Chapter 40

Table 5.Number of seabirds caught by fowling each year in the Faroe Islands in the early 1900's.(From Salomonsen 1935.)SpeciesNumber of birds caught per yearUria aalge60,000Fratercula arctica270,000Puffinus puffinus1,500Fulmarus glacialis80,000Morus bassanus1,300Total412,800

The annual number of seabirds caught by fowling in the early 1900's (summarized in Table 5) were reported in Salomonsen (1935). This large harvest of birds, taken by fowling year after year for centuries, did not appear to influence the seabird populations, as bird numbers remained stable. However, in recent years, shooting and a special form of snaring of murres have increased dramatically and seem to have endangered the murre population. The annual number of murres killed is estimated to be about 120,000, of which 70,000 are snared and at least 50,000 shot (estimates of birds shot range from 50,000 to 100,000). This total is almost double the number of birds caught during fowling, and because of an apparent decline in murre numbers the provincial government decided to investigate the matter, and in 1972 the Danish Ornithological Society agreed to conduct the study. Figures from the 1972 census of murres (Table 6) show that almost 600,000 birds were counted, from which an estimate of more than 393,000 breeding pairs was calculated (Dyck and Meltofte 1975). In spite of this large number, Dyck and Meltofte (1975) concluded that the Faroese murre population has declined by about 20% during the last 10-15 years. Investigations are under way to monitor further changes in murre numbers, and to determine the trend, and whether reductions in shooting and snaring are necessary to maintain the population.

Oil pollution is practically unknown in Faroese waters, but since drilling for oil will probably take place in the near future, the importance of oil to birds in this region may change. Toxic chemicals do not appear to beinvolved in the decline in murres. Investigations of concentrations of chemical pollutants in their eggs show that levels of DDE (mean 1.1 ppm), PCB (mean 2.0 ppm), and mercury (mean 0.2 ppm) (Dyck and Meltofte 1975) are relatively low and unlikely to affect reproduction (Dyck and Meltofte 1975). Levels are much smaller than those found in seabirds in Britain, the Baltic, or in albatrosses in the Pacific (Fisher 1973).

Table 6.Colonies of the common murre,Uria aalge,on the Faroe Islands, based on a census conducted in 1972.(After Dyck and Meltofte 1975.)ColonyNumber of birds observedNumber of pairs[72]Suderoy73,94549,500Lítla Dímun13,2208,800Stóra Dímun68,05045,600Sandoy101,71068,100Hestur17,29011,600Mykines14,5009,700Vágar4,2242,800Streymoy27,21418,200Eysturoy10,5207,000Kalsoy14,1509,500Vidoy5,9804,000Fugloy22,73015,200Totals587,333393,200[72]

Greenland, which has an area of 2,175,600 km2and extends for a distance of 2,670 km from the northernmost to the southernmost point of the country, is almost a continent by itself. The range of the different species of seabirds, therefore, is greatly varied, and it is necessary to classify them according to the relation between their distributions and the marine zones. A description of the zones of the marine environment in the North Atlantic was given by Salomonsen (1965), and the breeding distributions of seabirds in Greenland based on this system are given in Table 7. The terrestrial area of southernmost West Greenland belongs to the subarctic zone of the boreal province, and one boreal bird species, the black-headed gull, has bred there in recent years. It is, however, as much a freshwater bird as a marine one.

Fig. 1. Breeding range in Greenland of four boreo-panarctic seabirds,Fulmarus glacialis,Somateria mollissima,Rissa tridactyla, andFratercula arctica.

Fig. 2. Breeding range in Greenland of three boreo-panarctic seabirds,Sterna paradisaea,Cepphus grylle, andStercorarius parasiticus, and one low arctic species,Phalaropus lobatus.

Fig. 3. Breeding range in Greenland of three panarctic seabirds,Uria lomvia,Larus hyperboreus, andClangula hyemalis, and one high arctic species,Stercorarius longicaudus.

Fig. 4. Breeding range in Greenland of three boreo-low arctic seabirds,Mergus serrator,Larus marinus, andPhalacrocorax carbo, and one high arctic species,Plautus alle.

The widely differing ranges of Greenland seabirds are shown in Figs. 1-4 and are based on my new and previously unpublished data. The borderline between the high arctic and low arctic zones is situated in Melville Bay on the west coast, and just south of Scoresby Sound on the east coast; the innermost parts of Scoresby Sound belong to the low arctic zone.

In the low arctic Pacific region the number of seabirds is said to be about 51 million in summer and 8 million in winter (Sowl and Bartonek 1974). No similar estimate is available for low arctic West Greenland, but I suggest that it is much lower in summer and slightly higher in winter.

The human population of Greenland, now numbering about 50,000 individuals, is restricted to the seashore, where all cities and minor outposts are situated. Although shooting seabirds is an ancient tradition in Greenland, the true land-birds, which are few in number, are usually left alone. Seabirds collected by shooting provide an important source of food that the Greenlanders could not do without. Since special shooting and hunting regulations have not been developed in Greenland, these activities often resemble a sort of slaughter rather than true hunting. There is no game act in Greenland, and practically all birds can be shot. This condition is similar to that in Canada, where according to Section 5(7) of the Migratory Birds Regulations (Canadian Wildlife Service, Ottawa 1973) "an Indian or Inuk may at any time, without a permit, take auks, auklets, guillemots, murres, puffins and scoters and their eggs for human food and clothing." Much the same sort of hunting privileges exist for native peoples of Alaska. What is still worse, however, is the enormous illegal shooting of ducks, geese, swans, and cranes that is known to take place in arctic North America, but is largely ignored by police and game authorities. Bartonek et al. (1971) described this situation very well for Alaska. In Greenland, it is not possible any more to distinguish between "native Eskimos" and Greenlanders (including Danes working in the country), but the attitude toward animals among the inhabitants is the same as it has always been—a food source to hunt and kill.

With a rapidly growing human population, and a readily available supply of guns and speedboats for hunting, the whole natural ecosystem is beginning to break down, and it cannot be permitted to continue. The provincial government is aware of this fact, and various legal enactments have been issued from both the government and the local magistrates. However, since the size of the police force (mostly Greenlanders) is small, it is of little help for the preservation of wildlife, and sometimes even the policemen themselves do not know the local ordinances. The result has been that seabirds, previously profusely flourishing, have considerably decreased in number in West Greenland.

I have previously described the shooting and hunting of seabirds in Greenland and the statutory provisions issued to protect them (see Salomonsen 1970). At present, the following seabirds and their eggs are totally protected: whooper swan; common puffin,Fratercula arctica; and harlequin duck,Histrionicus histrionicus. Some other species have a closed season or are protected in certain parts of the country: snow goose,Anser caerulescens; common eider; king eider,Somateria spectabilis; great cormorant; dovekie,Plautus alle; black guillemot; and thick-billed murre,Uria lomvia. Furthermore, all catching and hunting of birds within 2 km of breeding colonies of murres and kittiwakes is prohibited. Bird sanctuaries where hunting, catching, and collecting of eggs and down are prohibited are Avsigsut, Nunatsiaq, and Satuarssunguit islands, which are scattered in Disko Bay, and Tasiussarssuaq Fjord (the inner part of Arfersiorfik Fjord, south of Egedesminde).

However, the Greenland Provincial Council has been alarmed by the serious decline in the numbers of seabirds due to increases in human persecution, and it has decided to introduce a game law similar to those in Denmark and other European countries. The preparation of this legislation was left to me, and a draft of this Greenland game act has been issued (Salomonsen 1974); the new law was passed in parliament in 1977 and went into force on 1 January 1978.

It is not possible to review in detail the different parts of the new law, but certain important points should be mentioned. In northern parts of West Greenland (north of Egedesminde) the sea is ice-covered for 7-8 months a year, and seabird hunting is therefore not possible outside the breeding season. Because of this, it was necessary to allow some hunting of murres, eiders, and immature gulls during the breeding period, but away from nesting locations. Consumption of seabirds is to be limited to local residents, and sales to canneries for shipment to other cities is to cease. Previously, canneries in northwest Greenland exported large numbers of thick-billed murres to South Greenland—e.g., 25,606 birds in 1971; and 30,029 in 1972 (Anonymous 1974:64). This marketing of murres will end.

Other parts of the proposal important for seabirds include:

• A general closed season extending from 15 June to 15 August.

• Prohibition of shooting at breeding colonies of seabirds, as is in force at present (cf. above).

• Eggs of terns and gulls can be collected for food in southwest Greenland to 1 July, and in northwest Greenland to 10 July; fulmar and murre eggs can also be collected in northwest Greenland.

• Each hunter is allowed to shoot or catch 50 birds per day, but the entire bag must be used for human consumption.

• All shooting from speedboats, aircraft, and motor vehicles is prohibited.

• Catching flightless common eiders, king eiders, and oldsquaws(Clangula hyemalis)is prohibited.

• Practically all seabirds and shorebirds can be shot; all other birds (except rock ptarmigan and raven) are totally protected.

The principles of this radical new act must be taught to the population by all possible means of communication, including radio, public meetings, schools, etc.

Another matter of great concern to seabirds in Greenland is the Atlantic salmon fishery off the west coast by Danish, Greenlandic and foreign fishermen. It is well known that many birds are killed in the fishing gear, and a serious political controversy has arisen, especially between the governments of the United States and Denmark. The fact that a large number of thick-billed murres were drowned in salmon gill nets during their southward swimming migration along the Greenland coast was significant. In a resolution sent by the XV World Conference of the International Council for Bird Preservation in Texel to the Danish Government, it was stated that the annual incidental drowning of murres probably involved about 250,000 individuals—a figure exceeding the reproductive capacity of the species. This estimate was doubted by Danish fishery biologists, but recent investigations carried out by the Canadian Wildlife Service and the Fisheries Research Board of Canada have shown that the figure is even greater, and that the total kill amounts to about half a million murres annually (Tull et al. 1972).

Because of this mortality of murres, an agreement was reached between the American and Danish governments, namely that:

From 1 January 1976, all salmon fisheries outside the 12-mile boundary shall totally stop. In the years 1972-75 the fishery carried out by Danish and Faroese fishermen shall be reduced gradually from 800 to 300 tons of fish, and shall terminate on 31 December 1975. The fish quota by Greenland fishermen must amount to no more than 1,100 tons annually, but from 1976 onwards, the fishery shall be restricted to areas within the 12-mile limit.

This agreement, which has drastically reduced the number of murres caught, was discussed at a meeting of the International Committee of North Atlantic Fisheries in May 1972, and was ratified by the countries involved in July 1972.

Oil pollution has never occurred in Greenland, but concessions for offshore oil drilling along the West Greenland coast have just been granted by the Danish Government, and this new development gives rise for concern. However, it is clearly stated in the concession that the Ministry for Greenland can lay down rules for protection against oil pollution and other damage to human or animal life, and can adopt measures to fight pollution which has already taken place (section 5(9)). It is up to the concessionary to oversee industrial developments in the area and see that marine pollution is avoided (section 11).

Toxic chemicals have been found in Greenland seabirds, as everywhere else in the world, but it must be emphasized that no pesticides whatsoever are in use in Greenland itself. Investigations by Somer and Appelquist (1974) indicated that the mercury content in blackguillemots in Greenland has doubled over the last 20 years, and has now reached 2 ppm, which is, however, a relatively low figure. Levels of DDE, PCB, and aldrin in Greenland birds were investigated by Braestrup et al. (1974). Common eider, king eider, harlequin duck, and oldsquaw, as well as thick-billed murre and great cormorant, were examined; all were found to be contaminated with pesticides, although to varying degrees. Highest concentrations occurred in the cormorant, which contained 6.5-15 ppm of DDE and 14.1-46.7 ppm of PCB. These specific differences appear to show that the pesticide level in the different species of seabirds is influenced more by the position of the bird in the food chain than by its migratory habits.

And finally, I wish to mention a more happy event. On 9 May 1974 a new law of nature protection in Greenland was passed by the Danish Parliament. According to this law, a National Park is to be established covering almost the entire northeast and north regions of Greenland, from the Thule District in northern West Greenland around the entire north coast of Greenland and south along the east coast to the northern inner parts of Scoresby Sound. All hunting, fishing, egg-collecting, and disturbances to the environment are forbidden in this enormous area. This is by far the greatest National Park in the world, covering about 800,000 km2. Of this total area, the greater part is a lifeless icecap, to be sure, but about 200,000 km2is ice-free land and suitable habitat for numerous high-arctic birds.

Anonymous. 1974. Grønland 1973, Arsberetning. Vol. 4. Ministeriet for Grønland, Copenhagen. 106 pp.Atkinson-Willes, G. L. 1972. The international wildfowl censuses as a basis for wetland evaluation and hunting rationalization. Pages 87-110inProc. Int. Conf. Conserv. Wetlands Waterfowl, Iran 1971.Bartonek, J. C., J. G. King, and H. K. Nelson. 1971. Problems confronting migratory birds in Alaska. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Nat. Resour. Conf. 36:345-361.Bloch, D. 1970. The mute swan(Cygnus olor)breeding in colony in Denmark. [Danish with English summary.] Dansk Ornith. Foren. Tidsskr. 64:152-162.Bloch, D. 1971. Ynglebestanden af knopsvane(Cygnus olor)i Danmark 1966. Danske Vildtundersøgelser 16. 47 pp.Bloch, D., C. H. Ovesen, B. H. Fenger, J. Jensen, and J. Pedersen. 1972. Vildtreservatet Nakskov Indrefjord. Resume af biologiske, kemiske og fysiske underseøgelser i 1970-1971. Vildtbiologisk Station, Kalø, Rønde. 15 pp.Bogan, J. A., and W. R. P. Bourne. 1972. Organochlorine levels in Atlantic seabirds. Nature (Lond.) 240(5380):358.Bourne, W. R. P. 1972. Threats to seabirds. Int. Counc. Bird Preserv. Bull. 9:200-218.Braestrup, L., J. Clausen, and O. Berg. 1974. DDE, PCB and aldrin levels in arctic birds of Greenland. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 11(4):326-332.Dyck, J. 1975. Miljøgifte i danske fugle. Panda-Nyt. Verdensnaturfonden 1975(1):11-13.Dyck, J., and H. Meltofte. 1975. The guillemotUria aalgepopulation of the Faeroes 1972. Dansk Ornith. Foren. Tidsskr. 69:55-64.Fisher, H. I. 1973. Pollutants in North Pacific albatrosses. Pacific Sci. 27(3):220-225.Joensen, A. H. 1961. Disaster among fulmars (Fulmarus glacialis(L.)) and kittiwakes (Rissa tridactyle(L.)) in Danish waters. [Danish with English summary.] Dansk Ornith. Foren. Tidsskr. 55:212-218.Joensen, A. H. 1972a. Oil pollution and seabirds in Denmark 1935-1968. Dan. Rev. Game Biol. 6(8):1-24.Joensen, A. H. 1972b. Studies on oil pollution and seabirds in Denmark 1968-1971. Dan. Rev. Game Biol. 6(9):1-32.Joensen, A. H. 1973a. Moult migration and wing-feather moult of seaducks in Denmark. Dan. Rev. Game Biol. 8(4):1-42.Joensen, A. H. 1973b. Danish seabird disasters in 1972. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 4(8):117-118.Joensen, A. H. 1974. Waterfowl populations in Denmark 1965-1973. A survey of the non-breeding populations of ducks, swans and coot and their shooting utilization. Dan. Rev. Game Biol. 9(1):1-206.Jørgensen, O. H., and I. Kraul. 1974. Eggshell parameters, and residues of PCB and DDE in eggs from Danish herring gulls,Larus a. argentatus. Ornis Scand. 5(2):173-179.Koeman, J. H., W. S. M. van de Ven, J. J. M. de Goejj, P. S. Tjioe, and J. L. van Haaften. 1975. Mercury and selenium in marine mammals and birds. Sci. Total Environ. 3:279-287.Mardal, W. 1974. Ternegruppen. Feltornithologen 16:4-7.Mueller, W. J., and R. M. Leach, Jr. 1974. Effects of chemicals on egg shell formation. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. 14:289-303.Nowak, E. 1973. Hunting kill statistics investigation. Int. Waterfowl Res. Bur. Bull. 35:26-30.Parslow, J. L. F., and D. J. Jefferies. 1973. Relationship between organochlorine residues in livers and whole bodies of guillemots. Environ. Pollut. 5:87-101.Peakall, D. B. 1970. Pesticides and the reproduction of birds. Sci. Am. 222(4):72-78.Salomonsen, F. 1935. Ayes.InR. Spärck, ed. Zoology of the Faroes 3(pt. 2) (lxiv):269 + 6 suppl. A. F. Høst, Copenhagen.Salomonsen, F. 1945. De videnskabelige reservater i Danmark og deres Fugleliv. Fauna och Flora 40:250-261.Salomonsen, F. 1954. The Danish game-statistics. [Danish with English summary.] Dansk Ornith. Foren. Tidsskr. 48:123-126.Salomonsen, F. 1955. The food production in the sea and the annual cycle of Faeroese marine birds. Oikos 6(1):92-100.Salomonsen, F. 1963. Oversight over Danmarks fugle. [With explanatory notes in English.] Munksgaard, Copenhagen. 156 pp.Salomonsen, F. 1965. The geographical variation of the fulmar(Fulmarus glacialis)and the zones of marine environment in the North Atlantic. Auk 82:327-355.Salomonsen, F. 1968. The moult migration. Wildfowl 19:5-24.Salomonsen, F. 1970. Birds useful to man in Greenland. Pages 169-175inProductivity and conservation in northern circumpolar lands. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Morges, Switzerland.Salomonsen, F. 1974. Forslag til vedtægt om jagt på fuglene i Grønland. Diskussionsoplæg til kommunalbestyrelserne udarbejdet på opfordring af Det grønlandske Landsråd. Tidsskr. Grønland 1974(5):155-172.Somer, E., and H. Appelquist. 1974. Changes and differences in mercury level in the Baltic and Kattegat compared to the North Atlantic usingUriasp. (guillemot sp.) andCepphus grylle(black guillemot) as indicators. 9th Conf. of the Baltic Oceanographers, Kiel. 12 pp. Danish Isotope Centre, Copenhagen.Sowl, L. W., and J. C. Bartonek. 1974. Seabirds—Alaska's most neglected resource. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Nat. Resour. Conf. 39:117-126.Strandgaard, H. 1964. The Danish bag record. I. Studies in game geography based on the Danish bag record for the years 1956-57 and 1957-58. Dan. Rev. Game Biol. 4(2):1-116.Tull, C. E., P. Germain, and A. W. May. 1972. Mortality of thick-billed murres in the West Greenland salmon fishery. Nature (Lond.) 237(5349):42-44.

Anonymous. 1974. Grønland 1973, Arsberetning. Vol. 4. Ministeriet for Grønland, Copenhagen. 106 pp.

Atkinson-Willes, G. L. 1972. The international wildfowl censuses as a basis for wetland evaluation and hunting rationalization. Pages 87-110inProc. Int. Conf. Conserv. Wetlands Waterfowl, Iran 1971.

Bartonek, J. C., J. G. King, and H. K. Nelson. 1971. Problems confronting migratory birds in Alaska. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Nat. Resour. Conf. 36:345-361.

Bloch, D. 1970. The mute swan(Cygnus olor)breeding in colony in Denmark. [Danish with English summary.] Dansk Ornith. Foren. Tidsskr. 64:152-162.

Bloch, D. 1971. Ynglebestanden af knopsvane(Cygnus olor)i Danmark 1966. Danske Vildtundersøgelser 16. 47 pp.

Bloch, D., C. H. Ovesen, B. H. Fenger, J. Jensen, and J. Pedersen. 1972. Vildtreservatet Nakskov Indrefjord. Resume af biologiske, kemiske og fysiske underseøgelser i 1970-1971. Vildtbiologisk Station, Kalø, Rønde. 15 pp.

Bogan, J. A., and W. R. P. Bourne. 1972. Organochlorine levels in Atlantic seabirds. Nature (Lond.) 240(5380):358.

Bourne, W. R. P. 1972. Threats to seabirds. Int. Counc. Bird Preserv. Bull. 9:200-218.

Braestrup, L., J. Clausen, and O. Berg. 1974. DDE, PCB and aldrin levels in arctic birds of Greenland. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 11(4):326-332.

Dyck, J. 1975. Miljøgifte i danske fugle. Panda-Nyt. Verdensnaturfonden 1975(1):11-13.

Dyck, J., and H. Meltofte. 1975. The guillemotUria aalgepopulation of the Faeroes 1972. Dansk Ornith. Foren. Tidsskr. 69:55-64.

Fisher, H. I. 1973. Pollutants in North Pacific albatrosses. Pacific Sci. 27(3):220-225.

Joensen, A. H. 1961. Disaster among fulmars (Fulmarus glacialis(L.)) and kittiwakes (Rissa tridactyle(L.)) in Danish waters. [Danish with English summary.] Dansk Ornith. Foren. Tidsskr. 55:212-218.

Joensen, A. H. 1972a. Oil pollution and seabirds in Denmark 1935-1968. Dan. Rev. Game Biol. 6(8):1-24.

Joensen, A. H. 1972b. Studies on oil pollution and seabirds in Denmark 1968-1971. Dan. Rev. Game Biol. 6(9):1-32.

Joensen, A. H. 1973a. Moult migration and wing-feather moult of seaducks in Denmark. Dan. Rev. Game Biol. 8(4):1-42.

Joensen, A. H. 1973b. Danish seabird disasters in 1972. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 4(8):117-118.

Joensen, A. H. 1974. Waterfowl populations in Denmark 1965-1973. A survey of the non-breeding populations of ducks, swans and coot and their shooting utilization. Dan. Rev. Game Biol. 9(1):1-206.

Jørgensen, O. H., and I. Kraul. 1974. Eggshell parameters, and residues of PCB and DDE in eggs from Danish herring gulls,Larus a. argentatus. Ornis Scand. 5(2):173-179.

Koeman, J. H., W. S. M. van de Ven, J. J. M. de Goejj, P. S. Tjioe, and J. L. van Haaften. 1975. Mercury and selenium in marine mammals and birds. Sci. Total Environ. 3:279-287.

Mardal, W. 1974. Ternegruppen. Feltornithologen 16:4-7.

Mueller, W. J., and R. M. Leach, Jr. 1974. Effects of chemicals on egg shell formation. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. 14:289-303.

Nowak, E. 1973. Hunting kill statistics investigation. Int. Waterfowl Res. Bur. Bull. 35:26-30.

Parslow, J. L. F., and D. J. Jefferies. 1973. Relationship between organochlorine residues in livers and whole bodies of guillemots. Environ. Pollut. 5:87-101.

Peakall, D. B. 1970. Pesticides and the reproduction of birds. Sci. Am. 222(4):72-78.

Salomonsen, F. 1935. Ayes.InR. Spärck, ed. Zoology of the Faroes 3(pt. 2) (lxiv):269 + 6 suppl. A. F. Høst, Copenhagen.

Salomonsen, F. 1945. De videnskabelige reservater i Danmark og deres Fugleliv. Fauna och Flora 40:250-261.

Salomonsen, F. 1954. The Danish game-statistics. [Danish with English summary.] Dansk Ornith. Foren. Tidsskr. 48:123-126.

Salomonsen, F. 1955. The food production in the sea and the annual cycle of Faeroese marine birds. Oikos 6(1):92-100.

Salomonsen, F. 1963. Oversight over Danmarks fugle. [With explanatory notes in English.] Munksgaard, Copenhagen. 156 pp.

Salomonsen, F. 1965. The geographical variation of the fulmar(Fulmarus glacialis)and the zones of marine environment in the North Atlantic. Auk 82:327-355.

Salomonsen, F. 1968. The moult migration. Wildfowl 19:5-24.

Salomonsen, F. 1970. Birds useful to man in Greenland. Pages 169-175inProductivity and conservation in northern circumpolar lands. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Morges, Switzerland.

Salomonsen, F. 1974. Forslag til vedtægt om jagt på fuglene i Grønland. Diskussionsoplæg til kommunalbestyrelserne udarbejdet på opfordring af Det grønlandske Landsråd. Tidsskr. Grønland 1974(5):155-172.

Somer, E., and H. Appelquist. 1974. Changes and differences in mercury level in the Baltic and Kattegat compared to the North Atlantic usingUriasp. (guillemot sp.) andCepphus grylle(black guillemot) as indicators. 9th Conf. of the Baltic Oceanographers, Kiel. 12 pp. Danish Isotope Centre, Copenhagen.

Sowl, L. W., and J. C. Bartonek. 1974. Seabirds—Alaska's most neglected resource. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Nat. Resour. Conf. 39:117-126.

Strandgaard, H. 1964. The Danish bag record. I. Studies in game geography based on the Danish bag record for the years 1956-57 and 1957-58. Dan. Rev. Game Biol. 4(2):1-116.

Tull, C. E., P. Germain, and A. W. May. 1972. Mortality of thick-billed murres in the West Greenland salmon fishery. Nature (Lond.) 237(5349):42-44.

FOOTNOTES:[67]Not counted.[68]No estimate, but number insignificant.[69]Species totally protected.[70]Branta berniclais fully protected since 1972.[71]Somateria mollissima,Melanitta nigra, andM. fusca.[72]The "number of pairs" is calculated by multiplying the number of birds observed by 0.67 (Dyck and Meltofte 1975).[73]A few species breed near freshwater lakes, but are marine during the nonbreeding season.

[67]Not counted.

[68]No estimate, but number insignificant.

[69]Species totally protected.

[70]Branta berniclais fully protected since 1972.

[71]Somateria mollissima,Melanitta nigra, andM. fusca.

[72]The "number of pairs" is calculated by multiplying the number of birds observed by 0.67 (Dyck and Meltofte 1975).

[73]A few species breed near freshwater lakes, but are marine during the nonbreeding season.

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