Picture Frame Designs.Plate 33.
A piece of silver solder, a slate slab such as is ordinarily used for grinding ink, powdered or lump borax, and a soft hair brush of some sort are all that is necessary for the process of soldering in addition to what we already have.
The pieces of metal that are to be soldered must be absolutely free from all foreign matter. To insure this the joint is scraped bright with some sharpe-edged tool. Care must be taken to keep the fingers away from the joint as any moisture or greasy substance will prevent the solder from running. The best results are obtained only by being extremely careful as to cleanliness throughout the process. Being sure that the slab is perfectly clean, a little water is put in it and the lump of borax is ground around until the water becomes like thin cream. If powdered borax is used a block of wood will answer as a pestle to grind the borax to the right consistency.
The solder may be obtained any gauge, but about 20 answers for most purposes. After cutting the solder into pieces about 1/16 of an inch long and about the same width, drop them into the borax that has been ground to give them a coating of borax and to remove any grease that may have adhered to them. Coat the surfaces that are to be soldered with the borax being careful to get no more borax about than is necessary. Put the parts together and bind them with No. 24 iron wire, not too tightly. The pieces of solder are then lifted with the brush used for the borax or with a pair of tweezers and placed next to the edge that is to be soldered, about one inch apart. The object is then placed on the annealing tray, which answers for soldering as well, and with the blow-pipe it is heated, very slowly at first until the water has evaporated and the borax crystallized and dissolved, the flame may then be applied more directly and the object brought to a soldering heat. If the heat is appliedtoo quickly, it will throw off the solder; and if heated hotter than necessary it is liable to melt or burn the parts being soldered, so the process demands the closest attention from the start.
The object is then pickled, washed in clear water and dried in the sawdust.
If the above directions are carefully followed good results may be expected.
Repousse or embossing involves practically the same principle as modeling in clay or wax, the only difference being that metal is used as the material and that different tools are employed. In this, as in clay or wax work, it is desirable to bring certain parts of a design into relief; to do this with metal the work must be placed on a substance which will give some resistance and yet allow each blow of the hammer or tool to make an impression. The substance commonly used for this purpose has the following composition, in the proportions given:
Black pitch 1 lb.Tallow 3 teaspoonfuls.Plaster of Paris 1/2 cup.
Black pitch 1 lb.Tallow 3 teaspoonfuls.Plaster of Paris 1/2 cup.
The pitch is put in some kind of dish (agate is good), placed over a gas plate, and melted. The tallow is then added and the plaster sprinkled and stirred in, the whole being well mixed. It is then poured into the pitch pot, or whatever it is to be used in. When used in hot weather more plaster must be used. A pot, hemispherical in shape,Figure 21, made of cast iron about ½ inch thick is generally used. This, when placed on a chaser's pad or ring, Figure 21, may be turned at any angle, and is found to be a great convenience. An ordinary 7" × 12" baking pan of ironserves the purpose, or a box may be made of wood, but of course this is not so durable.
After allowing the composition to cool partly, yet while soft enough to stick, the piece of work that is to be embossed is placed on it, the right side next to the pitch. It is then allowed to cool still more; when quite hard or when it is difficult to make an impression on it with the thumb nail, it is ready to work on. The design is next drawn or transferred to the metal by the use of carbon paper and then scratched on with a scratch awl to make the drawing more permanent, as in going over the piece of work the pencil or carbon lines are easily erased.
The tools necessary for this work may be made as needed according to each individual design. There are a few general ones that are always found useful, such as those shown atFigure 5.Figure 22shows a hammer generally used for this work.
Chasing. Photograph.Figure 21.
Chasing Hammer.Figure 22.
The first exercise in raising should be a form quite simple in outline,Plate 34 A. A drawing or blue print should be used showing the shape and dimensions and this should be worked to as closely as possible. Next select a piece of copper suitable in thickness for an object of this size, in this case 20 gauge. The metal for raising must be circular in shape and the diameter of the piece needed for this bowl determined in the following way:
Take a piece of string, place it on the drawing or blue print, starting in the center of the base, and follow the curve as indicated at A, onPlate 34. This will give the radius needed for describing the circle, which is 5-1/2". The circle is then cut out with the shears, after which another circle is described on the metal for the base. All lines made on the metal should be made quite lightly.
As a rule the copper comes from the rolling mill somewhat hardened so the next thing to do is to soften it by a process called annealing.
Place upon the annealing tray,Figure 1, the circular piece of metal already cut, and apply the flame from the blow-pipe upon it until it becomes red hot. It is either allowed to cool off gradually or dipped in cold water and then dried in the sawdust.
Select an anvil the shape of which conforms somewhat to the outline of the bowl and also to the curve of the base. It is often necessary to use several anvils to complete an object, but a little experience will help to decide which should be used first. The No. 1 anvil onPlate 1seems to be about what is needed for this particular piece of work.
Raised Forms.Plate 34.
Hammering. Photograph.Figure 23.
Raised Bowl. First Step.Figure 24.
The anvil is placed in the vise and the metal held in the left hand against the anvil so that the end of the anvil comes directly under the circle which represents the base, as shown atFigure 23. With a raising hammer, No. 3 onPlate 2, begin hammering with light blows at first, following the circle closely the first time around until the base is wellstarted. This operation is continued at each turn striking a little above the previous blows until the top is reached when it will take the shape as shown atFigure 24. Sometimes a horn or box-wood mallet is used to start a piece of work. As the hammering hardens the metal it is necessary to anneal it each time after going over the surface. After this is done, we proceed as at first until the required form is obtained as called for by the drawing.
Care must be taken not to stretch the metal any more than can be helped as the more it is stretched the thinner it becomes.
The surface and outline of the bowl left by the raising hammer is quite irregular and needs to be trued up by a process called planishing; for this a No. 2 or 4 hammer, Plate 2, with a polished face and somewhat broader than the raising hammer is used. By going over the surface with this hammer all irregularities are removed leaving a refined curve and a finished surface.
If the bottom gets a little out of shape during the operation of raising, it can be easily brought back again by using a No. 2 stake, Plate 1, and a No. 5 hammer,Plate 2.
During the raising process the top edge has also become very irregular and must now be trimmed off level. Place the bowl on some level surface (a surface plate will give the best results) and with the point in the surface gauge describe a line about the top making it the desired height,Figure 25. A small pair of shears is then used to trim off the top to the line, after which a file is used to finish the edge, leaving it perfectly smooth. A piece of fine emery cloth may be used at the last.
The principle of raising as here described applies to forms of all sorts with few variations. Where a form is to be raised with the top edge turned in as at B,Plate 34, an anvil similar to the outline must be used. In raising a form like C,Plate 34, the sides are carried up as shown by the dotted lines and then the form is reversed and the neck part drawn in. A deep form is raised more quickly if, at the start, the metal is placed on a crinkling block and the edge crinkled.
Raised Forms. Photograph.Plate 35.
Figure 25.
In all raised work after one becomes acquainted with the material, it will be found that the metal can be forced in any direction, giving thickness at the bottom, at the sides, or at the rim, as is necessary.
Pitchers.Plate 36.
After raising a form like C,Plate 34, it may be desired to increase the diameter a little at o-o, where an anvil cannot be used; or, if the form is satisfactory it may be necessary to raise certain parts of it to carry out the decoration called for by the design. This is done by the use of the snarling-iron, made as illustrated atFigure 26, which shows the general outline only, as the ends vary in form according to the work they are to do. One arm of the iron is held in the vise as atFigure 27. The form is then placed over the end and held with the left hand while, with a hammer in the right hand, the iron is struck quite near the end in the vise which causes the other end to rebound. This serves the same purpose as a direct blow from a hammer, except that it works much more slowly.
Snarling Iron.Figure 26.
Snarling Iron in use. Photograph.Figure 27.
Tea Set.Plate 37.
Pupils at work. Photograph.Plate 38.
The making of a porringer serves as a very interesting exercise; and it is so simple in form that it can be raised after very little experience. A suitable handle must also be designed, sawed out and soldered to the body.
After the bowl has been raised into shape according to the design, the top is cut and filed off level. When the handle has been sawed out and the edges trued up, it is fitted to the bowl part. Mark on the edge of the bowl the place where the handle is to be fitted and fit it at that place. The edge of the bowl where the handle is to be soldered should be filed or scraped bright before the soldering process is begun.
Soldering Porringer.Figure 28.
Invert bowl and handle and lay them upon a level block of charcoal, as shown atFigure 28. Four or five wire nails or pieces of iron wire forced into the charcoal keep the handle and bowl together. The borax is applied and sufficient solder to make a good joint. Use no more solder than is necessary, as it will have to be removed by filing and the less filing that is done about such a joint the better the work will be. After the exercise has cooled, it may be pickled, washed and dried.
Porringer.Plate 39.
Porringer Handles.Plate 40.
While the heat is being applied for soldering, the bowl is at the same time annealed and becomes so soft that it is easily bent out of shape. The bowl of course must be hardened again; this is done by placing it on an anvil that conforms to the outline of the bowl and hammered lightly over the surface. The handle is also treated in the same way.
Any necessary filing or finishing is now done and the porringer is ready to be polished.
If we choose, the handle may be riveted on, or it may be made of the same piece as the bowl by allowing enough metal where the handle is to be, to be bent back when the bowl is raised into shape.
Plate 41.
Trays or plates may be made by working the bowl part over an anvil or by driving it into a sand bag until the required depth is obtained, or a form may be turned out of a block of wood and the metal driven into it. After the bowl part has been shaped it may be placed on the pitch block and the outline trued up with a chasing tool. The edge of the tray or plate may be decorated either by piercing, embossing, etching, or enameling.
This exercise is carried out as follows: A form is first raised like the lower part of the pot inverted, which is nothing more than a bowl so far. A hole with a diameter a little less than the diameter of the ink well is then sawed with a piercing saw in the bottom of this bowl, as at A. After this a circular piece of metal is cut equal in diameter to the top of this bowl plus 1/4 of an inch, and soldered on G. By making this piece 1/4 inch greater than the diameter of the bowl, the soldering process becomes much easier. After the soldering is finished, the projecting edges may be filed off to the edge of the bowl. The bowl is then inverted so that it rests on its greatest diameter H, and it becomes an ink pot.
Figure 29.Figure 29.Dapping tools in use.
Ink Pot.Plate 42.
Ink Pot. Photograph.Plate 43.
The cover, J, is made by taking a circular piece of metal and raising the sides in the same way as in the bowl except that the design calls for the sides at right angles to the base. The curve is obtained by placing it on a sand bag and driving it out from the inside to the required height. From a strip of copper 20 gauge and 3/16 inch wide, C, make a ring, D, equal in diameter to the inside of the cover. Solder the ends of the ring together and, after shaping it over a circular stake, fit and solder it to the base, as shown in the section at E.
This keeps the cover in place. The knob, K, on the cover is made of two hemispheres, L, by use of the dapping block and tools,Figures 7and29. The two pieces are soldered together, filed or finished about the joint, and soldered to the cover, F. After dipping the different parts in the pickle, then washing them in clean water, and doing a little filing here and there about the joints to remove surplus solder, the ink pot is ready for finishing. This may be done by polishing, bronzing, or oxidizing.
The ink well proper should be made so that it may be removed. It should be of glass or some other material easily cleansed.
Ink Pot.Plate 44.
The wax pot is raised into shape as described in Chapter VI on raised forms. Instead of cutting the top off level, a nose is formed as shown at A,Plate 45, which will pour well. A handle is designed, sawed out, and riveted on at the position indicated at B.
The body of the lamp is made by raising a bowl to conform with the design; after cutting a hole in the bottom it is inverted, C, and the bottom is soldered on at D. A shallow cup is raised, E, a hole cut in the bottom to allow for the lamp proper, and soldered to the body. Legs as shown at F, and held together by a strip, H, are riveted to the side of the body at G; on these the wax pot rests. The lamp proper or alcohol well, which is filled with asbestos, is raised with the edges turned out, as at N, which hold it in place as shown in the section at J. The part at K serves as a burner and is placed loosely in the cup, E, allowing its removal at any time.
A monogram, letter or design of some sort must first be decided on. When this has been done, the design is transferred and scratched on a piece of 22 or 24 gauge copper. If the design has a right and wrong to it, the reverse should be transferred to the metal so that, when stamped, the right side will appear. The copper is then placed on the pitch and when cool enough to work upon, the lines are followed with a chasing tool, sinking them to the required depth. Care must be taken to avoid sharp edges or any undercutting, if the seal is to free itself easily from the wax. A handle for the seal may be made of wood as shown on the plate; the seal is cut and attached as shown at Section on L. M.
Sealing Wax Set.Plate 45.
There are many ways of making watch fobs. A very simple one is made as follows: First make a drawing of the fob with some suitable pendant as at A,Plate 46. The pendant design is next transferred to a piece of 12 gauge copper, then sawed out and filed into shape. This must be done with perhaps more care than on larger work as it is to be more closely scrutinized. The parts of the fob must be made to conform with the width of the ribbon that is to be used. A bar must be made for the top, wide enough for the ribbon to be passed through and fastened. This bar is made by cutting a slot in a piece of metal of the same gauge as the pendant, or by bending a piece of wire around a piece of metal about 1/16 of an inch thick and the width of the ribbon, making the ends meet in the centre of one of the long sides. If more than one of these pieces is needed, the wire is wound around the metal as many times as there are pieces required and sawed apart. The ends are then bent to come in line with each other and soldered. The piece is again placed over the metal and, with a rawhide hammer, worked into shape. The links that connect the bar and the swivel are made as all links are made. Take a piece of iron or steel wire the size required and also a piece of copper; place one end of the steel wire and one end of the copper wire in a vise so that the steel wire stands vertical. Then wind the copper wire around the steel wire spirally with as many turns as there are links required. Now take it out of the vise and slip it off the steel wire, which leaves it in the shape of a spring. Hold it with the thumb and forefinger of the left hand and, resting it against the bench pin, saw the links off with a fine saw one at a time until there are as many as needed.
Watch Fobs.Plate 46.
Watch Fobs. Photograph.Plate 47.
One of these links is soldered to the bar that holds the ribbon and one to the top of the pendant; the others are linked together to form the short chain at the top. To connect the pendant to the ribbon, two larger links are needed which are made in the same way as the small ones. All the links may be soldered or not. The links that are soldered to the bar and to the pendant should be filed flat a little to make the point of contact greater. This insures a more secure joint. When soldering such small pieces the charcoal block is indispensable, for depressions are easily made in it where necessary. The parts are placed on the block in position and a small mouth blow-pipe is used; with this the flame can be more delicately applied.
When the different parts are completed, they are pickled, rinsed, dried, and polished, and then put together with the ribbon.
Fobs are sometimes made entirely of metal as B,Plate 46. In this slots are sawed in three or more bars of metal which are linked together with links made from the same thickness metal as the bars. The pendant and the swivel are also connected with the same kind of links.
These exercises are easily carried out after a little experience. No steps are taken that have not already been described, except in the case of forming the bowl of the spoon. This is done by taking a piece of lead and making a depression in it the size and shape of the bowl required. A piece of hard wood is shaped on the end grain to fit the depression made in the lead. The metal is placed over the depression and the wood shape placed on top of the metal; it is then driven into the form by using a hammer. This will give the general shape of the bowl which may be trued up later by sawing and filing.
Illustration: Spoons
Spoons.Plate 48.
Sugar Tongs and Tea Scoops.Plate 49.
The making of rivets is quite important as it is impossible to find in the market the variety in size and shape of head that each piece of work demands. Where rivets with a wire 1/8" or less are needed, they may be made as follows: Take a piece of iron or steel A,Plate 50, thicker than the desired length of the rivet and drill a hole through it having its diameter a little greater than the wire of the rivet. Take a piece of copper wire of the required diameter and about 1/8" longer than the thickness of the iron. Place the wire in the hole and the iron on some smooth metal surface, B. With a hammer make a burr of the wire that projects above the iron. Then reverse the iron and drive out the rivets. This gives what is shown at D. The rivet is then cut off the required length, placed in position and headed up. The head may be made conical, I, hemispherical, J, pyramidal, K, or square, L, in shape. It may be headed up simply with the hammer, or with a rivet header, M.
When necessary, the process may be reversed and the head made first; but when made in this way, a rivet block is needed to rest the head in while making the burr.
The rivet may be made more of a decorative feature by sawing out of sheet metal some suitable design as shown at P, Q, R. Drill a hole in the center the size of the rivet and then use any ordinary rivet head. Nails may be made by the same process, headed and pointed as at S and O.
Rivets.Plate 50.
Drawing Tubing.Figure 30.
Drawing Tubing.Figure 31.
Cut a piece of copper the length required, having the width about three times the diameter of the tube that is to be made. The edges must first be made parallel by filing. In a block of maple or some hard wood, with a wood file, make a groove as shown atFigure 30. Place the strip of metal over the groove and, with a somewhat pointed hammer,drive the metal into it until it takes the shape of a V.Figure 31 A. Then place it on the flat part of the block and strike on the edges with the hammer, turning them in until they meet, as at B and C.
Drawing Wire. Photograph.Figure 32.
A draw plate is then placed in the vise,Figure 32. After pointing the tube a little, the end is placed in one of the larger holes and drawn through. This will bring it somewhat into shape. Repeat this operation by drawing the tube through the hole the next smaller in size and so on till the tube is of the diameter required.
Wire may be drawn in the same way. Rectangular, triangular and square drawplates may be obtained as well as circular ones.
To polish work, a cloth or felt buff is placed on a lathe or a polishing head. With a little cut-quick and rouge objects may be brightened by holding them against the wheel.
Stamp.Figure 33.
The marking of work so that it will be known to whom it belongs and doing it in a neat and workmanlike manner is sometimes a problem. Using a gummed label with the name written on it has been tried, but the labels frequently come off. The name has been scratched with a sharp-pointed tool, but it is not an easy thing to do and certainly does not look well. The way described below however has proved very satisfactory. Have each pupil design a little trade mark of his own, and work it out on the end of a piece of tool steel, 1/8 inch or 3/16 inch square, round or hexagonal. This can be done by a little filing, perhaps the use of a drill if the design should call for it, and a little emery paper to take offall sharp edges. This serves as a stamp with which he may mark all of his work. The instructor has a book with the names of the pupils, and after each name he may stamp this mark and thereby register it so that he may tell at any time to whom work belongs.
Figure 33shows a stamp and a few suitable designs.
The most satisfactory color that can be given copper is a bronze which comes naturally if left to come in contact with varying atmospheres. If the object has a good polished surface in the first place the color seems to become richer as time goes on.
A color that is satisfactory in many cases is obtained in the following way:
Place in a porcelain dish and bring to a boiling heat, liver of sulphur, 1 oz., and water, 1 qt. Dip the object to be colored in this solution while hot and then rinse in clean water. This gives the object a very dark color. Take a little powdered pumice stone on a piece of cloth and rub over the surface lightly bringing the copper color to the surface where desired.
A greenish color is given copper by submitting the object to the fumes of spirits of ammonia.
Beautiful colors are obtained by heating the object to different degrees, over a gas plate, but these results are not permanent.
Enamel may be applied to metal objects and add a great deal to their value and attractiveness if used sparingly. The enamels most used are transparent and opaque; the transparent reflects the color of the metal adding a great deal of life to the work, the opaque gives color on the surface only.
The process, as described in this chapter, touches but the elementary stages of the art that are within the possibilities of high school work and possibly the upper grammar grades.
Enamel may be applied by any of the following methods:
First: By covering the entire surface of the object with enamel.
Second: By using a flat wire which is bent into sections the shape of the design and soldered to the object; the wire forms partitions to receive the enamel.
Third: By cutting away the design by the use of engraving tools, making channels about 1/32 of an inch deep to receive the enamel.
Fourth: By using a chasing tool either from the front or from the back of the work, forming raised or sunken partitions to receive the enamel.
The first and second methods are difficult ones, requiring a great deal of experience in handling metal and enamel to obtain satisfactory results.
The third and fourth methods are comparatively simple and are within the possibilities of those for whom this book is intended.
In the third method the design is first transferred to the object by the use of carbon paper and then made morepermanent with a scratcher. The design is cut out with the engraving tools,Figures 6,34and35, about 1/32 of an inch deep. All edges should be kept as smooth as possible and the channels should be uniform in depth. For convenience in holding, if the work is small, it may be fastened to a little pitch or wax spread on a block, or it may be placed on the pitch block as described under embossing on page64. The handle of the tool is held in the palm of the hand, and the thumb, placed within an inch of the point, serves as a guide while cutting,Figures 34and35. By wriggling the tool a little from one side to the other, greater progress is possible.