Fig. 1. Eyes of African Bull.Fig. 1. Eyes of African Bull.
Fig. 2.Fig. 2.
"The black tufts, mentioned above, are the lateral hoofs (fig. 2), which the animal sheds annually, and which growto the length of five or six inches. They are not shed together, or at stated periods; for those of the fore-feet, (a,b,) in this example, are at present of different ages, and, consequently, of different lengths; the difference between them being exactly that represented in the sketch.
"On the hump or collar, the hair grows much longer than on the other parts of the body, forming a sort of curled mane, resembling, I should imagine, that of the Bison. It is perfectly white, growing to the length of one foot six inches, and adding greatly to the height of the rising part behind the horns. At present the hair is only beginning to grow; but it will be in full beauty at the approach of the winter months, and will fall off gradually again in the early part of the succeeding spring.
Fig. 3. Dewlap of African Bull.Fig. 3. Dewlap of African Bull.
"The keeper pointed out to Mr. Harvey, as a remarkable peculiarity, that the dewlap (fig. 3), in passing between the fore-legs (a), and under the body (b), seemed to divide itself into three parts, which they called the three stomachs, (1, 2, 3,) from their being very much acted on in the progress of digestion."
I remain. Sir, &c.M. Harvey.
I remain. Sir, &c.M. Harvey.
FOOTNOTES:[C]The engraving here given as well as those of the eyes, hoofs, and dewlap, have been carefully copied from Mr. Harvey's originals.
[C]The engraving here given as well as those of the eyes, hoofs, and dewlap, have been carefully copied from Mr. Harvey's originals.
[C]The engraving here given as well as those of the eyes, hoofs, and dewlap, have been carefully copied from Mr. Harvey's originals.
Considerable interest has always been connected with the history of those herds of white cattle which have been kept secluded, apparently from time immemorial, in the parks of some of our aristocracy.[D]It has been, and still is,a matter of lordly pride to their noble owners, that these cattle are held to be of a distinct and untameable race.
Feeling a full share of the interest attached to them, and anxious to gain the most accurate and circumstantial information, I was induced to pay a visit, during the summer of 1845, to the beautifully wooded and undulating Park of Chillingham, in which a herd of these cattle is preserved; and, although I have not been able to gather material for a perfect history of these animals, I think it will not be difficult to show that matters respecting them have been set forth as facts which are fictions; and that from some points of their history which have been correctly detailed, inferences have been drawn, which are by no means warranted by the facts.
In endeavouring to point out these errors and false reasonings, it will be necessary to make quotations from the old history of the white cattle, in Culley's 'Observations on Live Stock,' which has been so often repeated in works on natural history, and is, moreover, so thoroughly accredited, that it may now appear something like presumption to call it in question. To what extent it is called in question on the present occasion, and the reasons for so doing, will be seen in the running commentary which accompanies these quotations.
Culley says: "The Wild Breed, from being untameable,can only be kept within walls or good fences; consequently very few of them are now to be met with, except in the parks of some gentlemen, who keep them for ornament, and as a curiosity: those I have seen are at Chillingham Castle, in Northumberland, a seat belonging to the Earl of Tankerville."
The statement of their being untameable is a mere assertion, founded upon no evidence whatever. But so far is it from being the fact, that, notwithstanding every means are used to preserve their wildness, such as allowing them to range in an extensive park—seldom intruding upon them—hunting and shooting them now and then—notwithstanding these means are taken to preserve their wildness, they are even now so far domesticated as voluntarily to present themselves every winter, at a place prepared for them, for the purpose of being fed. From which it may reasonably be concluded, that were they restricted in their pasture, gradually familiarised with the presence of human beings, and in every other respect treated as ordinary cattle, they would, in the course of two or three generations, be equally tame and tractable.
Whilst writing the foregoing I was not aware that any attempt had been made to domesticate these so-called untameable oxen; but on reading an account of these cattle by Mr. Hindmarsh, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, (bearing date about 1837,) I find the following paragraph.
"By taking the calves at a very early age, and treating them gently, the present keeper succeeded in domesticating an ox and a cow.They became as tame as domestic animals, and the ox fed as rapidly as a short-horned steer. He lived eighteen years, and when at his best was computed at 8 cwt. 14 lbs. The cow only lived five or six years. Shegave little milk, but the quality was rich. She was crossed by a country bull, but her progeny very closely resembled herself, being entirely white, excepting the ears, which were brown, and the legs, which were mottled." These facts speak for themselves.
Culley, in giving their distinguishing characteristics, says: "Their colour is invariably of a creamy white; muzzle black; the whole of the inside of the ear, and about one third of the outside, from the tips downwards, red; horns white, with black tips, very fine, and bent upwards; some of the bulls have a thin upright mane, about an inch and a half, or two inches long."
That their colour is invariably white is simply owing to the care that is taken to destroy all the calves that are born of a different description. It is pretty well known to the farmers about Chillingham (although pains are taken to conceal the fact,) that the wild cows in the park not unfrequently drop calves variously spotted. With respect to the redness of the ears, this is by no means an invariable character, many young ones having been produced without that distinctive mark; and Bewick records, that about twenty years before he wrote, there existed a few in the herd withblackears, but they were destroyed. So far from the character here given of the horns being confined to those white cattle, it is precisely the description of the horns of the Kyloe oxen, or black cattle. The investiture of some of the bulls with a mane is equally gratuitous; Cole, who was park-keeper for more than forty years, and of course had ample means of observation, distinctly informed me that they had no mane, but only some curly hair, about the neck, which is likewise an attribute of the Kyloe Oxen.
Culley goes on to say: "From the nature of their pasture, and the frequent agitation they are put into by the curiosity of strangers, it is scarce to be expected that they should get very fat; yet the six years old oxen are generally very good beef, from whence it may be fairly supposed, that in proper situations they would feed well."
It would naturally be inferred from this, that the park in which they are kept is visited by strangers every day, who are allowed to drive them about, and disturb them in their feeding and ruminating, as boys hunt geese or donkeys on a common. This, however, is so far from being the case, that it frequently happens that the park is not visited for many weeks in succession, and certainly on an average it is not visited once a week. What is here meant by "the nature of their pasture," and "in proper situations they would feed well," it is difficult to say. The fact is, their pasture is both good and extensive, and they feed as well as animals always do who are left to themselves with plenty of food.
Their behaviour to strangers is thus described: "At the first appearance of any person, they set off at full speed, and gallop a considerable distance, when they make a wheel round, and come boldly up again, tossing their heads in a menacing manner; on a sudden, they make a full stop, at a distance of forty or fifty yards, looking wildly at the object of their surprise; but upon the least motion being made, they turn round again, and gallop off with equal speed; but forming a shorter circle, and, returning with a bolder and more threatening aspect, they approach much nearer, when they make another stand, and again gallop off. This they do several times, shorteningtheir distance, and approaching nearer, till they come within a few yards, when most people think it prudent to leave them."
In the instance in which I had an opportunity of witnessing their method of receiving visitors, the fashion was somewhat different. The park-keeper who accompanied me described, as we rode through the park in quest of them, what would be their mode of procedure on our approach. This he did from observations so repeatedly made, as to warrant him in saying that it was their invariable mode. It was perfectly simple, and I found it precisely as he had described it. When we came in sight of them, they were tranquilly ruminating under a clump of shady trees, some of the herd standing, others lying. On their first observing us, those that were lying rose up, and they all then began to moveslowlyaway, not exactly to a greater distance from us, but in the direction of a thickly wooded part of the park, which was as distant on our left as the herd was on our right. To reach this wooded part they had to pass over some elevated ground. They continued to walk at a gradually accelerating pace, till they gained the most elevated part, when they broke out into a trot, then into a canter, which at last gave way to a full gallop, a sort of "devil-take-the-hindmost" race, by which they speedily buried themselves in the thickest recesses of the wood. What they may have done in Mr. Culley's time, we must take upon that gentleman's word; but at present, and for so long as the present park-keeper can recollect, they have never been in the habit of describing those curious concentric circles of which Mr. Culley makes mention in the last quotation.
The late mode of killing them is described as "perhapsthe only modern remains of the grandeur of ancient hunting. On notice being given, that a wild bull would be killed on a certain day, the inhabitants of the neighbourhood came mounted and armed with guns, &c., sometimes to the amount of a hundred horse, and four or five hundred foot, who stood upon walls or got into trees, while the horsemen rode off the bull from the rest of the herd until he stood at bay, when a marksman dismounted and shot. At some of these huntings twenty or thirty shots have been fired before he was subdued. On these occasions the bleeding victim grew desperately furious, from the smarting of his wounds, and the shouts of savage joy that were echoing from every side. But from the number of accidents that happened, this dangerous mode has been little practised of late years, the park-keeper alone generally shooting them with a rifled gun at one shot."
This vivid portraiture of a scene, which the writer is pleased to considergrand, does not appear to have much relation to the history of theGenus Bos: it however, exhibits the brutal and ferocious habits of two varieties ofGenus Homo, namelyNobility andMobility—two varieties which, although distinguished by some external marks of difference, possess in common many questionable characteristics.
Culley proceeds:—"When the cows calve, they hide their calves for a week or ten days in some sequestered situation, and go and suckle them two or three times a day. If any person come near the calves, they clap their heads close to the ground, and lie like a hare in form, to hide themselves;this is a proof of their native wildness, and is corroborated by the following circumstancethat happened to Mr. Bailey, of Chillingham, who found a hidden calf, two days old, very lean and very weak. On stroking its head it got up, pawed two or three times like an old bull, bellowed very loud, stepped back a few steps, and bolted at his legs with all its force; it then began to paw again, bellowed, stepped back, and bolted as before; but knowing its intention, and stepping aside, it missed him, fell, and was so very weak that it could not rise, though it made several efforts. But it had done enough: the whole herd were alarmed, and, coming to its rescue, obliged him to retire; for the dams will allow no person to touch their calves without attacking them with impetuous ferocity."
It seems almost unnecessary to remind the reader that all animals are naturally wild; and that even those animals that have been the longest under the dominion of man, are born with a strong tendency to the wild state, to which they would immediately resort, if left to themselves: it appears, therefore, rather gratuitous to tell us that thenaturalactions of young animals(whose parents have been allowed to run wild),are proofs of their native mildness!
The concluding paragraph requires no observation:—"When a calf is intended to be castrated, the park-keeper marks the place where it is hid, and, when the herd are at a distance, takes an assistant with him on horseback; they tie a handkerchief round the calf s mouth, to prevent its bellowing, and then perform the operation in the usual way. When any one happens to be wounded, or is grown weak and feeble through age or sickness, the rest of the herd set upon it, and gore it to death."
The following engraving exhibits the effects of castration on the curvature and length of the horns.
1. Head of the perfect animal. 2, 3. Heads of the emasculated animal.1. Head of the perfect animal. 2, 3. Heads of the emasculated animal.
We learn, on the authority of the present Lord Tankerville, that during the early part of the life-time of his father, the bulls in the herd had been reduced to three; two of them fought and killed each other, and the third was discovered to be impotent; so that the means of preserving the breed depended on the accident of some of the cows producing a bull calf.
In 1844 I wrote to Mr. Cole, the late park-keeper at Chillingham, requesting information on the following queries, to which he returned the answers annexed; and although they are not so explicit as might be wished, they embody facts both interesting and important.
List of the Queries with their Answers.
1. How many pairs of ribs are there in the skeleton of the Chillingham Ox?Thirteen pairs.
2. How many vertebræ are there (from the skull to the end of the tail)?Thirty in the back-bone, twenty in the tail.
3. Will the wild cattle breed with the domestic cattle?I have had two calves from a wild bull and common cow.
4. What is the precise time the wild cow goes with young?The same as the domestic cow.
5. At what age does the curly hair appear which constitutes the mane of the wild bull?They have no mane, but curly hair on their neck and head; more so in winter, when the hair is long.
6. In what month does the rutting take place among the wild cattle?At all times,—no particular time.
J. Cole.
J. Cole.
Here we have precise information on the following points:—namely, the number of ribs; the period of gestation; their having no mane; their not being in heat at any particular period; in all which points, they perfectly agree with the ordinary domestic cattle; and it is important to observe, that in the last point, namely, that of not being in heat at any particular time, they differ from every knownwildspecies of cattle, among which the rutting season invariably occurs at a particular period of the year.
FOOTNOTES:[D]Formerly these cattle were much more numerous, both in England and Scotland, than they are at present. Scanty herds are still preserved at the following places:—Chillingham Park, Northumberland; Wollaton, Nottinghamshire; Gisburne, in Craven, Yorkshire; Lime-hall, Cheshire; Chartley, Staffordshire; and Cadzow Forest, at Hamilton, Lanarkshire.At Gisburne they are perfectly white, except the inside of their ears, which arebrown.From Garner's 'Natural History of Staffordshire,' we learn that the Wild Ox formerly roamed over Needwood Forest, and in the thirteenth century, William de Farrarus caused the park of Chartley to be separated from the forest, and the turf of this extensive enclosure still remains almost in its primitive state. Here a herd of wild cattle has been preserved down to the present day, and they retain their wild characteristics like those at Chillingham. They are cream-coloured, withblack muzzles and ears; their fine sharp horns are also tipped with black. They are not easily approached, but are harmless, unless molested.
[D]Formerly these cattle were much more numerous, both in England and Scotland, than they are at present. Scanty herds are still preserved at the following places:—Chillingham Park, Northumberland; Wollaton, Nottinghamshire; Gisburne, in Craven, Yorkshire; Lime-hall, Cheshire; Chartley, Staffordshire; and Cadzow Forest, at Hamilton, Lanarkshire.At Gisburne they are perfectly white, except the inside of their ears, which arebrown.From Garner's 'Natural History of Staffordshire,' we learn that the Wild Ox formerly roamed over Needwood Forest, and in the thirteenth century, William de Farrarus caused the park of Chartley to be separated from the forest, and the turf of this extensive enclosure still remains almost in its primitive state. Here a herd of wild cattle has been preserved down to the present day, and they retain their wild characteristics like those at Chillingham. They are cream-coloured, withblack muzzles and ears; their fine sharp horns are also tipped with black. They are not easily approached, but are harmless, unless molested.
[D]Formerly these cattle were much more numerous, both in England and Scotland, than they are at present. Scanty herds are still preserved at the following places:—Chillingham Park, Northumberland; Wollaton, Nottinghamshire; Gisburne, in Craven, Yorkshire; Lime-hall, Cheshire; Chartley, Staffordshire; and Cadzow Forest, at Hamilton, Lanarkshire.
At Gisburne they are perfectly white, except the inside of their ears, which arebrown.
From Garner's 'Natural History of Staffordshire,' we learn that the Wild Ox formerly roamed over Needwood Forest, and in the thirteenth century, William de Farrarus caused the park of Chartley to be separated from the forest, and the turf of this extensive enclosure still remains almost in its primitive state. Here a herd of wild cattle has been preserved down to the present day, and they retain their wild characteristics like those at Chillingham. They are cream-coloured, withblack muzzles and ears; their fine sharp horns are also tipped with black. They are not easily approached, but are harmless, unless molested.
The Chillingham Cattle arewhite, and the Highland Cattle or Kyloes are generallyblack; but with this exception the same description might almost serve for both breeds.
In their natural and unimproved state, the Highland cattle are frequently well formed; their fine eyes, acute face, and lively countenances, give them an air of fierceness, which is heightened by their white, tapering, black-tipped, and sharp horns.
The Kyloe Oxen are very small (another respect in which they resemble the Chillingham Oxen). They likewise partake much of the nature of wild animals, which might be expected from the almost unlimited extent of their pasture, and their being but little subject to artificial treatment.
Upon a close comparison of these two breeds, there appears not to be so much difference between the Highland cattle and the cattle of Chillingham as there is between any two breeds or varieties of British cattle. Indeed so great is the similarity, that the Kyloe appears to be only a black variety of the Chillingham Ox, and the Chillingham Ox only a white variety of the Kyloe.
Dr. Anderson speaks of having seen a kind of Highland cattle which had a mane on the top of the head, of considerable length, and a tuft between the horns that nearly covered the eyes, giving them a fierce and savage aspect. He likewise mentions another kind which have hair of a pale lead colour, very beautiful in its appearance, and in its quality as glossy and soft as silk.
The Kyloe Oxen are natives of the Western Highlands and Isles, and are commonly called the Argyleshire breed, or the breed of the Isle of Skie, one of the islands attached to the county of Argyle. They are generally of a dark brown colour, or black, though sometimes brindled.
The Cows of the Isle of Skie (as is recorded by Martin, in his 'Description of the Western Islands of Scotland,') are exposed to the rigour of the coldest seasons, and become mere skeletons in the spring, many of them not being able to rise from the ground without help; but they recover as the season becomes more favorable, and the grass grows up; then they acquire new beef, which is both sweet and tender; the fat and lean is not so much separated in them as in other cows, but as it were larded, which renders it very agreeable to the taste. A cow in this isle may be twelve years old, when at the same time its beef is not above four, five, or six months old.
Cerv.Dors.Lumb.Sacr.Caud.Total.American Bison7145512+European Bison, or Aurochs714551950Yak714551445Gayal (Domestic)714551647Gayal (Asseel).GyallJungli GauItalian Buffalo.Indian Buffalo.Skeleton of Buffalo in Surg. Coll. (locality unknown)713651647Gaur713651950Domestic Ox713652152Condore BuffaloManilla Buffalo7136PegasseArneeCape Buffalo713641949Zamouse (Bos Brachyceros)713642050Banteng of Java (Bos Bantinger)713641848Zebu, or Brahmin Ox713641848Galla Ox.Backeley (Caffraria).Musk Ox
The osteological details in the above Table (except those of the Yak, which are given on the authority of Pallas) are from the Author's own observations.
PeriodsAmerican Bison.270 days.—Zool. Proc., 1849.European Bison.Between 9 and 10 months.Gayal (Domestic)Over 10 monthsGyall11 monthsIndian Buffalo10 months 10 days.Gaur12 monthsDomestic Ox.270 daysManilla Buffalo.340 daysArnee12 monthsCape Buffalo12 monthsZebu, or Brahmin Cow300 daysMusk Ox9 months
To supply the deficiencies in the foregoing Tables, the results of original observations are respectfully solicited. Address the Author or Publisher.
It was Cuvier, I believe, who first made the statement, that the American Bison is furnished withfifteenpairs of ribs. In this particular he has been implicitly followed by every subsequent writer on the subject. Not being able to refer to a skeleton, and, moreover, never suspecting any inaccuracy in the statement, I followed the received account. But since this work has gone to press, I have had the opportunity of examining two skeletons, by which I find that—
The American Bison has onlyfourteenpairs of ribs.
I have, therefore, in the "Table of the Number of Vertebræ," (see p. 152,) set this species down as possessing only that number.
Of the two skeletons referred to (both of which are now in the British Museum), one is from a female Bison, some years a living resident in the Zoological Gardens; and the other is from a male, late in the possession of the Earl of Derby, at Knowsley, in Lancashire.
A corroborative circumstance (amounting, indeed, to a complete proof of the accuracy of these observations,) is presented by the fact, that, in both the casesthe number of lumbar vertebræ is preciselyfive; thus making the true vertebræ to consist of nineteen, which Professor Owen[E]has shown to be the invariable number possessed by all ruminants.
FOOTNOTES:[E]See, in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society, Professor Owen's 'Account of his Dissection of the Aurochs.'
[E]See, in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society, Professor Owen's 'Account of his Dissection of the Aurochs.'
[E]See, in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society, Professor Owen's 'Account of his Dissection of the Aurochs.'
Cows usually bring forth but one calf at a birth; occasionally, however, they produce twins. John Hunter, in his 'Observations on the Animal Economy,' says: "It is a fact known, and I believe almost universally understood, that when a cow brings forth two calves, one of them a bull-calf, and the other to appearance a cow, that the cow-calf is unfit for propagation; but the bull-calf grows up into a very proper bull. Such a cow-calf is called, in this country, aFree Martin, and is commonly as well known among the farmers as either cow or bull. It has all the external marks of a cow-calf, namely, the teats, and the external female parts, called by farmers the bearing. It does not show the least inclination for the bull, nor does the bull ever take the least notice of it. In form it very much resembles the Ox, or spayed heifer, being considerably larger than either the bull or the cow, having the horns very similar to the horns of an Ox. The bellow of the Free Martin is similar to that of an Ox, having more resemblance to that of the cow than that of the bull."
Free Martins are very much disposed to grow fat with good food. The flesh, like that of the Ox or spayed heifer, is generally much finer in the fibre than either the bull or cow; is even supposed to exceed that of the Ox and heiferin delicacy of flavour, and bears a higher price at market. However this superiority of the flavour does not appear to be universal, for Mr. Hunter was informed of a case which occurred in Berkshire, in which the flesh of a Free Martin turned out nearly as bad as bull beef. This circumstance probably arose from the animal having more the properties of a bull than a cow.
Mr. Hunter, having had many opportunities of dissecting Free Martins, has satisfactorily shown that their incapacity to breed, and all their other peculiarities, result from their having the generative organs of both sexes combined, in a more or less imperfect state of development, in some cases the organs of the male preponderating, in others those of the female.
The above, which is copied from an engraving in Hunter's work on the 'Animal Economy,' is a representation of a Free Martin, five years old; it shows the externalform of that animal, which is neither like the bull nor cow, but resembling the Ox or spayed heifer.
Although, as Hunter observes, "it is almost universally understood, that when a cow brings forth two calves, one of them a bull-calf, and the other to appearance a cow, that the cow-calf is unfit for propagation," it is by no means universally the fact, as instances of such twins breeding were known even in Hunter's time, and have been witnessed more recently. The following is recorded in Loudon's 'Mag. of Nat. History,' and occurred a few years previous to 1826: Jos. Holroyd, of Withers, near Leeds, had a cow which calved twins, a bull-calf and a cow-calf. As popular opinion was against the cow-calf breeding, it being considered a Free Martin, Mr. Holroyd was determined to make an experiment of them, and reared them together. They copulated, and in due time the heifer brought forth a bull-calf, and she regularly had calves for six or seven years afterwards.
"If," says Hunter, "there are such deviations as of twins being perfect male and female, why should there not be, on the other hand, an hermaphrodite, produced singly, as in other animals? I had the examination of one which seemed, upon the strictest inquiry, to have been a single calf; and I am the more inclined to think this true, from having found a number of hermaphrodites among black cattle, without the circumstance of their birth being ascertained."
If Hunter had carried this reasoning a little further, he might have asked,—Why should there not be a Free Martin, or hermaphrodite, produced in the case of twins, when they are both apparently males, or both apparently females? Had he done this, he would not, probably,have made the following observation: "I need hardly observe, that if a cow has twins, and they are both bull-calves, they are in every respect perfect bulls; or if they are both cow-calves, they are perfect cows." What is this but saying that a bull-calf is a bull-calf, and a cow-calf is a cow-calf? For a Free Martin, or hermaphrodite, is not, in any case, either a bull or a cow.
There does not appear to be anything known of the peculiar circumstances under which, what is termed a Free Martin is produced.
Skull of Domestic Ox.Skull of Domestic Ox.
The most general observation that can be made on the subject appears to be, that cows sometimes produce calves, which, by reason of their imperfectly developed generative system, are incapable of procreating.
Skull of short-nosed Ox of the Pampas.Skull of short-nosed Ox of the Pampas.
The common Ox, originally taken over to America by the early Spanish settlers, now runs wild in immense herds on the Pampas, where it is hunted and slain for its hide. Some idea may be formed of the immensity of these herds, from the circumstance that nearly a million of hides are annually exported from Buenos Ayres and Monte Video to Europe.
Some of the herds in these wild regions have undergone a most singular modification of the cranium, consisting in a shortening of the nasal bones, together with the superior and inferior maxillaries. There is a skull of this variety in the Museum of the College of Surgeons, of which the above is a sketch.
How eminently serviceable to man these animals are, is shown in the following table, in which are set forth the most important uses to which their various parts are applied:
Skin.—The skin has been of great use in all ages. The ancient Britons constructed their boats with osiers, and covered them with the hides of bulls; and these boats were sufficiently strong to serve for short coasting voyages. Similar vessels are still in use on the Irish lakes, and in Wales on the rivers Dee and Severn. In Ireland they are calledcurach, in Englandcoracles, from the Britishcwrwgl, a word signifying a boat of that structure.
Boots, shoes, harness, &c. for horses, and various kinds of travelling trunks are made from hides when tanned. The skin of the calf is extensively used in the binding of books, and the thinnest of the calf skins are manufactured into vellum. The skin of the Cape Buffalo is made into shields and targets, and is so hard that a musket ball will scarcely penetrate it.
Hair.—The short hair is used to stuff saddles and other articles; also by bricklayers in the mixing up of certain kinds of mortar. It is likewise frequently used in the manuring of land. Thelonghair from the tail is used for stuffing chairs and cushions. The hair of the Bison is spun into gloves, stockings, and garters, which are very strong, and look as well as those made of the finest sheep's wool; very beautiful cloth has likewise been manufactured from it. The Esquimaux convert the skincovering the tail into caps, which are so contrived that the long hair falling over their faces, defends them from the bites of the mosquitoes.
Horns.—The horns of cattle consist of an outside horny case, and an inside conical-shaped substance, somewhat between hardened hair and bone. The horny outside furnishes the material for the manufacture of a variety of useful articles. The first process consists in cutting the horn transversely into three portions.
1. Thelowestof these, next the root of the horn, after undergoing several operations by which it is rendered flat, is made into combs.
2. Themiddleof the horn, after being flattened by heat, and its transparency improved by oil, is split into thin layers, and forms a substitute for glass in lanterns of the commonest kind. [The merit of the invention of these horn plates, and of their application to lanterns, is ascribed to King Alfred, who is said to have first used lanterns of this description to preserve his candle time-measurers from the wind.]
3. Thetipsof the horns are generally used to make knife-handles; the largest and best are used for crutch-stick heads, umbrella handles, and ink-horns, and the smallest and commonest serve for the tops and bottoms of ink-horns.
Spoons, small boxes, powder flasks, spectacle frames, and drinking horns are likewise made of the outer horny case.
The interior or core of the horn is boiled down in water, when a large quantity of fat rises to the surface; this is sold to the makers of yellow soap.—The liquid itself is used as a kind of glue, and is purchased by the cloth-dressers for stiffening.—The bony substance which remainsbehind, is ground down, and sold to the farmers for manure.
Besides these various purposes to which the different parts of the horn are applied, the chippings which arise in comb-making are sold to the farmer for manure, at about one shilling a bushel. In the first year after they are spread over the soil they have comparatively little effect; but during the next four or five their efficiency is considerable. The shavings, which form the refuse of the lantern-maker, are of a much thinner texture. Some of them are cut into various figures, and painted and used as toys; for they curl up when placed in the palm of a warm hand. But the greater part of these shavings are sold also for manure, which from their extremely thin and divided form, produce their full effect upon the first crop.
Feet.—An oil is extracted from the feet of oxen—hence called Neat's-foot-oil—of great use in preparing and softening leather.
Skin,horns,hoofs, andcartilagesare used to make glue.
Bloodis used in the formation of mastic; also in the refining of sugar, oil, &c.; and is an excellent manure for fruit trees.
Blood,horns, andhoofsin the formation of Prussian blue.
Gallis used to cleanse woollen garments, and to obliterate greasy and other stains.
Suet,Fat,Talloware chiefly manufactured into candles; they are also used to precipitate the salt that is drawn from briny springs.
Intestines, when dried, are used as envelopes for German and Bologna sausages; in some countries tocarry butter to market. By gold-beaters, in the process of making gold-leaf. Gold-beater's skin, as it is called, forms the most innocent sticking plaster for small cuts on the hands or fingers.
TheStomachsvulgarly calledinwards, after being washed and boiled, are sold as an article of food under the name oftripe.
TheExcrementitious mattersare used to manure the land.
TheBonesare used as a substitute for ivory in the manufacture of a variety of small articles of a common kind; also for manuring land. "When calcined they are used as an absorbent to carry off the baser metals in refining silver. From the tibia and carpus is procured an oil much used by coach-makers and others in dressing and cleaning harness, and all trappings belonging to carriages."
Flesh, both fresh and salted, is generally esteemed as an article of food.Pemmicanis made of the flesh of the American Bison: this is dried in the sun by the Indians, spread on a skin, and pounded with stones. When the Indians have got it into this state, they sell it to the different forts, where all the hair is carefully sifted out of it, and melted fat kneaded into it. If it be well made, and kept dry, it will not spoil for a year or two.
Milk, a nutritious beverage,per se, is used in the composition of innumerable articles of diet; from milk is obtained cream, butter, and cheese.
In the Alps, fine cattle are the pride of their keeper, who, not being satisfied with their natural beauty, also gratifies his vanity by adorning his best cows with large bells, suspended from broad thongs. EverySenn, or great cow-keeper, has a harmonious set of bells, of at least two or three, chiming in accordance with the famousRanz des Vaches. The finest black cow is adorned with the largest bell, and those next in appearance wear the two smaller ones.
It is only on particular occasions that these ornaments are worn, namely, in spring, when they are driven to the Alps, or removed from one pasture to another; or in their autumnal descents, when they travel to the different farmers for the winter. On such days the Senn, even in the depth of winter, appears dressed in a fine white shirt, with the sleeves rolled above the elbows; neatly embroidered red braces suspend his yellow linen trowsers, which reach down to the shoes; he wears a small leather cap on his head, and a new and skilfully carved wooden milk-bowl hangs across his left shoulder. Thus arrayed, the Senn proceeds, singing theRanz des Vaches, followed by three or four fine goats; next comes the finest cow, adorned with the great bell; then the other two with the smaller bells; and these are succeeded by the rest of the cattle, walking one after another, and having in their rear the bull, with a one-legged milking-stool on his horns; the procession is closed by atraineau, or sledge, bearing the dairy implements.
When dispersed on the Alps, the cattle are collected together by the voice of the Senn, who is then said to allure them. How well these cows distinguish the voice of their keeper, appears from the circumstance of their hastening to him, although at a great distance, whenever he commences singing theRanz des Vaches.
This celebrated air is played on the bagpipes, as well as sung by the young Swiss cowherds while watching their cattle on the mountains. The astonishing effects of this simple melody on the Swiss soldier, when absent from his native land, are thus described by Rousseau:
"Cet air, se chéri des Suisses qu'il fut défendu sous peine de mort de le jouer dans leurs troupes, parce qu'il faisait fondre en larmes, déserter, ou mourir, ceux qui l'entendaient, tant il excitait en eux l'ardent desir de revoir leur pays. On chercherait en vain dans cet air les accens énergetiques capables de produire de si étonnans effets. Ces effets, qui n'ont aucun lieu sur les étrangers, ne viennent qui de l'habitude, des souvenirs de mille circonstances qui, retracées par cet air à ceux que l'entendent, et leur rappellant leur pays, leurs anciens plaisirs, leur jeunesse, et toutes leur façons de vivre, excitent en eux une douleur amère d'avoir perdu tout cela. La musique alors n'agit point précisément comme musique, mais comme signe memoratif. Cet air, quoique toujours le même, ne produit plus aujourd'hui les mêmes effets qu'il produisait ci-devant sur les Suisses, parce qu'ayant perdu le gôut de leur première simplicité, ils ne la regrettent plus quand on la leur rappelle. Tant il est vrai que ce n'est pas dans leur action physique qu'il faut chercher les plus grand effets des sons sur le cœur humain."
For the delectation of the musical reader, the notes of this celebrated air are here introduced, with the words, and an English imitation: