Doors

No. 180. Cornice where order is not employed.

The use made of the pediment by the architects of the Renaissance was not always justified in the strictest sense. It was often used to vary the sky line, and to form door and window heads. Although the latter use can be to some extent justified in exterior work, a similar employment in interiors may be open to question.

The sloping lines of the pediment are not always straight, sometimes they are in the form of a curve composed of a segment of a circle. The triangular and curved forms are often used alternately in a row of windows with good effect.

The lines of the pediment mouldings are not always continuous; sometimes the sloping or the horizontal lines or both are broken. This is a treatment thatcannot readily be justified as the pediment is a feature that implies shelter.

Sometimes ogee curves take the place of the straight sloping lines, and these terminate towards the centre, with scroll ends, leaving an interval between them.

DETAIL OF PEDIMENTNo. 181.

DETAIL OF PEDIMENT

No. 181.

The mouldings of the pediment are the same as those of the cornice, the crowning moulding of which is carried round and omitted in the horizontal course forming the base of the pediment.

Beneath the cyma the mouldings of the cornice are repeated in their proper order, detailing at the lower angles on the top of the horizontal cornice, which terminates with the fillet above the facia.

When dentils and modillions are introduced in the cornice they are invariably repeated in the mouldings of the pediment.

The tympanum or face of the pediment should bein vertical alignment with the face of the frieze. When this space is small it is best left plain, but on a large scale the tympanum affords a very suitable position in which to place sculpture.

The height of the pediment varies according to the width. Thus where the base is short, as in door and window heads, it will be comparatively higher than when used in a façade. The height may vary from a fourth to a fifth of the width of the base.

Obviously door openings should be of sufficient size to admit the free passage of a tall person. The minimum height for ordinary doors in domestic buildings should be six feet nine inches, and the width two feet nine inches. For entrance doors under similar conditions the width may be three feet six, but when it is more than this the door should be in two halves.

No. 182. General proportions of doors and windows.

The size of doors should be proportioned to the building, and should be designed to meet probable requirements, thus in public buildings door openings should not be less than six feet wide.

Generally a satisfactory proportion may be obtained by making the height twice the width, and the framing architrave one-sixth the width of the opening.

If a frieze and cornice are carried over the door the height inclusive of architrave should be half the width of the opening.

No. 183. Door Treatment.A. Architrave with simple pilasters and consoles. B. Ionic order rusticated, with pediment. C. Doric order with pediment. D. Doric order rusticated.

No. 183. Door Treatment.

A. Architrave with simple pilasters and consoles. B. Ionic order rusticated, with pediment. C. Doric order with pediment. D. Doric order rusticated.

In addition to the framing architrave narrow pilasters bearing consoles supporting the cornice are sometimes used. The total width of architrave and pilaster may be about one-third the width, and the entire entablature one-third the height of the opening.

The mouldings and decorations used should be in harmony with the general structure and in character with the order if one is used.

Occasionally columns or pilasters are introduced, with or without the arch, but the same general proportions apply, the aperture being two squares.

When doors are placed under arches the top line of the entablature should agree with that of the impost.

When a pediment is used, the height should be one-fourth the width of the base.

The general proportions and treatments of doors apply also to windows, and if doors and windows are placed in the same line the heads of the openings should be in horizontal alignment. If this is not possible the top of the cornice may agree with the inner line of the window openings.

Windows terminate below in a sill, or sometimes in a balcony, and as a general rule those on the same level should be similar in treatment, but an alternation such as already suggested with curved and straight lined pediments is quite satisfactory.

The frieze and consoles of doors and windows are often decorated with relief ornament.

When a façade is divided by columns or pilasters the bays are pierced with windows ranged above each

No. 184. Windows.A. Rusticated Architrave. B. Rusticated Ionic Columns. C. & D. Rustication with Horizontal and Vertical Joints Defined.

No. 184. Windows.

A. Rusticated Architrave. B. Rusticated Ionic Columns. C. & D. Rustication with Horizontal and Vertical Joints Defined.

other, the heights varying with the different floors. Those on the first storey are usually of full height, and those above less in height and simpler in treatment. The width of apertures should be the same for the different levels, except in the case of basements, where they may be narrower.

When an order is not employed in a façade variety may be obtained by grouping the windows; or three-light windows may be introduced. The centre light, which may be treated with an arched head, should be twice the width of the side lights.

No. 185. Three-Light Window.

The number of windows in a façade should be odd, so that there may be a centre one, and the end windows of a range should be kept well clear of the angles of the building.

IN interior decoration surfaces such as walls and ceilings may be divided into panels of various shapes by a system of framing. The form of the framing may be rectangular, square, polygonal, circular or oval; and the panel is generally recessed from the dividing stiles and rails or ribs, while the latter are frequently supplemented by mouldings.

In dealing with walls the division can be planned in accordance with architectural proportions, but the orthodox features are not necessarily employed.

In some phases of traditional decoration much use has been made of pilasters—the spacing and distribution of which, while conforming to the conditions of the interior, are similar to the usual employment of pilasters in exterior architecture, with the difference that the spaces between them are occupied by panels or other features.

Except in apartments of unusual height, pilasters should not be mounted on a pedestal; though a pedestal-like feature is often introduced in the form of a Dado or surbase.

In such a scheme the entablature also should be used so that the cornice forms a bed moulding for the ceiling.

Coupled pilasters may also be employed, and in

No. 186. Wall Division.A. & B. Pilaster Treatment.C. & D. Alternation of wide and narrow panels.

No. 186. Wall Division.

A. & B. Pilaster Treatment.

C. & D. Alternation of wide and narrow panels.

some well-known instances are placed wider apart than is ordinarily the case, and the space between is then occupied by a narrow panel.

No. 187. Detail of Ceiling. Library of S. Lorenzo, Florence. M. Angelo.

In smaller apartments the pilaster may be dispensed with, but the division of the wall surface can conform to the same general plan both vertically and horizontally. In the absence of pilasters the spaces may be divided into panels alternately narrow and wide.

When the ceiling is divided the dividing ribs or beams should bear some relation to the generalconstruction, though in the past this rule has not always been strictly adhered to. For example, the ceiling may very desirably be divided into equal squares or rectangles by means of wooden or plaster mouldings, leaving the enclosed spaces plain or decorated. When mouldings are used these may be enriched, but contrast should be maintained between the framing ribs and the panels.

No. 188. Detail of Inlaid Floor. Library of S. Lorenzo, Florence. Repeating general pattern of ceiling.

The Late Tudor decorated ceiling often had narrow moulded ribs geometrically arranged with pateræ inbetween and fleur-de-lys details on the outer angles where the ribs met.

No. 189. Ceiling of Library of S. Lorenzo, Florence. Plan of general arrangement.

No. 190. Late Tudor Ceiling. Littlecotes Hall, Wilts.

In the later Jacobean style the rib was replaced by floral bands projecting comparatively slightly and enclosed by narrow borders. These bands were disposed in various ways—sometimes intersecting at right angles and enclosing rectangular or square panels, sometimes forming geometric curves occasionally interrupted by straight lines.

If any of these methods of breaking up the surface be employed, it is obvious that the general proportions must be taken into account.

In the Carolean and Georgian periods it was customary to decorate the ceiling with a heavily modelled band of foliated detail, circular or oval in form—the whole in harmony with the plan of the room. Sometimes the angles were occupied by other detail, but the centre was invariably left plain.

No. 191. Jacobean Ceiling. Sizergh Hall, Westmorland.

The ceilings of the Adam period were similarly treated. The oval or circular band would sometimes consist of a series of festoons—an arrangement which, though graceful enough in effect, cannot be defended

No. 192. Jacobean Ceiling. Reindeer Inn, Banbury.

as consistent. The angles of the Adam ceiling were generally decorated with the characteristic fan detail.

No. 193. Carolean Ceiling.

In vaulted ceilings or domes the division may be effected by horizontal or vertical bands, in which case the spaces between diminish in size towards the centre. If the division of the dome is vertical, or more properly speaking, by radial lines, it is desirable to divide further the spaces thus formed by introducing intermediate shapes, such as circles, unless the diameter be relatively small.

No. 194. Adam Ceiling.

In some cases the walls meet the ceiling in an arch, which is technically known as a Cove. The arch generally springs from the top of the cornice and forms a vaulted frieze, which may or may not be decorated.

When the ceiling is divided by means of heavy beams there should be obvious support for these, such as brackets or consoles, which are themselves to be supported by pilasters. The brackets in this case make a break in the frieze or cove.

It may be objected that architectural features serve no purpose in interior decoration, but on the other hand, in extenuation of their use it may be urged that, though considerations of actual weight and structure are not involved, yet the appearance of support has to be maintained, and it is essential that the scheme as a whole should realise the effect of stability.

No. 198. Festoon Frieze. Continuous treatment with vertical contrast. Temple of Vesta, Tivoli

In considering the decoration of the various parts, the two principal questions to be asked are—what is the purpose? and, what is the attitude? The purpose of the Frieze may be said to be to bind, and the attitude of the Frieze is certainly a horizontal one—therefore the usual continuous treatment is justified. This is not the only way in which the Frieze can be treated, however, for the continuous horizontal treatment may be varied by vertical effects such as occur in the Doric order. The employment of Festoons with intermediate

No. 195. Vault Treatment. Ducal Palace, Venice, Sansovino.

No. 196. Dome Treatment. Vertical and horizontal division, resulting in panels. Villa Madama, Rome.

No. 197. Dome, St. Peter’s, Rome. Example of radial division.

pendants is really a continuous horizontal treatment in which the vertical direction is emphasised by way of contrast. The same principle is involved in the decoration of mouldings. Vertical features should be in alignment with adjacent and dominant details.

No. 199. Frieze. Temple of Antoninus and Faustina, Rome. Horizontal direction suggested by Gryffons, with vertical contrast by Candelabra.

All kinds of elements can be employed in Frieze decoration, and as much interest and liveliness imparted as is compatible with the necessary repetition.

Borders, with or without mouldings, may be considered as frames to the spaces they separate or enclose; in the latter case they are invariably uniform in width (except when used in Typography and illuminations, where some license is permissible).

As borders are structural in suggestion, the elements employed should be simple and without that interest which is desirable in other positions.

The detail to be used is largely determined by scale and position. When on a small scale, borders may be mainly composed of a series of lines spaced so as to suggest the various features of a moulded band, in which case it is essential that the same width be maintained throughout the length, while the lines are returned at the corners at mitral angles. This treatment can be elaborated by the introduction of other linesbetween those most widely spaced at right angles with the direction, and these can again be broken at intervals by rosettes or other simple forms.

No. 200. Key-Pattern Borders.

No. 201. Interlacing Borders.

The well-known key-border is a continuous narrow band or line which traces out a labyrinth pattern by bending inwards at right angles and then returning to the original direction. This, in its simplest form, is an elaboration of adjacent squares in which a top and bottom line is alternately dispensed with.

The simplest elements in border decoration are geometric in character. The border may be divided by straight lines intersecting at various angles, or by curves struck from equidistant centres, or by a combination of straight lines and curves.

No. 202. Growth Line based on Geometric Curves.

Intersecting straight lines form the basis of the different chequered patterns in conjunction with the simple device of alternating light and dark masses. Interlacing patterns are also based on intersecting straight lines. When segmental curves are employed either the chequered or interlacing effect may beobtained. Such patterns are essentially geometric and mechanical, but some idea of the growth line is suggested by the undulating stems formed out of the arcs of circles struck from either side of the border. This effect may be used with purely artificial detail, such as arises naturally from the spaces left, or with the introduction of floral detail. It is evident that the curve of the undulating stem will vary according to the position of the centres from which the arcs are struck.

No. 203. Brocade composed of Undulate Borders.

A fuller effect, giving more space for branching and other detail, will be obtained by basing the stem upon

No. 204. Scroll Border based on Adjacent Circles.

No. 205. 14th Century Textile composed of Undulate Borders arranged obliquely.

a series of complete adjacent circles struck within the border. The latter device is the basis of the wave line, which, after all, is only the key or labyrinth with the square angles rounded.

No. 206. French Brocade, 18th Century, composed of Borders.

Border decoration can also consist of leaves or other details symmetrically arranged on a central axis, with perhaps occasional flowers or rosettes to break the monotony.

Generally speaking, the detail should preferably be of a formal character, and should consist of the repetition of units with no interest beyond that imparted by alternation.

The detail must, moreover, be designed with due regard to the space to be filled, and, in any border which encloses any space, a common divisor of height and width should be found in accordance with which the unit can be designed.

No. 207. The Evolute Scroll as a Border.A. Continuous. B. Reciprocal

No. 207. The Evolute Scroll as a Border.

A. Continuous. B. Reciprocal

The meeting angles or corners of borders invariably require special treatment, and in those positions the detail should be compact and stronger in appearance than the general pattern. The simplest expedient is some form of patera or rosette, but, whatever the detail, it should always be in strong contrast to that of the run of the border. The only forms that can be continuous without any marked change in the angles, are the undulating stem, the wave, and its square form the key or labyrinth; but even with these the proportion of width to height at times needs modification. If a common divisor is not possible, the difficulty can to some extent be overcome by making the form reciprocal and lettingthe two sides meet in the centre of the border, so that any slight disparity in treatment and dimensions will not be noticeable.

As the Pilaster is used structurally in order to give support, so its treatment in interior decoration must conform to architectural requirements, and the decoration should be symmetrical on a central axis and vertical in direction.

When flutes are employed to decorate the pilasters, they should be unequal in number—seven being a favourite number. The flutes may be further decorated by cabling, though this should extend to only one-third of the height. The cabling can be elaborated into a series of husks which may arise from the base or be pendant from the top of the pilaster. In either case the general rule must be observed that the cabling shall occupy only a third of the total height.

Sunk panels are also used for decorating pilasters. They cover about half the width, and are moulded at the edges. In some instances, notably in pilasters of the Early French Renaissance, the panel is broken in the centre by the introduction of a smaller circular or lozenge-shaped panel. Sometimes the panel is adorned with floral or other detail, and this should be symmetrically arranged on a central axis. For this purpose the undulate stem should never be employed. Such detail requires a start at the base and a definite finish at the top of the pilaster, but for the rest, it mayconsist of the same unit repeated, or of two alternating units.

In order to emphasise the structural character of the pilaster it was customary to introduce features in the form of mouldings, vases and labels.

The capitals and bases of pilasters should be in harmony with the other decorations used. The usual capital of the Italian Renaissance is a modified Corinthian type, and this is quite suitable when the pilaster has plain or decorated panels, but when flutes are employed on the pilaster a more ornate capital is desirable. In the latter case a composite form in which the Doric abacus and enriched ovolo figure together with a row of stiffly-arranged vertical leaves, could fitly be used. The Ionic type would also be suitable; when the base of the pilaster is decorated, the lowest detail of reeds of the principal torus may be bound with cross ribbons.

No. 208. Pilaster Treatment. French Renaissance.

No. 209. Treatment of Pilaster Capital, with Vertical Emphasis.

Panels and enclosed spaces have no structural significance, and therefore in the treatment of them attitude alone has to be considered—that is to say, the only question is, as to whether the surface to be decorated is in a vertical or a horizontal plane. In the decoration of a panel in a horizontal plane, since it is not desirable to mark any one direction, the detail may radiate diagonally or diametrically from a centre. If, however, in the case of a ceiling, details are employed in the angles formed by the walls, these should grow towards the centre of the ceiling.

No. 210. Ceiling Decoration. Growth from Angle.

When panels or enclosed spaces are used on walls or on furniture of any height the vertical direction should be emphasised as a general rule; but if the height is less than the width, the decoration, though it should remain vertical in tendency, should also spread so as to conform to the width.

The design of a panel or enclosed space, whatever the shape or attitude, should be complete in itself, having its proper start and appropriate terminals. Ifthe enclosing border were removed the detail should, by its general disposition maintain the shape, even though the whole surface may not be occupied.

Rich ornamentation is thoroughly in keeping with the nature of the panel—certainly more interest should be centred on panel decoration than on adornment in more subordinate positions.

The decoration may either completely fill the space or only partially do so. In the latter case, the shapes of the unoccupied parts must be carefully considered.

No. 211. Semi-Lunette Panel. Central Feature based on Circle.

Whether the design is a unit repeated on a central axis or is a balanced one, is largely a matter to be settled by individual taste and the position of the panel. Both treatments are admissible in a range of panels; greater variety can be obtained by symmetrically disposed designs being flanked on either side by balanced designs.

When panels occur together, either side by side or ranged one above the other, they may exert influenceon one another. For example, vertical features close to the framing stiles should be repeated in the adjacent panel even though the width of each panel may differ. When the panels are one above the other, central features should be avoided and the interest should be kept close to the opposing margins; otherwise the effect will be spotty and lacking in repose.

No. 212. Panels in Juxtaposition.

As panels present the best opportunity for display, on account of their treatment being comparatively untrammelled by the considerations to which the more structural features must submit, there is open to them

No. 213. Design for Panel based on Treatment of Celery. By C. A. Sheehan, Bristol.

a proportionately large field of possible decoration. In the first place, the panel may be treated pictorially, with due regard to the requirements of surface and reciprocal effect which must be insisted on in mural decoration. If not treated pictorially, ornament of a traditional character, or designs derived more directly from natural forms can be made use of. In either casethe ornament must complete itself within the given area.

No. 214. Analysis of Composing Lines of Panel.

In traditional ornament, composing or strongly marked lines are used, but in types more nearly allied to natural forms, it is necessary for the lines to bear some relation to the character of the selected growth.The disposition of leaves and other elements must also be characteristic, and natural terminals must be taken advantage of near enclosing lines so as to avoid any appearance of mutilation. When such forms as branches or leaves approach or cross, they should always do so at decided angles; their points or extremities should never be directly opposed to other details or to margins. The main growth should be clearly discernible, and the direction of the stem lines evident even when clothed with foliage.

It must be borne in mind when designs are based on natural forms that the mere rendering of a natural attitude does not in itself constitute a design. In the case of plant forms, flowers and leaves should be grouped and massed, primarily with a view to the composition of a harmonious whole. Sometimes interest may be added by introducing animal forms in keeping with the general environment.

Interest in design depends on the massing and emphasis of detail, because, if a plain or uniform surface be completely covered with detail equally distributed, with no regard to mass or emphasis of parts, it is obvious that the result will again be uniform—the only difference being that a certain texture is imparted to the surface, and this, though not undesirable in a wallpaper, is not consonant with the nature of a panel.

The massing of detail should be as simple as possible and to some extent should be guided by the scale. Oneexpedient in panel designing is to draw within the area, whether it be square, rectangular or any other shape, a circle or oval to control the predominant detail in contrast to that which is to be less conspicuous.

No. 215. Phases of Elaboration of Simple Shape.

Large areas may be sub-divided into several masses,but the grouping of these must be controlled by the general shape. When dealing with borders a suggestion was made that the undulate stem could follow the lines of adjacent circles, and this device is the basis of most of the scrolling growth lines that are characteristic of Renaissance ornament.

No. 216. Byzantine Panel. Composition based on Circles.

No. 217. Romanesque Lunette Panel. Composition based on Circular Shapes.

Decoration, when the human figure or any form of animal life is employed, is bounded with the same conditions with regard to composition, inasmuch that they

No. 218. Figure Composition. Recognition of Framing Lines.

No. 219. Figure Composition. Spandril Treatment.

must be so arranged as to occupy the area and be in harmony with the boundaries or framing lines.

The license that is permissible in ornament, particularly of the purely conventional type, when it may be compelled in any direction and fitted into any space that is desirable from a decorative point of view, is not possible where the human or animal form is concerned. This adds to the consideration, as natural attitude and proportions are obligatory if consistency has to be observed.

The problem in certain shaped areas affords little latitude, in particular the triangular spandril where the invariable device of wings or floating drapery is as insistent as the head of King Charles in the memorial of Mr. Dick.

Forms in the round—such that can be seen from any point of view—need special treatment. Height may appear normal, but the details round the surface will be materially affected by the rotundity. Thus a vase of varying contour might have its surface divided by a series of vertical lines, any one of which, seen from a point of view exactly opposite, would appear straight, whereas those approaching the profiles would appear curved proportionately to the sectional curvature.

No. 220. Effect of Perspective of Vertical Division.

Perspective also affects the vertical appearance more or less according to the profile curvature, and indecoration, for bodies that are bulbous in form, the foreshortening and its effect on details must be taken into consideration so as to avoid undesirable distortion.

Other forms in the round that may be considered are supports for furniture, balusters and lamp-post standards. Furniture supports and balusters are invariably in the form of tapered or vase-shaped shafts, and the divisions may be in accordance with the proportions previously suggested. Appropriate mouldings are used to decorate the shaft. When in wood, these forms are either partly or wholly turned, and in this case may be further decorated by carved work. In supports, the general tendency of the details should be in the vertical direction so as to enhance the structural suggestion.

No. 221. Jacobean Baluster, Carved Wood, showing Vertical and Horizontal Contrast.

In the treatment of standards it is not so necessary to emphasise the element of support, and the diameter or lateral dimensions can vary to a greater degree. Whether the standards are fixtures or movable, as in interior fittings, there must be a base that will not only be adequate but will convey the idea of stability. In the case of portable standards the tripod form of base is possibly the most suitable, but whenthe standard is small the base can be circular, square or polygonal. The commonest form is a shaft, which is frequently tapered. This is supported on a bulbous or vase-shaped form arising out of the base. At the upper end of the shaft is a capital of some kind. These different parts are held together by appropriate mouldings.

The decoration of a standard, which is largely dependent on its size, should, generally speaking, be applied in the vertical direction with occasional horizontal features by way of contrast. The treatment must also vary according to material.

No. 222. Cast Iron Lamp Standard.

Apart from considerations of use and material, the design of this kind of round form is based on inequalities of proportion in height and diameter. Obviousrepetitions of the same dimension are to be avoided. The profiles should be carefully composed with a view to effecting harmony or contrast—the curves either approaching one another in a flexible line or being deliberately contrasting. Mouldings may be used at intervals to mark the various stages.

No. 223. Types of Vase Decoration.A. Horizontal Banding with vertical Contrast.B. Oblique or Spiral Treatment. C. Panel Treatment.

No. 223. Types of Vase Decoration.

A. Horizontal Banding with vertical Contrast.

B. Oblique or Spiral Treatment. C. Panel Treatment.

Vase forms vary considerably. When the profile is formed by straight lines they may be cylindrical or cone-shaped. Of course profiles may take other forms—they may be ovoid or trace an ogee curve. When the diameter varies the bulk should preponderate at some one point. When unity of line is desired, the curves of the profile should flow easily into each other, even if broken at intervals by mouldings. In contrasting curves the lines should intersect at right angles in order to avoid indecision of form.

The areas capable of being decorated on vase forms are those bounded by mouldings. The nature anddirection of the decoration will be determined by the profile curves on the sectional form. The direction of the ornament may be horizontal as in the form of a band, but to avoid distortion such detail should only be applied to surfaces of uniform curvature.

If the vertical direction be chosen the decoration may take the form of flutes, of leaves or of panels decorated with detail. A variation of the vertical treatment is obtained by employing similar details in an oblique direction, thus giving the appearance of ornament twisting or twining round the shape.

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