of the compound or perfect tenses. Participles are also used in all the adjective constructions.
One especial construction requires notice,—theabsoluteconstruction, or thenominative absolute, as it is called: [The ceremony having been finished, the people dispersed]. The construction here is equivalent to a clause denotingtimeorcauseor somecircumstanceattendant on the main action of the sentence. The participle is sometimes omitted, but the substantive must not be, lest the participle be left apparently belonging to the nearest substantive; as, Walking home, the rain began to fall. As the sentence stands,walkingmodifiesrain.
+69. Conjugation.+—The complete and orderly arrangement of the various forms of a verb is termed its conjugation. Complete conjugations will be found in any text-book on English grammar.
The passive voice must not be confused with such a form as the progressive conjugation of the verb. The passive consists of a form ofto beand apast participle: [I am instructed]. The progressive tenses combine some form ofto bewith apresentparticiple: [I am instructing].
It may be well to distinguish here between the passive voice and a past participle used as an attribute complement of the verbbe. Both have the same form, but there is a difference of meaning. The passive voice always shows action received by the subject, while the participle is used only as an adjective denoting condition: [Jameswas tiredby his day's work (passive voice). James wastired(attribute complement)].
+70. Weak and Strong Conjugations.+—Verbs are divided into two classes as regards their conjugations. It has been the custom to call all verbs which form the preterite and past participle by adding-dor-edto the present,regularverbs [love, loved, loved], and to call all othersirregular. A better classification, based on more careful study of the history of the English verb, divides verbs into those of theweakand those of thestrongconjugations.
Theweak verbsare those which form the preterite by adding-ed, -d, or-tto the present:love, loved. There is also infrequently a change of vowel:sell, sold;teach, taught.
All verbs which form the preterite without the addition of an ending arestrong verbs. There is usually a change of vowel. The termination of the past participle in-nor-enis a sure indication that a verb isstrong. Some verbs show forms of both conjugations.
A complete list ofstrongverbs cannot be given here, but a few of the most common will be given, together with a fewweakverbs, in the use of which mistakes occur.
PRESENT PRETERITE PAST PARTICIPLE am was been arise rose arisen bear bore borne, born[1] begin began begun bid (command) bade bidden bite bit bitten blow blew blown break broke broken bring brought brought burst burst burst catch caught caught choose chose chosen climb climbed climbed come came come do did done drink drank drunk[2] drive drove driven drown drowned drowned eat ate eaten fall fell fallen fly flew flown freeze froze frozen get got got give gave given go went gone grow grew grown have had had hide hid hidden hurt hurt hurt know knew known lay laid laid lie (recline) lay lain lead led led read read read ride rode ridden ring rang rung run ran run see saw seen shake shook shaken show showed shown sing sang sung sink sank sunk sit sat sat slay slew slain speak spoke spoken spring sprang sprung steal stole stolen swell swell { swelled { swollen swim swam swum take took taken tear tore torn throw threw thrown wear wore worn wish wished wished write wrote written
[Footnote 1: Used only in the passive sense of "born into the world."][Footnote 2:Drunkenis an adjective.]
CAUTION.—Do not confuse the preterite with the past participle. Always use the past participle form in the compound tenses.
+71. Classes of Adverbs.+—Adverbs vary much as to their use and meaning. It is therefore impossible to make a very accurate classification, but we may divide them, according to use, intolimiting, interrogative, andconjunctiveadverbs.
Limitingadverbs modify the meaning of verbs, etc.: [He rowswell].
Interrogativeadverbs are used to ask questions: [Whenshall you come? He askedwherewe were going (indirect question)].
Conjunctiveadverbs introduce clauses: [We went to the seashore,wherewe stayed a month]. Herewhereis used as a connective and also as a modifier ofstayed.
Conjunctive adverbs introduce the following kinds of clauses:
1. Adverbial clauses: [Gowhereduty calls].
2. Adjective clauses: [This is the very spotwhereI put them].
3. Noun clause: [I do not knowhowhe will succeed].
Adverbs may also be classified, according to meaning, into adverbs ofmanner, time, place, anddegree. The classification is not, however, a rigid one.
Adverbs ofmanneranswer the question How? Most of these terminate in-ly. A few, however, are identical in form with adjectives of like meaning: [She sang very loud].
Adverbs oftimeanswer the question When?
Adverbs ofplaceanswer the question Where? This class, together with the preceding two classes, usually modify verbs.
Adverbs of degreeanswer the question To what extent? These adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.
+72. Phrasal Adverbs.+—Certain phrases, adverbial in character, cannot easily be separated into parts. They have been calledphrased adverbs;as, arm-in-arm, now-a-days, etc.
+73. Inflection.+—Some adverbs, like adjectives, are compared for the purpose of showing different degrees of quality or quantity.
The comparative and superlative degrees may be formed by adding the syllableserandestto the positive degree. The great majority of adverbs, however, make use of the wordsmoreandmostorlessandleastto show a difference in degree: [Fast, faster, fastest; skillfully, more skillfully, most skillfully; carefully, less carefully, least carefully].
Some adverbs are compared irregularly:—
badly } worse worst ill (evil)} far } { farther { farthest forth } { further { furthest late later { latest { last little less least much more most nigh nigher { nigher { next well better best
+74. Suggestions and Cautions concerning the Use of Adverbs.+
1. Some words, asfast, little, much, more, and others, have the same form for both adjective and adverb, and use alone can determine what part of speech each is.
(Adjective) He is a fast driver. She looks well (in good health).
(Adverb) How fast he walks! I learned my lesson well.
2. Corresponding adjectives and adverbs usually have different forms which should not be confused.
(Adjective) She is a good student.
(Adverb) He works well.
3. The adjective, and not the adverbial, form should be used after a copulative verb, since adverbs cannot modify substantives: [I feel bad; not, I feel badly].
4. Two negatives imply an affirmative. Hence only one should be used to denote negation: [I have nothing to say. I have no patience with him].
+75. Equivalents for Adverbs.+
1. A phrase: [The child ran awaywith great glee].
2. A clause: [I will go canoeingwhen the lake is calm].
3. A noun: [Please comehome. I will stay fiveminutes].
+76. Classes of Prepositions.+—Thesimpleprepositions are:at, after, against, but, by, down, for, from, in, of, off, over, on, since, through, till, to, under, up, andwith.
Other prepositions are either derived or compound: such as,underneath, across, between, concerning, andnotwithstanding.
+77. Suggestions concerning the Use of Prepositions.+—Mistakes are frequently made in the use of the preposition. This use cannot be fully discussed here, but a partial list of words with the required preposition will be given.
afraidof. agreewitha person. agreetoa proposal. bestowupon. compareto(to show similarity). comparewith(to show similarity or difference). complywith. conformto. convenientfororto. correspondtoorwith(a thing). correspondwith(a person). dependenton. differfrom(a person or thing). differfromorwith(an opinion). differentfrom. disappointedin. frightenedatorby. gladof. needof. profitby. scaredby. tasteof(food). tastefor(art). thirstfororafter.
Like, originally an adjective or adverb, is often, in some of its uses, called a preposition. It governs the objective case, and should not be used as a conjunction: [She looks likeme;not, She looks like I do]. The appropriateconjunctionhere would beas: [She speaksasI do].
The prepositionsinandatdenote rest or motionina place;intodenotes motiontowarda place: [He isinthe garden. He wentintothe garden].
+78. Prepositional Phrases.+—The preposition, with its object, forms what is termed a prepositional phrase. This phrase isadjectivein force when it modifies a substantive; andadverbial, when it modifies a verb, adjective, or other adverb: [In the cottageby the sea(adjective). He saton the bench(adverb)].
Some prepositions were originally adverbs; such as,in, on, off, up, andto. Many of them are still used adverbially or as adverbial suffixes: [The ship lay to. A storm came on].
+79. Classes of Conjunctions.+—Conjunctions are divided according to their use into two general classes: thecoördinateand thesubordinateconjunctions.
Coördinateconjunctions are used to connect words, phrases, and clauses of equal rank;subordinateconjunctions connect clauses of unequal rank.
The principal coördinate conjunctions areand, but, or, nor, andfor.Andis said to becopulativebecause it merely adds something to what has just been said. Other conjunctions having a copulative use arealso, besides, likewise, moreover, andtoo; and the correlative conjunctions,both … and, not only … but also, etc. These are termedcorrelativebecause they occur together.Butis termed theadversativecoördinate conjunction because it usually introduces something adverse to what has already been said. Other words of an adversative nature areyet, however, nevertheless, only, notwithstanding, andstill.Oris alternative in its force. This conjunction implies that there is a choice to be made.
Other similar conjunctions areeither … or, neither … nor, or, else.Either … orandneither … norare termedcorrelativeconjunctions, and they introduce alternatives.For, because, such, and as arecoördinateconjunctions only in such a case as the following: [She has been running, for she is out of breath].
Some of the most common conjunctions of thesubordinatetype are those of place and time, cause, condition, purpose, comparison, concession, and result.Thatintroducing a subordinate clause may be called asubstantiveconjunction: [I knewthatI ought to go].
There are a number of subordinate conjunctions used in pairs which are calledcorrelatives. The principal pairs areas … so, as … as, so … as, if … then, though … yet.
+80. Simple and Compound Sentences.+—In the first section of this review the parts of a sentence were named as thesubjectandpredicate.
Thesubjectmay itself consist of two parts joined by one of the coördinating conjunctions: [Aliceandher cousin are here]. The predicate may be formed in a similar fashion: [John playedandmade merry all day long]. Both subject and predicate may be so compounded: [JohnandRichard climbed the ladderandjumped on the hay].
In all these cases the sentence, consisting as it does of but one subject and one predicate, is said to besimple.
When two clauses—that is, two groups of words containing each a subject and predicate—are united by a coördinate conjunction, the sentence is said to becompound: [John wished to play Indian,butRichard preferred to play railroad].
The coördinating conjunction need not actually appear in the sentence. Its omission is then indicated by the punctuation: [John wished to play Indian; Richard preferred another game].
+81. Subordinate Conjunctions and Complex Sentences.+—Asubordinateconjunction is used to join a subordinate clause to a principal clause, thus forming acomplexsentence. The test to be applied to a clause in order to ascertain whether it is a subordinate clause, is this: if any group of words in a sentence, containing a subject and predicate, fulfills the office of some single part of speech, it is asubordinateclause. In the sentence, "I went because I knew that I must," the clause, "because I knew that I must" states the reason for the action named in the main clause. It, therefore, stands inadverbialrelation to the verb "went." "That I must" is the object of "knew." It, therefore, stands in asubstantiverelation to the verb.
Subordinate clauses are often introduced by subordinate conjunctions (sometimes by relative pronouns or adverbs); but, whenever such a clause appears in a sentence, otherwise simple, the sentence iscomplex. If it appears in a sentence otherwise compound, the sentence iscompound-complex.
The different types of subordinate clauses will be discussed later.
+82. Phrases.+—Phrases are classified both as to structure and use.
From the standpoint of structure, a phrase is classified from its introductory word or words, as:—
1.Prepositional: [They werein the temple].
2.Infinitive: [He triedto make us hear].
3.Participial: [Having finished my letter].
Classified as to use, a phrase may be—
1. Anoun: [To be good is to be truly great].
2. Anadjective: [The horse is an animalof much intelligence].
3. Anadverb: [He livesin the city].
+83. Clauses.+—It has been already shown that clauses may be either principal or subordinate. A principal clause is sometimes defined as "one that can stand alone," and is therefore independent of the rest of the sentence. This statement is misleading, for, although true in most cases, it does not hold in cases like the following:—
1. As the tree falls, so it must lie.
2. That sunshine is cheering, cannot be denied.
The genuine test for the subordinate clause is the one already given in connection with the study of the subordinate conjunction. It must serve the purpose of some single part of speech. All other clauses are principal clauses.
+84. Classification of Subordinate Clauses.+—A.Subordinate clauses may be classified intosubstantiveandmodifyingclauses.
Substantive clausesshow the various substantive constructions. Thus:—
1. Subject: ["Thou shalt not covet," is the tenth commandment].
2. Object: [I knowwhat you wish].
3. Appositive: [The truththat the earth is sphericalis generally believed].
4. Attribute complement: [The truth isthat she is not well].
Modifying clausesshow adjective and adverbial constructions.
Thus:—
1. Adjective: [The housewhich you seeis mine].
2. Adverb: [I will gowhenit is possible].
B.Subordinate clauses may also be classified according to the introductory word.
(a) Clauses introduced byrelativeorinterrogative pronouns:who, which, what, that(= who or which),as(after such), and the compound relatives,whoever, whichever, whatever(the first three are both relative and interrogative): [The schoolthat stands on the hillsideis painted white. I knowwhom youmean].
(b) Clauses introduced by a relative or interrogative adjective: [The manwhose library is well furnishedis rich. I seewhich way I ought to take].
(c) Clauses introduced by a relative or interrogative adverb, such aswhen, whenever, since(referring to time),until, before, after, where, whence, whither, wherever, why, as, how: [I know the housewhere lie lives].
(d) Clauses introduced by a subordinate conjunction, such asbecause, since(= because),though, although, if, unless, that(= in order that),as, as if, as though, then: [I will gosince you wish it].
C.Subordinate clauses may also be classified according to the nature of the thought expressed.
(a) General description: [The house,which stands on the hill, has a fine view].
(b) Place: [The housewhere he was bornis torn down].
(c) Time: [He workswhenever hecan].
(d) Cause: [Since you wish it, I will go].
(e) Concession: [Although he is my friend, I can see his faults].
(f) Purpose: [Run,that you may obtain the prize].
(g) Result: [She was so tiredthat she stumbled].
(h) Condition: [If it rains, we shall not go].
(i) Comparison: [You look asif you were tired].
Note that the subordinate clauses in the above examples are modifying clauses.
(j) Direct quotation: [She said, "I will go"].
(k) Indirect statement: [She saidthat she would go].
(l) Indirect question: [I knewwhere his housewas].
Note that the subordinate clauses in the above examples are substantive clauses.
+85. The Framework of a Sentence+ has been already described as consisting of thesubject, theverb, and, if the verb be incomplete, of some completing element,objectorattribute complement. Occasionally anobjective complementmust be added. Besides these elementary parts, both subject and predicate may have modifiers.
The usual modifiers of the subject are:—
1. Adjective: [Thegoldenbowl is broken].
2. Adjective phrase: [The houseon the hillis beautiful].
3. Adjective clause: [The housewhich stands on the hillis beautiful].
4. Noun or pronoun in possessive case: [Helen'spaint box is lost].
5. Noun in apposition: [Mr. Merrill, thepresidentof the club, will open the debate].
6. Adverb used as an adjective: [Mysometimefriend].
7. Infinitive used adjectively: [Workto dois a blessing].
8. Participle: [The child,laggingbehind, lost her way].
The modifiers of the predicate are:—
1. Adverb: [The snow melted veryquickly].
2. Noun used adverbially: [I walked amile].
3. Infinitive used adverbially: [We were called togetherto decidean important question].
4. Adverbial phrase: [She ranalong the road].
5. Adverbial clause: [Gowhen you can].
6. Nominative absolute: [Thespeeches being over, the audience dispersed].
Occasionally, adverbs and phrases of adverbial character modify the entire thought in a sentence, rather than some single word: [To speak plainly,I cannot go.PerhapsI may help you].
+86. Special Words.+—A list is here given of words which appear as various parts of speech:—-
+a+ (1) Adjective:Abook. (2) Preposition: I go a-fishing.
+about+ (1) Preposition: Walkaboutthe house. (2) Adverb: We walkedaboutfor an hour.By, over, up, etc., are used in the same way.
+above+ (1) Preposition: The sun isabovethe horizon. (2) Adverb: Goabove. (3) Noun: Every good gift is fromabove. (4)Adjective: Theaboveremarks are discredited.Belowhasthe same uses.
+after+ (1) Preposition:Afterour sail. (2) Conjunctive adverb: He cameaftershe went away.
+all+ (1) Pronoun:Allwent merry as a marriage bell. (2) Noun: I gave myall. (3) Adjective:Allhands to the rescue. (4) Adverb: The work isallright.
+as+ (1) Conjunctive pronoun: I give suchasI have. (2) Conjunctive adverb: I am not so oldasshe. (3) Adverb: What other grief isashard to bear? (4) Conjunction:Asit was hot, we did not go. (5) Preposition: I warned herasa friend. (6) Compound Conjunction: He looksasif he were not well.
+before+ (1) Preposition: He stoodbeforethe door. (2) ConjunctiveAdverb: I will do itbeforeI go. (3) Adverb: She has neverbeen herebefore.
+both+ (1) Adjective:Bothwhite and red pines are beautiful. (2)Pronoun:Bothare yours. (3) Conjunction: She isbothgood and beautiful.
+but+ (1) Conjunction: John readsbutRichard plays. (2) Preposition:Allbuthim are at home. (3) Adverb: We canbutfail.
+either+ (1) Adjective:Eitherdress is becoming. (2) Conjunction:Eitherthis dress or the other is becoming. (3) Pronoun:Eitheris right.
+fast+ (1) Noun: A longfast. (2) Verb: Theyfastoften. (3) Adverb: The rain fellfast. (4) Adjective: He is afastwalker.
+for+ (1) Subordinate Conjunction: I must go,forI promised. (2) Coördinate Conjunction: She stayed at home,forI saw her. (3) Preposition: I have nothingforyou.
+hard+ (1) Adjective:Hardlabor. (2) Adverb: He workshard.
+like+ (1) Noun: We may never see herlikeagain. (2) Adjective: This process giveslikeresults. (3) Adverb:Likeas a father pitieth his children. (4) Preposition: She lookslikeme. (By some grammarianslikein this case is considered aadjectivewith the prepositiontoomitted.) (5) Verb: Youlikeyour work.
+little+ (1) Adjective: Alittlebread. (2) Noun: I wish alittle. (3) Adverb: He laughslittle.Muchhas the same uses.
+many a+ (1) Adjective:Many atree.
+notwithstanding+ (1) Preposition:Notwithstandingthe rain, we were content. (2) Conjunction or Preposition: She is happy,notwithstanding(the fact that) she is an invalid.
+only+ (1) Adjective: This is theonlyway. (2) Adverb:Onlyexperienced persons need apply. (3) Conjunction: I should go,onlyit is stormy.
+since+ (1) Preposition:Sincethat day I have not seen her. (2) Conjunction:Sinceyou lost it, you must replace it. (3) Adverb: I have not seen hersince. (4) Conjunctive Adverb: You have been heresinceI have.
+still+ (1) Adjective: The lake isstill. (2) Adverb: The tree isstilllying where it fell. (3) Conjunction: He is entertaining;stillhe talks too much. (4) Verb: Oil is said tostillthe waves. (5) Noun: In thestillof noonday the song of the locust was loud.
+than+ (1) Conjunction: I am olderthanshe. (2) Preposition:Thanwhom there is none wiser.
+that+ (1) Demonstrative Pronoun:Thatis right. (2) Conjunctive Pronoun: Hethatlives nobly is happy. (3) Adjective:Thatbook is mine. (4) Conjunction: I say thisthatyou may understand my position. (5) Substantive Conjunction:Thatthis is true is evident.
+the+ (1) Adjective (article):Thelake. (2) Adverb:Themore …themerrier.
+then+ (1) Adverb: I shall knowthen. (2) Conjunction: If you sodecide,thenwe may go.
+there+ (1) Adverb: The stream runsthere. (2) Expletive:Thereare many points to be considered. (3) Interjection:There! there!it makes no difference!
+what+ (1) Conjunctive Interrogative Pronoun: I heardwhatyou said. Pronoun:Whatshall I do? (3) Interrogative Adjective:Whatgame do you prefer? (4) Conjunctive Adjective: I knowwhatbooks he enjoys. (5) Adverb:Whatwith this andwhatwith that, he finally got his wish. (6) Interjection:What! what!
+while+ (1) Noun: A longwhile. (2) Verb: Towhileaway the time. (3) Conjunctive Adverb: I stay inwhileit snows.
+87. Figures of Speech.+—A figure of speech is a change from the usual form of expression for the purpose of producing a greater effect. These changes may be effective either because they are more pleasing to us or because they are more forcible, or for both reasons.
While figurative language is a change from the usual mode of expression, we are not to think of it as being unnatural. It is, in fact, as natural as plain language, and nearly every one, from the illiterate to the most learned, makes use of it, more or less, in his ordinary conversation. This arises from, the fact that we all enjoy comparisons and substitutions. When we say that we have been pegging away all day at our work, or that the wind howls, or that the man has a heart of steel, we are making use of figures of speech. Figurative language ranges from these very simple expressions to the beautiful figures of speech found in so much of our poetry. Written prose contains many beautiful and forcible examples, but it is in poetry that we find most of them.
+88. Simile.+—A simile is an expressed comparison between objects belonging to different classes. We must remember, however, that all resemblances do not constitute similes. If we compare two trees, or two beehives, or two rivers, our comparison is not a simile. If we compare a tree to a person, a beehive to a schoolroom, or time to a river, we may form a good simile, since the things compared do not belong to the same class. The best similes are those in which the ideas compared have one strong point of resemblance, and are unlike in all other respects.
1. How far that little candle throws its beams! So shines a good deed in a naughty world.
—Shakespeare.
2. For very young he seemed, tenderly reared; Like some young cypress, tall, and dark, and straight.
—Matthew Arnold.
3. In the primrose-tinted sky The wan little moon Hangs like a jewel dainty and rare.
—Francis C. Rankin.
+89. Metaphor.+—A metaphor differs from a simile in that the comparison is implied rather than expressed. They are essentially the same as far as the comparison is concerned, and usually the one kind may be easily changed to the other. In a simile we say that one objectis likeanother, in a metaphor we say that one objectisanother.
Select the metaphors in the following and change them to similes:—
1. In arms the Austrian phalanx stood,A living wall, a human wood.
—James Montgomery.
2. The familiar lines Are footpaths for the thoughts of Italy.
—Longfellow.
3. Life is a leaf of paper white, Whereon each one of us may write His word or two, and then comes night.
—Lowell.
+90. Personification.+—Personification is a special form of the metaphor in which life is attributed to inanimate objects or the characteristics of persons are attributed to objects, animals, or even to abstract ideas.
Explain why the following quotations are examples of personifications:—
1. The day is done; and slowly from the scene The stooping sun upgathers his spent shafts And puts them back into his golden quiver.
—Longfellow.
2. Time is a cunning workman and no man can detect his joints.
—Charles Pierce Burton.
3. The sun is couched, the seafowl gone to rest, And the wild storm hath somewhere found a nest.
—Wordsworth.
4. See the mountains kiss high heaven,And the waves clasp one another;No sister flower would be forgivenIf it disdained its brother.
—Shelley.
+91. Apostrophe.+—Apostrophe is like personification, but has an additional characteristic. When we directly address inanimate objects or the absent as if they were present, we call the figure of speech thus formed apostrophe.
The following are examples of apostrophe:—
1. Break, break, break, At the foot of thy crags, O Sea!
—Tennyson.
2. Backward, turn backward, O Time, in your flight,Make me a child again just for to-night!Mother, come back from the echoless shore,Take me again to your heart as of yore.
—Elizabeth Akers Allen.
+92. Metonymy.+—Metonymy consists in substituting one object for another, the two being so closely associated that the mention of one suggests the other.
1. The pupils are reading George Eliot. 2. Each hamlet heard the call. 3. Strike for your altars and your fires. 4. Gray hairs should be respected.
+93. Synecdoche.+—Synecdoche consists in substituting a part of anything for the whole or a whole for the part.
1. A babe, two summers old.2. Give us this day our daily bread.3. Ring out the thousand years of woe,Ring in the thousand years of peace.4. Fifty mast are on the ocean.
+94. Other Figures of Speech.+—Sometimes, especially in older rhetorics, the following so-called figures of speech are added to the list already given: irony, hyperbole, antithesis, climax, and interrogation. The two former pertain rather to style, in fact, are qualities of style, while the last two might properly be placed along with kinds of sentences or paragraph development. Since these so-called figures are not all mentioned elsewhere in this text, a brief explanation and example of each will be given here.
1.Ironyconsists in saying just the opposite of the intended meaning, but in such a way that it emphasizes that meaning.
What has the gray-haired prisoner done?Has murder stained his hands with gore?Not so; his crime is a fouler one—God made the old man poor.
—Whittier.
2.Hyperboleis an exaggerated expression used to increase the effectiveness of a statement.
He was a man of boundless knowledge.
3.Antithesisconsists merely of contrasted statements. This contrast may be found in a single sentence or it may be extended through an entire paragraph.
Look like the innocent flower,But be the serpent under it.
—Shakespeare.
4.Climaxconsists of an ascendant arrangement of words or ideas.
I came, I saw, I conquered.
5. When a question is asked, not for the purpose of obtaining information but in order to make speech more effective, it is called the figure ofinterrogation. An affirmative question denies and a negative question affirms.
1. Am I my brother's keeper? 2. Am I not free?
+95. Unity, Coherence, and Emphasis in Sentences.+—On pages 153-155 we have considered the principles of unity, coherence, and emphasis as applied to the whole composition. In much the same way these principles are applicable to the sentence. A sentence possesses unity if all that it contains makes one complete statement, and no more; and if all minor ideas are made subordinate to one main idea. The effect must be single. A sentence exhibits coherence when the relation of all of its parts is perfectly clear. We secure emphasis in the sentence by placing ideas that deserve distinction in conspicuous positions; by arranging the members of a series in the order of climax; by using specific rather than general terms; by expressing thoughts with directness and simplicity; and by employing the devices of balance and contrast.
We must remember that, in the sentence as well as in the whole composition and the paragraph, if coherence and unity are secured, emphasis is quite likely to follow naturally. On the other hand, a violation of coherence or unity often results in a lack of emphasis.
+96. Unity in the sentence is affected unfavorably by+—
1.The presence of more than one main thought. (Stonewall Jackson was a general in the Confederate Army, and he is said to have been a very religious man.) In this sentence two distinct thoughts are embodied, and in such a way that their relation to each other is altogether illogical. The effect is not that of a single thought. To possess unity the two or more thoughts of a compound sentence should sustain some particular relation, like cause and effect, contrast, series, details of a picture. We can unite the two thoughts in a perfectly logical sentence, thus: (Stonewall Jackson, the Confederate general, is said to have been a very religious man.)
2.The addition of too many dependent clauses. (The boy was startled when he awoke, for he heard the plan of his captors, who were preparing to seize the boat, which had been left by his friends who had so mysteriously deserted him at a time when he needed them most.) Here, the numerous dependent clauses tacked on obscure the main thought. The sentence should be broken up and, where possible, clauses should be reduced to phrases and words. (The boy was startled when he awoke, for he heard the plan of his captors. They were preparing to seize the boat left by his friends, who had deserted him in the hour of greatest need.)
3.The presence of incongruous ideas. (With his hair combed and his shoes blacked, he gave the impression of being a very strong man.) The ideas of this sentence have no logical relation to each other. There is little likelihood, too, of making them more congruous by any change in the sentence. Blacking one's shoes and combing one's hair do not make one look strong. The remedy for such a sentence is to separate the incongruous ideas.
4.A needless change of construction. (Silas was kindly received by the men in the tavern; and when they had listened to his story and his answers to their questions had been noted, they began to think of catching the thief.) Confusion arises from such sudden and needless changes of the subject. By keeping the same subject throughout, we secure unity of impression. (The men in the tavern received Silas kindly; and when they had listened to his story and had noted his answers to their questions, they began to think of catching the thief.)
5.Making the sentence too short and fragmentary to serve as a logical unit of the paragraph. (I went to the park yesterday. It was a pleasant day. I saw many animals. I had a good time, etc.) Each of these sentences, when considered in its relation to the others, and to the development of the thought, is altogether too incomplete and unimportant in ideas expressed to stand alone. Unity of impression and dignity of thought are gained by combining the sentences. (Yesterday was a pleasant day; so I went to the park, where I saw many animals, and had a good time.)
+97. Coherence in the sentence is affected unfavorably by+—
1.The wrong placing of modifiers. (The victorious general was returning to his native city after many hard-fought campaigns with his staff officers.) It is not likely that the campaigns here referred to were waged against the staff officers. By changing the position of phrases we express the thought that the writer had in mind. (After many hard-fought campaigns, the victorious general, with his staff officers, was approaching his native city.) Especial care should be taken in placing the correlativeseither, or; neither, nor; not only, but also;and the wordonly. Incoherence frequently arises through the wrong placing of these words.
2.The careless use of pronouns. (Argument plays a very little part in that work, and those that do occur are not interesting.) (He repeated to his father what he had told him the night before when he was in his room.) In both sentences, the relation between pronouns and antecedents is not clear, and incoherence results. With the ambiguity in the use of the pronouns remedied, the sentences are entirely coherent. (Argument plays a very little part in that work, and whatever argumentative material is found is not interesting.) (He repeated to his father what he had told this parent the night before in his room.)
3.Careless participial and infinitive relations. (After carefully preparing my lessons, a friend came in.) (Standing on Brooklyn Bridge, a great many ferryboats can be seen.) The relation of the parts is manifestly illogical and absurd. The sentences should read: (After I had carefully prepared my lessons, a friend came in.) (While standing on Brooklyn Bridge, one can see a great many ferryboats.)
4.The use of wrong connectives. (It rained yesterday, and I went to school.) We assume that the pupil wishes to convey the thought that he went to school yesterday in spite of the rain. But by his use of the coordinating conjunction, "and," he has failed to establish a logical relation between the two clauses. In this case unity is violated as well as coherence. Use different connectives and note the result, (Although it rained yesterday, I went to school) or, (It rained yesterday, but I went to school).
5.Failure to observe parallelism in form. (The stranger seemed courteous in his conduct and to have a solicitude for my welfare.) Although this sentence is grammatically correct, the shift in structure from the adjective and its phrase to the infinitive phrase leads to confusion in thought. How much clearer and smoother this rendering: (The stranger seemed courteous in his conduct and solicitous for my welfare.)
+98. Emphasis in the sentence is affected unfavorably by+—
1.Weak beginnings and endings. (A fire in the city is an exciting event to the average boy.) (It seemed that the unprincipled fellow had forged his father's name.) In the first sentence, the important words are "exciting event," and they should occupy the most conspicuous position,— at the end of the sentence. The effectiveness is much improved by this order: (To the average boy, a fire in the city is an exciting event.) In the second sentence the weak place is the beginning. The subject and its modifiers are striking enough to demand their rightful position,—as the introductory words; in "forged his father's name" we have ideas startling enough for a place at the end of the sentence. "It seemed that" can be reduced to one word, "apparently," and this can be made parenthetical. (The unprincipled fellow, apparently, had forged his father's name.) This sentence, it will be observed, illustrates the periodic or suspended structure, a type particularly effective to employ for sustaining interest as well as for securing emphasis.
2.Failure to observe the order of climax. (Dazed, broken-hearted, hungry, the poor mother resumed her daily tasks.) Clearly, the strongest idea is suggested by "broken-hearted." A better order would be: (Hungry, dazed, broken-hearted, the poor mother resumed her daily tasks.)
3.The use of superfluous words. (I rushed hurriedly into the burning house and hastily snatched my few possessions.) In this sentence, "rushed" and "snatched" lose rather than gain force by adding "hurriedly" and "hastily." Look up definitions of "rush" and "snatch." When we wish to express strong emotion or to describe action resulting from excitement, we only weaken the impression by using unnecessary words. Simple, direct sentences are most forceful. In aiming to secure sentence emphasis, then, we should avoid circumlocution, redundancy, tautology, and verbosity. (Look up these terms in the Century Dictionary.)
4.The use of general rather than specific terms. (He approached the brook cautiously, and concealing himself in the bushes, began fishing.) A consideration of the choice of words in the sentence belongs strictly to the study of diction; however, force in the sentence is dependent in a large measure on the words employed. Observe how forceful the following sentence is as contrasted with the first example: (He crept noiselessly to the fishing hole, and hiding in the willows, threw his hook into the stream.)
5.Failure to employ balance and contrast. (Worth makes the man; but the fellow is made by the want of it.) (His life was spent in repenting of past misdeeds; in doing what was wrong, while he inculcated principles of righteousness.) Compare these with: (Worth makes the man; the want of it, the fellow.) (His life was spent in sinning and repenting; in inculcating what was right, and doing what was wrong.) Here the regularity of form gives pleasure to the taste, while the position of balanced and parallel parts adds clearness, coherence, and emphasis to the thoughts expressed. This method of sentence structure, if employed too frequently, however, will lead to a mannerism difficult to overcome. The caution to be heeded in the case of this type of sentence as well as in the case of every other is, "Nothing too much." Observe the law of variety.
Point out the specific faults and correct:—
1. He neither gave satisfaction as butler nor as coachman.
2. Elaine deserves our sympathy from the beginning to the end of the novel.
3. John only played once and won; and then, after watching the other players for a time, he got up and left the room.
4. The boy had an unconquerable fear of reptiles which no reasoning could overcome.
5 The Vicar's son Moses was a good student of the classics, but he made a bad bargain in his purchase of the green spectacles.
6. In all of his behavior toward Lynette, Gareth was patient and courteous, which reflected much credit on his knightly character.
7. Johnson was a man with a heroic soul, a wonderful intellect, and a kind heart.
8. After they had all assembled and come together, Odysseus addressed them.
9. He had reached the age of seventy, and his death was due to a nervous disorder.
10. The boys were only injured a little.
11. George Eliot's writings are filled with the philosophy of life, if we are wise enough to discover it.
12. Addison was sincere and kindly in his attitude toward men, and Pope was hypocritical and spiteful.
13. With reputation, character, and wealth gone, the poor man had little to live for.
14. Lancelot loved Queen Guinevere dearly, and he was Arthur's most valorous knight.
15. We are at peace with all the world and the rest of mankind.
16. Cedric lived with two great ends in view,—the union of Athelstane and Rowena and to see a restored Saxon monarchy.
17. James was walking backward and forward on the mountain side, which at this place was very precipitous and from which a little silvery stream issued to begin its rapid descent to the quiet hamlet that lay far below.
18. In our efforts to succeed in life we work hard that we may make names for ourselves and to acquire property.
19. He is a good hunter, but his wife is a Methodist.
20. Going up the street I saw the strangest-looking man.
21. James speaks German fluently, and he did not begin to study it until last year.
22. On returning to the deck, the sea assumed a very different aspect.