FOOTNOTES:

FOOTNOTES:[Pg 594][1]Seefootnote 4, page 1.[2]System of Mineralogy.[Pg 599][3]The following are the titles of the works referred to in this discussion:—Petrus Albinus:Meissnische Land und Berg Chronica In welcher ein wollnstendige description des Landes, etc., Dresden, 1590 (contains part I,Commentatorium de Mysnia).Newe Chronica und Beschreibung des Landes zu Meissen, pp. 1 to 449, besides preface and index, and Part II.Meissnische Bergk Chronica, Dresden, 1590, pp. 1 to 205, besides preface and index.Adam Daniel Richter:Umständliche ... Chronica der ... Stadt Chemnitz nebst beygefügten Urkunden, 2 pts. 4to, Zittau & Leipzig, 1767.Ben. G. Weinart:Versuch einer Litteratur d. Sächsischen Geschichte und Staats kunde, Leipzig, 1885.Friedrich August Schmid:Georg Agrikola's Bermannus: Einleitung in die metallurgischen Schriften desselben, Freyberg, Craz & Gerlach. 1806, pp.VIII., 1-260.Franz Ambros Reuss:Mineralogische Geographie van Böhmen. 2 vols. 4to, Dresden, 1793-97. (Agricola Vol.I, p. 2).Jacob Leupold:Prodromus Bibliothecae Metallicae, corrected, continued, and augmented by F. E. Brückmann. Wolfenbüttel, 1732, s.v. Agricola.Christian Gottlieb Göcher:Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexicon, with continuation and supplements by Adelung, Leipzig, 1750, s.v. Agricola.John Anton Van der Linden:De Scriptis medicis, Libri duo, Amsterdam, 1662, s.v. Georgius Agricola.Nicolas François Joseph Eloy:Dictionnaire Historique de la Médecine, Liége & Francfort (chez J. F. Bassompierre), 1755, 8vo (Agricola p. 28, vol.I).Georg Abraham Mercklinus:Lindenius Renovatus de scriptis medicis continuati ... amplificati, etc., Amsterdam, 1686, s.v. Georgius Agricola.John Ferguson:Bibliotheca Chemica: A catalogue of the Alchemical, Chemical, and Pharmaceutical books in the collection of the late James Young of Kelly & Durris, Esq., L.L.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. Glasgow, 1906, 4to, 2 vols., s.v. Agricola.Christoph Wilhelm Gatterer:Allgemeines Repertorium der mineralogischen, bergwerks und Salz werkswissenschaftlichen Literatur, Göttingen, 1798, vol.I.Dr. Reinhold Hofmann:Dr. Georg Agricola, Ein Gelehrtenleben aus dem Zeitalter der Reformation, 8vo, Gotha, 1905.Georg Heinrich Jacobi:Der Mineralog Georgius Agricola und sein Verhältnis zur wissenschaft seiner Zeit, etc., 8vo. Zwickau (1889), (Dissertation—Leipzig).Georg Draud:Bibliotheca Classica, Frankfurt-am-Main, 1611.B. G. Struve:Bibliotheca Saxonica, 8vo, Halle, 1736.[Pg 600][4]Albinus states (p. 354):Omnes simul editi Anno. 1549, iterum 1550, Basileae, as though two separate editions.[Pg 603][5]G. Fabricii epistolae ad W. Meurerum et alios aequales, by Baumgarten-Crusius, Leipzig, 1845, p. 83.[6]Dr. Georg Agricola, Gotha, 1905, pp. 60-61.[Pg 604][7]Albinus,Landchronik, pp. 354-5.[8]Dr. Georg Agricola, p. 63.[9]Baumgarten-Crusius, p. 115.[10]Virorum Clarorum Saec.XVI.etXVII.Epistolae Selectaeby Ernst Weber, Leipzig, 1894, p. 2.[11]Nicholas Episcopius to Georg Agricola, Sept. 17, 1548, published in Schmid'sBermannusp. 38. See also Hofmann, op. cit. pp. 62 and 140.[12]Meissnische Landchronik, Dresden, 1589, p. 354.[13]Printed in Baumgarten-Crusius, pp. 48-49, letterXLVIII.[14]Printed in Hermann Peter'sMeissner Jahresbericht der Fürstenschule, 1891, p. 24.[15]Baumgarten-Crusius.Georgii Fabricii Chemnicensis Epistolae, Leipzig, 1845, p. 139.[Pg 605][16]There is a copy of this work in the Rathsschul Library at Zwickau.[17]In the Rathsschul Library at Zwickau.[18]Contained in Vols.XXXVII.andXL.of Stephan Roth'sKollectanenbändeVolumes of Transcripts.[19]Landchronik, p. 354.[20]Op. cit., p. 354.[21]BookIV.[22]Op. cit., p. 355.[23]Page 291.[24]See Baumgarten-Crusius, p. 114, letter from Georg Fabricius.[25]Op. cit., p. 354.[26]Albinus, Op. cit., p. 355.[Pg 606][27]Baumgarten-Crusius, p. 2.[28]See Ferguson,Bibliotheca Chemica, s.v. Daniel Agricola.

[Pg 594][1]Seefootnote 4, page 1.

[2]System of Mineralogy.

[Pg 599][3]The following are the titles of the works referred to in this discussion:—Petrus Albinus:Meissnische Land und Berg Chronica In welcher ein wollnstendige description des Landes, etc., Dresden, 1590 (contains part I,Commentatorium de Mysnia).Newe Chronica und Beschreibung des Landes zu Meissen, pp. 1 to 449, besides preface and index, and Part II.Meissnische Bergk Chronica, Dresden, 1590, pp. 1 to 205, besides preface and index.Adam Daniel Richter:Umständliche ... Chronica der ... Stadt Chemnitz nebst beygefügten Urkunden, 2 pts. 4to, Zittau & Leipzig, 1767.Ben. G. Weinart:Versuch einer Litteratur d. Sächsischen Geschichte und Staats kunde, Leipzig, 1885.Friedrich August Schmid:Georg Agrikola's Bermannus: Einleitung in die metallurgischen Schriften desselben, Freyberg, Craz & Gerlach. 1806, pp.VIII., 1-260.Franz Ambros Reuss:Mineralogische Geographie van Böhmen. 2 vols. 4to, Dresden, 1793-97. (Agricola Vol.I, p. 2).Jacob Leupold:Prodromus Bibliothecae Metallicae, corrected, continued, and augmented by F. E. Brückmann. Wolfenbüttel, 1732, s.v. Agricola.Christian Gottlieb Göcher:Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexicon, with continuation and supplements by Adelung, Leipzig, 1750, s.v. Agricola.John Anton Van der Linden:De Scriptis medicis, Libri duo, Amsterdam, 1662, s.v. Georgius Agricola.Nicolas François Joseph Eloy:Dictionnaire Historique de la Médecine, Liége & Francfort (chez J. F. Bassompierre), 1755, 8vo (Agricola p. 28, vol.I).Georg Abraham Mercklinus:Lindenius Renovatus de scriptis medicis continuati ... amplificati, etc., Amsterdam, 1686, s.v. Georgius Agricola.John Ferguson:Bibliotheca Chemica: A catalogue of the Alchemical, Chemical, and Pharmaceutical books in the collection of the late James Young of Kelly & Durris, Esq., L.L.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. Glasgow, 1906, 4to, 2 vols., s.v. Agricola.Christoph Wilhelm Gatterer:Allgemeines Repertorium der mineralogischen, bergwerks und Salz werkswissenschaftlichen Literatur, Göttingen, 1798, vol.I.Dr. Reinhold Hofmann:Dr. Georg Agricola, Ein Gelehrtenleben aus dem Zeitalter der Reformation, 8vo, Gotha, 1905.Georg Heinrich Jacobi:Der Mineralog Georgius Agricola und sein Verhältnis zur wissenschaft seiner Zeit, etc., 8vo. Zwickau (1889), (Dissertation—Leipzig).Georg Draud:Bibliotheca Classica, Frankfurt-am-Main, 1611.B. G. Struve:Bibliotheca Saxonica, 8vo, Halle, 1736.

[Pg 599][3]The following are the titles of the works referred to in this discussion:—

Petrus Albinus:Meissnische Land und Berg Chronica In welcher ein wollnstendige description des Landes, etc., Dresden, 1590 (contains part I,Commentatorium de Mysnia).Newe Chronica und Beschreibung des Landes zu Meissen, pp. 1 to 449, besides preface and index, and Part II.Meissnische Bergk Chronica, Dresden, 1590, pp. 1 to 205, besides preface and index.

Adam Daniel Richter:Umständliche ... Chronica der ... Stadt Chemnitz nebst beygefügten Urkunden, 2 pts. 4to, Zittau & Leipzig, 1767.

Ben. G. Weinart:Versuch einer Litteratur d. Sächsischen Geschichte und Staats kunde, Leipzig, 1885.

Friedrich August Schmid:Georg Agrikola's Bermannus: Einleitung in die metallurgischen Schriften desselben, Freyberg, Craz & Gerlach. 1806, pp.VIII., 1-260.

Franz Ambros Reuss:Mineralogische Geographie van Böhmen. 2 vols. 4to, Dresden, 1793-97. (Agricola Vol.I, p. 2).

Jacob Leupold:Prodromus Bibliothecae Metallicae, corrected, continued, and augmented by F. E. Brückmann. Wolfenbüttel, 1732, s.v. Agricola.

Christian Gottlieb Göcher:Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexicon, with continuation and supplements by Adelung, Leipzig, 1750, s.v. Agricola.

John Anton Van der Linden:De Scriptis medicis, Libri duo, Amsterdam, 1662, s.v. Georgius Agricola.

Nicolas François Joseph Eloy:Dictionnaire Historique de la Médecine, Liége & Francfort (chez J. F. Bassompierre), 1755, 8vo (Agricola p. 28, vol.I).

Georg Abraham Mercklinus:Lindenius Renovatus de scriptis medicis continuati ... amplificati, etc., Amsterdam, 1686, s.v. Georgius Agricola.

John Ferguson:Bibliotheca Chemica: A catalogue of the Alchemical, Chemical, and Pharmaceutical books in the collection of the late James Young of Kelly & Durris, Esq., L.L.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. Glasgow, 1906, 4to, 2 vols., s.v. Agricola.

Christoph Wilhelm Gatterer:Allgemeines Repertorium der mineralogischen, bergwerks und Salz werkswissenschaftlichen Literatur, Göttingen, 1798, vol.I.

Dr. Reinhold Hofmann:Dr. Georg Agricola, Ein Gelehrtenleben aus dem Zeitalter der Reformation, 8vo, Gotha, 1905.

Georg Heinrich Jacobi:Der Mineralog Georgius Agricola und sein Verhältnis zur wissenschaft seiner Zeit, etc., 8vo. Zwickau (1889), (Dissertation—Leipzig).

Georg Draud:Bibliotheca Classica, Frankfurt-am-Main, 1611.

B. G. Struve:Bibliotheca Saxonica, 8vo, Halle, 1736.

[Pg 600][4]Albinus states (p. 354):Omnes simul editi Anno. 1549, iterum 1550, Basileae, as though two separate editions.

[Pg 603][5]G. Fabricii epistolae ad W. Meurerum et alios aequales, by Baumgarten-Crusius, Leipzig, 1845, p. 83.

[6]Dr. Georg Agricola, Gotha, 1905, pp. 60-61.

[Pg 604][7]Albinus,Landchronik, pp. 354-5.

[8]Dr. Georg Agricola, p. 63.

[9]Baumgarten-Crusius, p. 115.

[10]Virorum Clarorum Saec.XVI.etXVII.Epistolae Selectaeby Ernst Weber, Leipzig, 1894, p. 2.

[11]Nicholas Episcopius to Georg Agricola, Sept. 17, 1548, published in Schmid'sBermannusp. 38. See also Hofmann, op. cit. pp. 62 and 140.

[12]Meissnische Landchronik, Dresden, 1589, p. 354.

[13]Printed in Baumgarten-Crusius, pp. 48-49, letterXLVIII.

[14]Printed in Hermann Peter'sMeissner Jahresbericht der Fürstenschule, 1891, p. 24.

[15]Baumgarten-Crusius.Georgii Fabricii Chemnicensis Epistolae, Leipzig, 1845, p. 139.

[Pg 605][16]There is a copy of this work in the Rathsschul Library at Zwickau.

[17]In the Rathsschul Library at Zwickau.

[18]Contained in Vols.XXXVII.andXL.of Stephan Roth'sKollectanenbändeVolumes of Transcripts.

[19]Landchronik, p. 354.

[20]Op. cit., p. 354.

[21]BookIV.

[22]Op. cit., p. 355.

[23]Page 291.

[24]See Baumgarten-Crusius, p. 114, letter from Georg Fabricius.

[25]Op. cit., p. 354.

[26]Albinus, Op. cit., p. 355.

[Pg 606][27]Baumgarten-Crusius, p. 2.

[28]See Ferguson,Bibliotheca Chemica, s.v. Daniel Agricola.

We give the following brief notes on early works containing some reference to mineralogy, mining, or metallurgy, to indicate the literature available to Agricola and for historical notes bearing upon the subject. References to these works in the footnotes may be most easily consulted through the personal index.

GREEK AUTHORS.—Only a very limited Greek literature upon subjects allied to mining or natural science survives. The whole of the material of technical interest could be reproduced on less than twenty of these pages. Those of most importance are: Aristotle (384-322B.C.), Theophrastus (371-288B.C.), Diodorus Siculus (1st CenturyB.C.), Strabo (64B.C.-25A.D.), and Dioscorides (1st CenturyA.D.).

Aristotle, apart from occasional mineralogical or metallurgical references inDe Mirabilibus, is mostly of interest as the author of the Peripatetic theory of the elements and the relation of these to the origin of stones and metals. Agricola was, to a considerable measure, a follower of this school, and their views colour much of his writings. We, however, discuss elsewhere[1]at what point he departed from them. Especially inDe Ortu et Causisdoes he quote largely from Aristotle'sMeteorologica,Physica, andDe Coeloon these subjects. There is a spurious work on stones attributed to Aristotle of some interest to mineralogists. It was probably the work of some Arab early in the Middle Ages.

Theophrastus, the principal disciple of Aristotle, appears to have written at least two works relating to our subject—one "On Stones", and the other on metals, mining or metallurgy, but the latter is not extant. The work "On Stones" was first printed in Venice in 1498, and the Greek text, together with a fair English translation by Sir John Hill, was published in London in 1746 under the title "Theophrastus on Stones"; the translation is, however, somewhat coloured with Hill's views on mineralogy. The work comprises 120 short paragraphs, and would, if reproduced, cover but about four of these pages. In the first paragraphs are the Peripatetic view of the origin of stones and minerals, and upon the foundation of Aristotle he makes some modifications. The principal interest in Theophrastus' work is the description of minerals; the information given is, however, such as might be possessed by any ordinary workman, and betrays no particular abilities for natural philosophy. He enumerates various exterior characteristics, such as colour, tenacity, hardness, smoothness, density, fusibility, lustre, and transparence, and their quality of reproduction, and then proceeds to describe various substances, but usually omits his enumerated characteristics. Apart from the then known metals and certain "earths" (ochre, marls, clay, etc.), it is possible to identify from his descriptions the following rocks and minerals:—marble, pumice, onyx, gypsum, pyrites, coal, bitumen, amber, azurite, chrysocolla, realgar, orpiment, cinnabar, quartz in various forms, lapis lazuli, emerald, sapphire, diamond, and ruby. Altogether there are some sixteen distinct mineral species. He also describes the touchstone and its uses, the making of white-lead and verdigris, and of quicksilver from cinnabar.

Diodorus Siculus was a Greek native of Sicily. His "historical library" consisted of some 40 books, of which parts of 15 are extant. The first print was in Latin, 1472, and in Greek in 1539; the first translation into English was by Thomas Stocker, London, 1568, and later by G. Booth, 1700. We have relied upon Booth's translation, but with some amendments by friends, to gain more literal statement. Diodorus, so far as relates to our subject, gives merely the occasional note of a traveller. The most interesting paragraphs are his quotation from Agatharchides on Egyptian mining and upon British tin.

Strabo was also a geographer. His work consists of 17 books, and practically all survive. We have relied upon the most excellent translation of Hamilton and Falconer, London, 1903, the only one in English. Mines and minerals did not escape such an acute geographer, and the matters of greatest interest are those with relation to Spanish mines.

Dioscorides was a Greek physician who wrote entirely from the standpoint of materia medica, most of his work being devoted to herbs; but Book V. is devoted to minerals and rocks, and their preparation for medicinal purposes. The work has never been translated into English, and we have relied upon the Latin translation of Matthioli, Venice, 1565, and notes upon the Greek text prepared for us by Mr. C. Katopodes. In addition to most of the substances known before, he, so far as can be identified, adds schist,cadmia(blende or calamine),chalcitis(copper sulphide),misy,melanteria,sory(copper or iron sulphide oxidation minerals). He describes the making of certain artificial products, such as copper oxides, vitriol, litharge,pompholyx, andspodos(zinc and/or arsenical oxides). His principal interest for us, however, lies in the processes set out for making his medicines.

Occasional scraps of information relating to the metals or mines in some connection are to be found in many other Greek writers, and in quotations by them from others which are not now extant, such as Polybius, Posidonius, etc. The poets occasionally throw a gleamof light on ancient metallurgy, as for instance in Homer's description of Vulcan's foundry; while the historians, philosophers, statesmen, and physicians, among them Herodotus, Xenophon, Demosthenes, Galen, and many others, have left some incidental references to the metals and mining, helpful to gleaners from a field, which has been almost exhausted by time. Even Archimedes made pumps, and Hero surveying instruments for mines.

ROMAN AUTHORS.—Pre-eminent among all ancient writers on these subjects is, of course, Pliny, and in fact, except some few lines by Vitruvius, there is practically little else in extant Roman literature of technical interest, for the metallurgical metaphors of the poets and orators were threadbare by this time, and do not excite so much interest as upon their first appearance among the Greeks and Hebrews.

Pliny (Caius Plinius Secundus) was born 23A.D., and was killed by eruption of Vesuvius 79A.D.His Natural History should be more properly called an encyclopædia, the whole comprising 37 books; but only portions of the last four books relate to our subject, and over one-half of the material there is upon precious stones. To give some rough idea of the small quantity of even this, the most voluminous of ancient works upon our subject, we have made an estimate that the portions of metallurgical character would cover, say, three pages of this text, on mining two pages, on building and precious stones about ten pages. Pliny and Dioscorides were contemporaries, and while Pliny nowhere refers to the Greek, internal evidence is most convincing, either that they drew from the same source, or that Pliny drew from Dioscorides. We have, therefore, throughout the text given precedence in time to the Greek author in matters of historical interest. The works of Pliny were first printed at Venice in 1469. They have passed dozens of editions in various languages, and have been twice translated into English. The first translation by Philemon Holland, London, 1601, is quite impossible. The second translation, by Bostock and Riley, London, 1855, was a great advance, and the notes are most valuable, but in general the work has suffered from a freedom justifiable in the translation of poetry, but not in science. We have relied upon the Latin edition of Janus, Leipzig, 1870. The frequent quotations in our footnotes are sufficient indication of the character of Pliny's work. In general it should be remembered that he was himself but a compiler of information from others, and, so far as our subjects are concerned, of no other experience than most travellers. When one considers the reliability of such authors to-day on technical subjects, respect for Pliny is much enhanced. Further, the text is no doubt much corrupted through the generations of transcription before it was set in type. So far as can be identified with any assurance, Pliny adds but few distinct minerals to those enumerated by Theophrastus and Dioscorides. For his metallurgical and mining information we refer to the footnotes, and in general it may be said that while those skilled in metallurgy can dimly see in his statements many metallurgical operations, there is little that does not require much deduction to arrive at a conclusion. On geology he offers no new philosophical deductions of consequence; the remote connection of building stones is practically all that can be enumerated, lest one build some assumption of a knowledge of ore-deposits on the use of the word "vein". One point of great interest to this work is that in his search for Latin terms for technical purposes Agricola relied almost wholly upon Pliny, and by some devotion to the latter we have been able to disentangle some very puzzling matters of nomenclature inDe Re Metallica, of which the termmolybdaenamay be cited as a case in point.

Vitruvius was a Roman architect of note of the 1st CenturyB.C.His work of ten books contains some very minor references to pumps and machinery, building stones, and the preparation of pigments, the latter involving operations from which metallurgical deductions can occasionally be safely made. His works were apparently first printed in Rome in 1496. There are many editions in various languages, the first English translation being from the French in 1692. We have relied upon the translation of Joseph Gwilt, London, 1875, with such alterations as we have considered necessary.

MEDIÆVAL AUTHORS.—For convenience we group under this heading the writers of interest from Roman times to the awakening of learning in the early 16th Century. Apart from Theophilus, they are mostly alchemists; but, nevertheless, some are of great importance in the history of metallurgy and chemistry. Omitting a horde of lesser lights upon whom we have given some data under the author's preface, the works principally concerned are those ascribed to Avicenna, Theophilus, Geber, Albertus Magnus, Roger Bacon, and Basil Valentine. Judging from thePrefacetoDe Re Metallica, and from quotations in his subsidiary works, Agricola must have been not only familiar with a wide range of alchemistic material, but also with a good deal of the Arabic literature, which had been translated into Latin. The Arabs were, of course, the only race which kept the light of science burning during the Dark Ages, and their works were in considerable vogue at Agricola's time.

Avicenna (980-1037) was an Arabian physician of great note, a translator of the Greek classics into Arabic, and a follower of Aristotle to the extent of attempting to reconcile the Peripatetic elements with those of the alchemists. He is chiefly known to the world through the works which he compiled on medicine, mostly from the Greek and Latin authors. These works for centuries dominated the medical world, and were used in certain European Universities until the 17th century. A great many works are attributed to him, and he is copiously quoted by Agricola, principally in hisDe Ortu et Causis, apparently for the purpose of exposure.

Theophilus was a Monk and the author of a most illuminating work, largely upon working metal and its decoration for ecclesiastical purposes. An excellent translation, with the Latin text, was published by Robert Hendrie, London, 1847, under the title "An Essay upon various Arts, in three books, by Theophilus, called also Rugerus, Priest and Monk." Hendrie, for many sufficient reasons, places the period of Theophilus as the latter half of the 11th century. The work is mainly devoted to preparing pigments, making glass, and working metals, and their conversion into ecclesiastical paraphernalia, such as mural decoration, pictures, windows, chalices, censers, bells, organs, etc. However, he incidentally describes the making of metallurgical furnaces, cupellation, parting gold and silver by cementation with salt, and by melting with sulphur, the smelting of copper, liquating lead from it, and the refining of copper under a blast with poling.

Geber was until recent years considered to be an Arab alchemist of a period somewhere between the 7th and 12th centuries. A mere bibliography of the very considerable literature which exists in discussion of who, where, and at what time the author was, would fill pages. Those who are interested may obtain a start upon such references from Hermann Kopp'sBeiträge zur Geschichte der Chemie, Braunschweig, 1875, and in John Ferguson'sBibliotheca Chemica, Glasgow, 1906. Berthelot, in hisChimie au Moyen Age, Paris, 1893, considers the works under the name of Geber were not in the main of Arabic origin, but composed by some Latin scholar in the 13th century. In any event, certain works were, under this name, printed in Latin as early as 1470-80, and have passed innumerable editions since. They were first translated into English by Richard Russell, London, 1678, and we have relied upon this and the Nuremberg edition in Latin of 1541. This work, even assuming Berthelot's view, is one of the most important in the history of chemistry and metallurgy, and is characterised by a directness of statement unique among alchemists. The making of the mineral acids—certainly nitric andaqua regia, and perhaps hydrochloric and sulphuric—are here first described. The author was familiar with saltpetre, sal-ammoniac, and alkali, and with the acids he prepared many salts for the first time. He was familiar with amalgamation, cupellation, the separation of gold and silver by cementation with salt and by nitric acid. His views on the primary composition of bodies dominated the alchemistic world for centuries. He contended that all metals were composed of "spiritual" sulphur (or arsenic, which he seems to consider a special form of sulphur) and quicksilver, varying proportions and qualities yielding different metals. The more the quicksilver, the more "perfect" the metal.

Albertus Magnus (Albert von Bollstadt) was a Dominican Monk, afterwards Bishop, born about 1205, and died about 1280. He was rated the most learned man of his time, and evidence of his literary activities lies in the complete edition of his works issued by Pierre Jammy, Lyons, 1651, which comprises 21 folio volumes. However, there is little doubt that a great number of works attributed to him, especially upon alchemy, are spurious. He covered a wide range of theology, logic, alchemy, and natural science, and of the latter the following works which concern our subject are considered genuine:—De Rebus Metallicis et Mineralibus,De Generatione et Corruptione, andDe Meteoris. They are little more than compilations and expositions of the classics muddled with the writings of the Arabs, and in general an attempt to conciliate the Peripatetic and Alchemistic schools. His position in the history of science has been greatly over-estimated. However, his mineralogy is, except for books on gems, the only writing of any consequence at all on the subject between Pliny and Agricola, and while there are but two or three minerals mentioned which are not to be found in the ancient authors, this work, nevertheless, deserves some place in the history of science, especially as some attempt at classification is made. Agricola devotes some thousands of words to the refutation of his "errors."

Roger Bacon (1214-1294) was a Franciscan Friar, a lecturer at Oxford, and a man of considerable scientific attainments for his time. He was the author of a large number of mathematical, philosophical, and alchemistic treatises. The latter are of some importance in the history of chemistry, but have only minute bearing upon metallurgy, and this chiefly as being one of the earliest to mention saltpetre.

Basil Valentine is the reputed author of a number of alchemistic works, of which none appeared in print until early in the 17th century. Internal evidence seems to indicate that the "Triumphant Chariot of Antimony" is the only one which may possibly be authentic, and could not have been written prior to the end of the 15th or early 16th century, although it has been variously placed as early as 1350. To this work has been accredited the first mention of sulphuric and hydrochloric acid, the separation of gold and silver by the use of antimony (sulphide), the reduction of the antimony sulphide to the metal, the extraction of copper by the precipitation of the sulphate with iron, and the discovery of various antimonial salts. At the time of the publication of works ascribed to Valentine practically all these things were well known, and had been previously described. We are, therefore, in much doubt as to whether this author really deserves any notice in the history of metallurgy.

EARLY16thCENTURY WORKS.—During the 16th century, and prior toDe Re Metallica, there are only three works of importance from the point of view of mining technology—theNützlich Bergbüchlin, theProbierbüchlein, and Biringuccio'sDe La Pirotechnia. There are also some minor works by the alchemists of some interest for isolated statements, particularly those of Paracelsus. The three works mentioned, however, represent such astride of advance over anything previous, that they merit careful consideration.

Eyn Nützlich Bergbüchlin.Under this title we frequently refer to a little booklet on veins and ores, published at the beginning of the 16th century. The title page of our copy is as below:—

Title page

This book is small 8vo, comprises 24 folios without pagination, and has no typographical indications upon the title page, but the last line in the book reads:Gedruckt zu Erffurd durch Johan Loersfelt, 1527. Another edition in our possession, that of "Frankfurt am Meyn", 1533, by Christian Egenolph, is entitledBergwerk und Probierbüchlin, etc., and contains, besides the above, an extract and plates from theProbierbüchlein(referred to later on), and a few recipes for assay tests. All of these booklets, of which we find mention, comprise instructions from Daniel, a skilled miner, to Knappius, "his mining boy". Although the little books of this title are all anonymous, we are convinced, largely from the statement in thePrefaceofDe Re Metallica, that one Calbus of Freiberg was the original author of this work. Agricola says: "Two books have been written in our tongue: the one on the assaying of mineral substances and metals, somewhat confused, whose author is unknown; the other 'On Veins', of which Pandulfus Anglus is also said to have written,although the German book was written by Calbus of Freiberg, a well-known doctor; but neither of them accomplished the task he had begun." He again refers to Calbus at the end of Book III.[2]ofDe Re Metallica, and gives an almost verbatim quotation from theNützlich Bergbüchlin. Jacobi[3]says: "Calbus Fribergius, so called by Agricola himself, is certainly no other than the Freiberg doctor, Rühlein von C(K)albe." There are also certain internal evidences that support Agricola's statement, for the work was evidently written in Meissen, and the statement of Agricola that the book was unfinished is borne out by a short dialogue at the end of the earlier editions, designed to introduce further discussion. Calbus (or Dr. Ulrich Rühlein von Kalbe) was a very active citizen of Freiberg, having been a town councillor in 1509, burgomaster in 1514, a mathematician, mining surveyor, founder of a school of liberal arts, and in general a physician. He died in 1523.[4]The book possesses great literary interest, as it is, so far as we are aware,undoubtedly the first work on mining geology, and in consequence we have spent some effort in endeavour to find the date of its first appearance. Through the courtesy of M. Polain, who has carefully examined for us theNützlich Bergbüchleindescribed in Marie Pellechet'sCatalogue Général des Incunables des Bibliothèques Publiques de France,[5]we have ascertained that it is similar as regards text and woodcuts to the Erfurt edition, 1527. This copy in the Bibliothèque Nationale is without typographical indications, and M. Polain considers it very possible that it is the original edition printed at the end of the fifteenth or beginning of the sixteenth centuries. Mr. Bennett Brough,[6]quoting Hans von Dechen,[7]states that the first edition was printed at Augsburg in 1505, no copy of which seems to be extant. The Librarian at the School of Mines at Freiberg has kindly furnished us with the following notes as to the titles of the copies in that Institution:—(1)Eyn Wolgeordent und Nützlich Bergbüchlein, etc., Worms, 1512[8]and 1518[9](the place and date are written in), (2) the same as ours (1527); (3) the same, Heinrich Steyner, Augsburg, 1534; (4) the same, 1539. On comparing these various editions (to which may be added one probably published in Nürnberg by Friedrich Peypus in 1532[10]) we find that they fall into two very distinct groups, characterised by their contents and by two entirely different sets of woodcuts.

Group I.

(a)Eyn Nützlich Bergbüchlein(inBibl. Nat., Paris) before 1500 (?).(b) Ditto, Erfurt, 1527.

(a)Eyn Nützlich Bergbüchlein(inBibl. Nat., Paris) before 1500 (?).

(b) Ditto, Erfurt, 1527.

Group II.

(c)Wolgeordent Nützlich Bergbüchlein, Worms, Peter Schöfern, 1512.(d)Wolgeordent Nützlich Bergbüchlein, Worms, Peter Schöfern, 1518.(e)Bergbüchlin von Erkantnus der Berckwerck, Nürnberg, undated, 1532 (?).(f)Bergwerckbuch & Probirbuch, Christian Egenolph, Frankfurt-am-Meyn, 1533.(g)Wolgeordent Nützlich Bergbüchlein, Augsburg, Heinrich Steyner, 1534.(h)Wolgeordent Nützlich Bergbüchlein, Augsburg, Heinrich Steyner, 1539.

(c)Wolgeordent Nützlich Bergbüchlein, Worms, Peter Schöfern, 1512.

(d)Wolgeordent Nützlich Bergbüchlein, Worms, Peter Schöfern, 1518.

(e)Bergbüchlin von Erkantnus der Berckwerck, Nürnberg, undated, 1532 (?).

(f)Bergwerckbuch & Probirbuch, Christian Egenolph, Frankfurt-am-Meyn, 1533.

(g)Wolgeordent Nützlich Bergbüchlein, Augsburg, Heinrich Steyner, 1534.

(h)Wolgeordent Nützlich Bergbüchlein, Augsburg, Heinrich Steyner, 1539.

There are also others of later date toward the end of the sixteenth century.

TheBüchleinof Group I. terminate after the short dialogue between Daniel and Knappius with the words:Mitt welchen das kleinspeissig ertz geschmeltzt soil werden; whereas in those of Group II. these words are followed by a short explanation of the signs used in the woodcuts, and by directions for colouring the woodcuts, and in some cases by several pages containing definitions of some 92 mining terms. In the editions of Group I. the woodcut on the title page represents a miner hewing ore in a vein and two others working a windlass. In those of Group II. the woodcut on the title page represents one miner hewing on the surface, another to the right carting away ore in a handcart, and two others carrying between them a heavy timber. In our opinion Group I. represents the older and original work of Calbus; but as we have not seen the copy in theBibliothèque Nationale, and the Augsburg edition of 1505 has only so far been traced to Veith's catalogue,[11]the question of the first edition cannot be considered settled at present. In any event, it appears that the material grafted on in the second group was later, and by various authors.

The earliest books comprise ten chapters, in which Daniel delivers about 6,000 words of instruction. The first four chapters are devoted to the description of veins and the origin of the metals, of the remaining six chapters one each to silver, gold, tin, copper, iron, lead, and quicksilver. Among the mining terms are explained the meaning of country rock (zechstein), hanging and footwalls (hangendsandliegends), the strike (streichen), dip (fallen), and outcrop (ausgehen). Of the latter two varieties are given, one of the "whole vein," the other of thegesteins, which may be the ore-shoot. Various veins are illustrated, and also for the first time a mining compass. The account of the origin of the metals is a muddle of the Peripatetics, the alchemists, and the astrologers, for which acknowledgment to Albertus Magnus is given. They are represented to originate from quicksilver and sulphur through heat, cold, dampness, and dryness, and are drawn out as exhalations through the veins, each metal owing its origin to the special influence of some planet; the Moon for silver, Saturn for lead, etc. Two types of veins are mentioned, "standing" (stehendergang) and flat (flachgang). Stringers are given the same characteristics as veins, but divided into hanging, footwall, and other varieties. Prominence is also given to thegeschick(selvage seams or joints?).The importance of the bearing of the junctions of veins and stringers on enrichment is elaborated upon, and veins of east-west strike lying upon a south slope are considered the best. From the following notes it will be seen that two or three other types of deposits besides veins are referred to.

In describing silver veins, of peculiar interest is the mention of the association of bismuth (wismuth), this being, we believe, the first mention of that metal, galena (glantz), quartz (quertz), spar (spar), hornstone (hornstein), ironstone and pyrites (kies), are mentioned as gangue materials, "according to the mingling of the various vapours." The termglasertzis used, but it is difficult to say if silver glance is meant; if so, it is the first mention of this mineral. So far as we know, this is the first use of any of the terms in print. Gold alluvial is described, part of the gold being assumed as generated in the gravel. The best alluvial is in streams running east and west. The association of gold with pyrites is mentioned, and the pyrites is found "in some places as a complete stratum carried through horizontally, and is called aschwebender gang." This sort of occurrence is not considered very good "because the work of the heavens can be but little completed on account of the unsuitability of the position." Gold pyrites that comes in veins is better. Tin is mentioned as found in alluvial, and also in veins, the latter being better or worse, according to the amount of pyrites, although the latter can be burned off. Tin-stone is found in masses, copper ore in schist and in veins sometimes with pyrites. The ore from veins is better than schist. Iron ore is found in masses, and sometimes in veins; the latter is the best. "The iron veins with good hanging- and foot-walls are not to be despised, especially if their strike be from east to west, their dip to the south, the foot-wall and outcrop to the north, then if the ironstone is followed down, the vein usually reveals gold or other valuable ore". Lead ore is found inschwebenden gangandstehenden gang. Quicksilver, like other ore, is sometimes found in brown earth, and sometimes, again, in caves where it has run out like water. The classification of veins is the same as inDe Re Metallica.[12]The book generally, however, seems to have raised Agricola's opposition, for the quotations are given in order to be demolished.

Probierbüchlein.Agricola refers in thePrefaceofDe Re Metallicato a work in German on assaying and refining metals, and it is our belief that it was to some one of the little assay books published early in the 16th century. There are several of them, seemingly revised editions of each other; in the early ones no author's name appears, although among the later editions various names appear on the title page. An examination of these little books discloses the fact that their main contents are identical, for they are really collections of recipes after the order of cookery books, and intended rather to refresh the memory of thosealready skilled than to instruct the novice. The books appear to have grown by accretions from many sources, for a large number of methods are given over and over again in the same book with slight variations. We reproduce the title page of our earliest copy.

Title page

The following is a list of these booklets so far as we have been able to discover actual copies:—

Date.Place.Publisher.Title (Short).Author.UnknownUnknownUnknownProbierbüchleinAnon.(Undated; but catalogue of British Museum suggests Augsburg, 1510.)1524MagdeburgProbirbüchleyn tzu GotteslobAnon.1531AugsburgUnknownProbierbuch aller Sachsischer ErtzeAnon.1533Frankfurt a. MeynBergwerck und ProbierbüchleinAnon.1534AugsburgHeinrich Steyner, 8vo.ProbirbüchleinAnon.1546AugsburgDitto, dittoProbirbüchleinAnon.1549AugsburgDitto, dittoProbirbüchleinAnon.1564AugsburgMath. Francke, 4toProbirbüchleinZach. Lochner1573Augsburg8vo.ProbirbuchSam. Zimmermann1574Franckfurt a. MeynProbierbüchleinAnon.1578DittoProbierbüchlein Fremde und subtile KunstCyriacus Schreittmann1580DittoProbierbüchleinAnon.1595DittoProbierbüchlein darinn gründlicher BerichtModestin Fachs1607Dresden4toMetallische Probier KunstBericht vom Ursprung und Erkenntniss der Metallischen erzeC. C. Schindler1669AmsterdamProbierbüchlein darinn gründlicher BerichtModestin Fachs1678LeipzigProbierbüchlein darinn gründlicher BerichtModestin Fachs1689LeipzigProbierbüchlein darinn gründlicher BerichtModestin Fachs1695Nürnberg12mo.Deutliche Vorstellung der Probier KunstAnon.1744Lübeck8vo.Neu-eröffnete Probier BuchAnon.1755Frankfurt and Leipzig8vo.Scheid-Künstler ... alle Ertz und Metalle ... probirenAnon.1782Rotenburg an der Fulde8vo.Probierbuch aus Erfahrung aufgesetztK. A. Scheidt

As mentioned under theNützlich Bergbüchlein, our copy of that work, printed in 1533, contains only a portion of theProbierbüchlein. Ferguson[13]mentions an edition of 1608, and the Freiberg School of Mines Catalogue gives also Frankfort, 1608, and Nürnberg, 1706. The British Museum copy of earliest date, like the title page reproduced, contains no date. The title page woodcut, however, in the Museum copy is referred from that above, possibly indicating an earlier date of the Museum copy.

The booklets enumerated above vary a great deal in contents, the successive prints representing a sort of growth by accretion. The first portion of our earliest edition is devoted to weights, in which the system of "lesser weights" (the principle of the "assay ton") is explained. Following this are exhaustive lists of touch-needles of various composition. Directions are given with regard to assay furnaces, cupels, muffles, scorifiers, and crucibles, granulated and leaf metals, for washing, roasting, and the preparation of assay charges. Various reagents, including glass-gall, litharge, salt, iron filings, lead, "alkali", talc, argol, saltpetre, sal-ammoniac, alum, vitriol, lime, sulphur, antimony,aqua fortis, orscheidwasser, etc., are made use of. Various assays are described and directions given for crucible, scorification, and cupellation tests. The latter part of the book is devoted to the refining and parting of precious metals. Instructions are given for the separation of silver from iron, from lead, and from antimony; of gold from silver with antimony (sulphide) and sulphur, or with sulphur alone, with "scheidwasser," and by cementation with salt; of gold from copper with sulphur and with lead. The amalgamation of gold and silver is mentioned.

The book is diffuse and confused, and without arrangement or system, yet a little consideration enables one of experience to understand most statements. There are over 120 recipes, with, as said before, much repetition; for instance, the parting of gold and silver by use of sulphur is given eight times in different places. The final line of the book is: "Take this in good part, dear reader, after it, please God, there will be a better." In truth, however, there are books on assaying four centuries younger that are worse. This is, without doubt, the first written word on assaying, and it displays that art already full grown, so far as concerns gold and silver, and to some extent copper and lead; for if we eliminate the words dependent on the atomic theory from modern works on dry assaying, there has been but very minor progress. The art could not, however, have reached this advanced stage but by slow accretion, and no doubt this collection of recipes had been handed from father to son long before the 16th century. It is of wider interest that these booklets represent the first milestone on the road to quantitative analysis, and in this light they have been largely ignored by the historians of chemistry. Internal evidence inBook VII.ofDe Re Metallica, together with the reference in thePreface, leave little doubt that Agricola was familiar with these booklets. His work, however, is arranged more systematically, each operation stated more clearly, with more detail and fresh items; and further, he gives methods of determining copper and lead which are but minutely touched upon in theProbierbüchlein, while the directions as to tin, bismuth, quicksilver, and iron are entirely new.

Biringuccio (Vanuccio). We practically know nothing about this author. From the preface to the first edition of his work it appears he was styled a mathematician, but in the text[14]he certainly states that he was most of his time engaged in metallurgical operations, and that in pursuit of such knowledge he had visited Germany. The work was in Italian, published at Venice in 1540, the title page of the first edition as below:—

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